Elegaic Romulus Aesop’s Fables An Intermediate Latin Reader Latin Text with Running Vocabulary and Commentary Greta Smith Evan Hayes and Stephen Nimis Elegaic Romulus Aesop’s Fables: An Intermediate Latin Reader: Latin Text with Running Vocabulary and Commentary First Edition © 2016 by Evan Hayes, Stephen Nimis, and Greta Smith All rights reserved. Subject to the exception immediately following, this book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publisher. The authors have made a version of this work available (via email) under a Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License. The terms of the license can be accessed at www.creativecommons.org. Accordingly, you are free to copy, alter and distribute this work under the following conditions: 1. You must attribute the work to the author (but not in a way that suggests that the author endorses your alterations to the work). 2. You may not use this work for commercial purposes. 3. If you alter, transform or build up this work, you may distribute the resulting work only under the same or similar license as this one. ISBN-10: 1940997194 ISBN-13: 9781940997193 Published by Faenum Publishing, Ltd. Cover Design: Evan Hayes Fonts: Garamond editor@faenumpublishing.com Table of Contents Acknowledgements.........................................................................................v Introduction ..................................................................................................ix Glossing Conventions ................................................................................xvii Grammatical Terms ...................................................................................xviii Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xxvii Text and Commentary .................................................................................. 1 Glossary .................................................................................................... 151 iii Acknowledgments The idea for this project grew out of work that we, the authors, did with support from Miami University’s Undergraduate Summer Scholars Program, for which we thank Martha Weber and the Office of Advanced Research and Scholarship. Work on the series, of which this volume is a part, was generously funded by the Joanna Jackson Goldman Memorial Prize through the Honors Program at Miami University. We owe a great deal to Carolyn Haynes, and the 2010 Honors & Scholars Program Advisory Committee for their interest and confidence in the project. The technical aspects of the project were made possible through the invaluable advice and support of Bill Hayes, Christopher Kuo, and Daniel Meyers. The equipment and staff of Miami University’s Interactive Language Resource Center were a great help along the way. We are also indebted to the Perseus Project, especially Gregory Crane and Bridget Almas, for their technical help and resources. We also profited greatly from advice and help on the POD process from Geoffrey Steadman. All responsibility for errors, however, rests with the authors themselves. v For Tori Fuscat et extinguit cordis caligo nitorem Corporis: est animi solus in orbe nitor Introduction The aim of this book is to make the most famous medieval version of Aesop’s Fables, the elegiac Romulus, accessible to intermediate students of Ancient Latin. The running vocabulary and grammatical commentary are meant to provide everything necessary to read each page so that readers can progress through the text, improving their knowledge of Latin while enjoying this delightful version of Aesop’s Fables. The elegiac Romulus is a great text for intermediate readers. It was used in the Middle Ages for teaching Latin grammar to intermediate students, and it is not hard to see why. The use of fables allows students to work with short but complete chunks of text at a time, and the plot lines are simple and easy to understand. These fables would already be somewhat familiar to students learning to read, providing helpful context for each selection. For such students, as for English-speaking students today, the case system of Latin substantives tends to present the greatest number of problems, particularly in verse where word position is often more free. Our author often displays mannered phrasing that seems to call attention to the need for close observation of case endings. For example, he makes frequent use of polyptoton, the use of the same word in different cases, which seems designed to teach the forms and cases. The Elegiac Romulus While fable collections had been consistently popular since approximately the 5th century BCE, when the slave Aesop was purported to have spread moral wisdom through countless pithy short stories using largely animal characters, by the thirteenth century, there is only one collection that retained popularity. The collection, which is contained in this reader, is known as the elegiac Romulus, to distinguish it from the prose versions of the collections attributed to the apocryphal Romulus. The elegiac Romulus was likely written in the late twelfth century, and was remarkably popular, as is evidenced by over 170 extant manuscripts containing some portion of this collection. These manuscripts have been dated largely from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, and were (and in many cases still are) located throughout Europe, with the majority being from Britain, France, and Germany. The fable collection consists largely of fables taken from classical models; however, most of these fables have been rewritten, and put into quantitative elegaic verse by the medieval author. The collection ix The Elegaic Romulus also includes a few longer fables, not found in classical sources. There are a number of possibilities for the author of this text, the leading one, put forward by Leopold Hervieux in 1884, is Gualterus Panormitanus, more commonly known as Walter of England, who was the chaplain of Henry II of England in the 12th century. The fables of the elegiac Romulus were a part of the Auctores Octo Morales, a collection of works that was used in medieval Latin education. The other seven texts of the collection are as follows: the Distichs of Cato; The Eclogue of Theodulus; Facetus; Floretus; De Contemptus Mundi; Matthew of Vendome’s Tobias; and Alan of Lille’s Liber Parabolarum.1 Each of these texts has imbedded moral lessons for their reader, and are all relatively elementary in their use of Latin. The use of the Auctores Octo as an educational text was widespread enough that the collection was put into print by Matthias Bonhomme of Lyon in 1538, and continued to be used as a part of education in this form. Even these print versions show evidence of significant wear, meaning that the Auctores Octo enjoyed popularity for well over two hundred years.2 Early manuscript versions containing portions of the Auctores indicate that it was originally the Avianus fable collection, a shorter Latin verse collection from the 5th c CE, which was included in the Auctores Octo, but in the thirteenth century the elegiac Romulus replaced the Avianus. In his study on fables, Edward Wheatley argues that this substitution, along with the failure of the elegiac Romulus to appear alone in manuscripts before the thirteenth century, indicates that these fables may have been translated and revised from earlier versions precisely for inclusion in the grammar text.3 There is another fable collection attributed to Romulus that circulated in the Middle Ages, but it is in prose. This prose Romulus predates the elegiac Romulus considerably; it is speculated to have been written as early as the 6th century. The most obvious difference between the two collections is that the earlier one is a prose fable collection, while the elegiac Romulus is written in elegiac distichs. There are 98 fables in the prose Romulus, while there are only 1 In the introduction to his English translation of the entire reader (An English Translation of Auctores Octo, A Medieval Reader, The Edwin Mellen Press: Lewiston, New York, 1999), Ronald Pepin details the contents of each of these other works in the reader. 2 Pepin 2 3 Wheatley 55. The possibility of a thirteenth century author for the elegiac Romulus means that this author would have been educated in the same grammatical nuances of the twelfth century which the work is trying to impart upon its audience, making this one of the earliest texts written specifically for a grammar school curriculum. x Aesop’s Fables 60 (or up to 63, depending on the manuscript) in the elegiac Romulus. Both of the Romulus collections take the large majority of their fables from the earliest Latin translation of Aesop’s Fables made by Phaedrus in the first century BCE. Both medieval collections revise the form and language of these fables, while keeping the same animal characters and general plots. Where the fables of the prose Romulus are in many instances very similar in wording to the fables of Phaedrus, the elegiac Romulus differs greatly, taking more influence from the collection of fables made by Avianus (also in elegiac distichs), while also reflecting the needs of its schoolboy readers. While most modern readers are familiar with the fable genre, it is important to understand that what we define as a fable, and what the medieval reader defined as a fable is markedly different. As Wheatley argues, the fable in the Middle Ages resembles a mode of discourse or a method of communicating information far more strongly than it does a literary genre. Rather than having a set of traits that are identifiable and traceable across collections, the medieval fable instead adheres to a set of rhetorical practices including attributing the fables to Aesop, animal characters who behave as humans, and a moral application for the fable. Often, however, even these basic traits are missing; yet a fable would still be identifiable as such, especially to other medieval readers. Some fables are the simple animal stories most commonly associated with the genre, while others contain no animal characters at all, and still others mix human and animal characters rather improbably. While not as short as our modern versions, many of the fables are shorter, 8-10 line tales, with a two-line moral, but others are quite long, seeming more like a folk tale than a fable. Some fables are devoted almost entirely to moralizing, so that there is very little plot or story, but rather a moral lesson repeatedly expounded upon by a narratorial voice. Therefore, there are a number of fables in this collection that may not seem much like we would expect a fable to be, but for the medieval reader it is their location in a collection which allows all of them to be identified as fables. One thing that is particularly notable when looking at the manuscript versions of the elegiac Romulus is that there is an incredible amount of consistency, especially given that the extant manuscripts span at least two centuries, and range in origin from Germany to Britain. The same fables are always presented in the same order (except where leaves of the manuscript had been lost), and they are almost always marked in similar ways by the scribes (similar rubrication, titling, etc.). With very little exception, the manuscript copies of the fables are neat and clearly written, but rather simple. Each new fable is marked with a larger first initial, and in many copies the color of this initial alternates between xi The Elegaic Romulus red and blue, which would have helped the reader in distinguishing between the fables. The first letters of each line are also often set aside slightly from the rest of the line, and are rubricated with a red “slash” diagonally through the letter-- this makes the lines easy to follow, and would help the reader to better find their place in the fable. The titles of the fables are in the centers of the stanzas, meaning that they can be very easily overlooked in favor of these first initials. Careful study of the fable manuscripts makes it clear that the fables at the beginning of the collection were more commonly read and studied than the fables towards the end of the collection. In manuscripts with any amount of illustration, it is only the first twenty, sometimes even just the first twelve fables, that have marginal illustration. If the manuscript has any kind of illumination, the illuminated letters can be found only in these first fables, and even the larger first letters of the first lines of the fables are much more ornately decorated in red and blue ink in the first twelve to twenty fables. There is even greater care given to the on-page presentation of these first fables; the handwriting is generally clearer, with fewer abbreviations, and the fables are often arranged so that there are very few lines hanging over on to other pages. The titles of these fables are not forgotten, nor are any of the initials left unrubricated. In manuscripts that have scholastic commentary, the commentary is often only found in, or is much more extensive in, these first fables (with the exception of the two manuscripts that have commentary throughout). It is also notable when reading the collection that the first twelve to twenty fables of the elegiac Romulus seem to make up a relatively coherent group. Because this was a curricular text, this would indicate that these texts would be taught first, and the student would have to devote special attention to them, not just because of the grammar they utilize, but also to learn to navigate the language of the fable genre. The inclusion of images, titles, rubricated initials, and illuminated first letters in this first group of fables all point to the importance of these fables. When looking at the fable collection as a whole, however, these first twelve to twenty fables serve not only as a guide to the reader as they work to understand the Latin grammar, but also as a guide to how the rest of the collection is to be read as a text. The first twenty fables introduce the reader to almost every animal character that appears in the entire collection (the only animal not included in these first fables that appear later in the collection are a few specific breeds of birds and a weasel). The protagonists of the first twenty fables are relatively varied, including the lamb, the mouse, various birds, an ass, and a few human characters. The animal antagonists are less varied; wolves are shown consistently to be evil, as are lions, and birds of prey such as the eagle and kite. These fables also begin rather simply, where the reader can easily see xii Aesop’s Fables the moral lessons being taught, and there are often only two characters used in the body of the fable. As the collection progresses the fables get increasingly longer and more complex, building on the skills that are developed in these earlier fables. The patterns in the first fables illustrate the types of moral lessons that the readers are to extrapolate; many are social lessons, or instructions on what types of people ought to be trusted (or avoided as the case may be) rather than lessons on how to behave. In the most complex of fables, moral guidance is also offered in the middle of the fable, encouraging the reader to work to sort out the relationships among characters. These features, all of which highlight the elegiac Romulus’ role in the medieval classroom, combine to make this collection unique, and worthy of further study. It served as a reader to teach grammar to its medieval readers, and it can retain the same function for us today. The vocabulary is repetitive, and the grammar is straightforward, making it an excellent text for intermediate readers. The individual fables offer natural divisions, but if the text is read through from beginning to end, you will certainly note some of the patterns across fables, and develop familiarity with the animal characters and moral lessons just as the medieval reader would have. The author of the text seems to have been something of a jokester, and some passages are difficult to interpret because they are a bit of a play on words; likely these jokes were also difficult for the medieval reader as well, so at least the modern reader is in good company. Ultimately, this collection of fables taught Latin grammar to medieval readers from the late 12th century until at least the 1600s, and it is an excellent text to continue to do so today. Versification The verse of the collection is elegaic couplets, a form used for many kinds of classical and medieval poetry, among which are the Distichs of Cato and the Fables of Avianus. Like other classical verse forms, it consists of alternating patterns of long and short syllables. For this reason, scanning the verse can help disambiguate the cases of substantives in certain instances (the nominative and ablative singular of first declension nouns and adjectives, for example). For each elegaic couplet there is a regular dactylic hexameter followed by two dactylic hemistichs (sometimes called a “pentameter”), as follows: –⏑⏑–⏑⏑–‖⏑⏑–⏑⏑–⏑⏑–× –⏑⏑–⏑⏑–‖–⏑⏑–⏑⏑× where “ – ” indicates a long syllable, “ ⏑ ” a short syllable, “ × ” either a long or short (anceps) syllable, and “ ‖ ” the caesura, a sense pause that “cuts” a metrical xiii The Elegaic Romulus foot. As is typical of classical dactylic meter, a long syllable can substitute for two short syllables, replacing a dactyl (– ⏑ ⏑) with a spondee (– –). The Woodcuts The woodcuts included in this text are taken from images in Heinrich Steinhowel’s 1480 German edition of the fables, the first printed version of the collection. We have very few clues as to who the artist of these woodcuts was (one leading theory is Jorg Syrlin the Elder, who was famous for carving the choir stalls at the Ulm Catherdral in 1474), but these images were copied so widely that the unknown artist’s illustration work has become synonymous with the early modern fable. Julien Macho of Lyons almost immediately translates the fables into French, copying the woodcuts exactly, and they are again copied by William Caxton in his English edition in 1484. A version of Caxton’s text with woodcuts is available on Early English Books Online. The Latin Text The Latin text was taken from the Latin Library (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/anon.nev.html), and the wording was verified against the manuscript copies of the elegiac Romulus in the British Library. The orthography has been normalized (e.g., diphthongs and palatalization) along with other minor changes. This is not a scholarly edition. Aaron Wright (1997) published the Latin text of the elegiac Romulus, and his edition reproduces some of the medieval commentary in the margins of the pages, making for an interesting look at the medieval presentations of the fable text; Laura Gibbs also has the Latin fable text on her site, www.mythfolklore. net. Ronald Pepin’s (2000) translation of the entire Auctores Octo provides the only English translation of the elegiac Romulus. Texts and Translations Pepin, Ronald E. An English Translation of Auctores Octo, a Medieval Reader. The Edwin Mellen Press, 2000. Wright, Aaron Eugene, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, and University of Toronto Centre for Medieval Studies. Fabulae. PIMS, 1997. Gibb, Laura. “Aesop (Walter of England - Nevelet).” N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2016. xiv Aesop’s Fables Other Fable Collections Babrius. Babrius and Phaedrus. Cambridge, Mass.: London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann, 1984. Loeb Classical Library, 436. Ellis, Robinson. The Fables of Avianus. BiblioBazaar, 2008. Print Goldschmidt, A. An Early Manuscript of the Aesop Fables of Avianus and Related Manuscripts. Princeton, NJ, 1947. Print. Henryson, Robert, and Denton Fox. The Poems of Robert Henryson. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981. Print. Lenaghan, R. T, William Caxton, and Aesop. Caxton’s Aesop. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. Print. Lydgate, John, H N. b. 1880 MacCracken, and Merriam Sherwood. “Isopes Fabules.” The Minor Poems of John Lydgate. Nabu Press, 2010. Print. Marie de France, and Mary Lou Martin. The Fables of Marie de France: An English Translation. Birmingham, Ala: Summa Publications, 1984. Print. Phaedrus. Phædrus His Fables with English Notes. By William Willymott. Lodon sic: printed for John Osborn, and Tho. Longman, 1728. Print. Critical Studies Adrados, Francisco Rodriguez, and Gert-Jan Van Dijk. History of the GraecoLatin Fable: Introduction and from the Origins to the Hellenistic Age. Trans. Leslie A. Ray. Brill Academic Pub, 1999. Print. Blackham, H. J. Fable as Literature. 1st Ed. Athlone Press, 1985. Print. Holzberg, Niklas. The Ancient Fable: an Introduction. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002. Print. Lerer, Seth. Children’s Literature: a Reader’s History, from Aesop to Harry Potter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. Print. Mann, Jill, and Oxford University Press. From Aesop to Reynard Beast Literature in Medieval Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. Patterson, Annabel M. Fables of Power: Aesopian Writing and Political History. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. Print. Wheatley, Edward. Mastering Aesop: Medieval Education, Chaucer, and His Followers. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. Print. xv The Elegaic Romulus Ziolkowski, Jan M. Talking Animals: Medieval Latin Beast Poetry, 750-1150. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993. Print. How to use this book The page-by-page vocabularies gloss all but the most common words. We have endeavored to make these glossaries as useful as possible, so there is a lot of repetition. It is our assumption that having too much vocabulary is not as serious a problem as too little, so we have consistently sought to err in that direction. Common words that are not glossed or not glossed in every instance can be found in an appendix in the back, but it is our hope that most readers will not need to use this appendix often. For details on the format of glossing various parts of speech, see “Glossing Conventions” below. The commentary is almost exclusively grammatical, explaining subordinate clauses, uses of cases, and idioms. A brief grammatical summary details the meaning of the technical terms used in the commentary, although most of these will be familiar to intermediate readers of Latin. A good strategy is to read a passage in Latin, check the glossary for unusual words and consult the commentary as a last resort. We have kept cultural and rhetorical information to a minimum, and it is our expectation that readers will only consult the commentary when something is troubling grammatically. There is considerable repetition in the commentary, and it is meant as a safety net rather than something to be read completely. Our work thus has a more modest aim than a traditional literary commentary. xvi Aesop’s Fables Glossing Conventions Adjectives of two and three terminations will be formatted thus: bonus, -a, -um facilis, -e. Single termination adjectives will have the genitive indicated thus: fallax, falacis (gen.) Participles will generally be glossed as a verb, but some present participles (particularly where their verbal force has been weakened) are glossed as nouns or adjectives: e.g. parens, -entis, m: “a parent” or as a single termination adjective: e.g., patiens, -entis (gen.): “patient” Many perfect participles and gerundives are also glossed as adjectives, erectus, -a, -um: “upright” periclitabundus, -a, -um: “testing” Adverbs will be identified as such (adv.) only when there is some ambiguity. Regular infinitives are indicated by conjugation number: e.g., laudo (1) moneo (2) Where principal parts are predictable, as in the case of most first conjugation verbs, only the conjugation number will be given in the glossary. This format is used even in the case of unpredictable perfect forms, if the word occurring in the text is based on the present stem (present, future, imperfect tenses). Elsewhere the principal parts will be provided in their standard form. Simple syntactical information such as “+ gen.” or “+ inf.” will often be cited in the glossary with verbs and adjectives. However, the lexical information given for most words is minimal and sometimes specific to the context. xvii The Elegaic Romulus Grammatical terms used in the commentary The grammatical terms used in the commentary are organized below according to syntactical category with brief explanations and examples. For more detailed information, see Allen and Greenough, New Latin Grammar (available on Perseus) or Charles Bennett New Latin Grammar (available on the Latin Library). 1. Uses of Cases NOMINATIVE The nominative case is the used for the subject of finite verbs and the predicate of verbs of being, seeming, etc. GENITIVE The genitive is commonly used to express a relationship between one noun and another, especially a limiting relationship. Some verbs also take the genitive as their object instead of the accusative. Material: the genitive denotes what a thing consists of oviumque satelles canis: “accomplices consisting of sheep and a dog” Objective: the genitive can indicate the object of an action implied by a substantive. curam gregis: “care of the flock” Partitive: The genitive indicates the whole to which a part belongs. nil messis: “nothing of harvest” Predicative: A genitive can be used with verbs of being, seeming, etc. est animi: “he is of the mind” Value: The genitive of is used with verbs of rating and buying. tanti munera: “gifts of so much value” After verbs and adjectives: The genitive is used to complete the meaning of certain adjectives, such as reus, -a, -um (“guilty of ”). These will be indicated in the commentary simply as “gen. after reus.” xviii Aesop’s Fables DATIVE The dative case is chiefly used to indicate the person for whom an action happens or a quality exists. Indirect Object: the recipient of the action of the verb is put in the dative case. Jupiter huic voto risum dedit: Jupiter gave a smile to this wish Purpose: the dative denotes the object for which something is done. fora petit lucro: seeks the market for a profit Adjectives: certain adjectives such as aptus, -a, -um (“suitable to”) take the dative. These will be noted in the commentary simply as “dat. after aptus.” Verbs and Compound Verbs: verbs such as parcere (“to refrain from”) take the dative case, as do many intransitive verbs with a prefix, such as oppono (“to place opposite to”). These will be indicated in the commentary simply as “dat. after parcere.” ACCUSATIVE The accusative case is used for the direct object of transitive verbs, for the subject of an infinitive in indirect statement and other complements of a verb, to indicate place to which, and duration of time. Predicative: Many verbs can take two accusatives, one the direct object and the other a predicate: accipitrem ... accipiunt regem: “they accept the hawk as a king” Subject of Infinitives: In indirect discourse and other expressions that are complemented by an infinitive, the subject of the infinitive is in the accusative case. aegrum sinit ire: “allows the sick one to go” Supine: Accusative supines occur after verbs of motion in order to express purpose. ne libitum faceret: “lest he do what is pleasing” ABLATIVE Nouns in the ablative case are used often adverbially, generally expressing motion away from something, instrument, location, and many other relations. xix The Elegaic Romulus Ablative Absolute: Combined with a participle, adjective, or noun, the ablative conveys the circumstance (time, cause, or condition) of a particular action. inventa jaspide: “the jasper having been found” Cause: Cause may be expressed by an ablative with or without a preposition. quaerit…siti: “sought because of thirst” Comparison: Comparative adjectives followed by the ablative express comparison. obserat nec minus aure: “and locks up the home no less than her ear” Manner: Often with cum, manner is also denoted by the simple ablative, especially if the noun has an adjective. cursu mendicat inepto: “she seeks a hiding place with inept running” Means (Instrument): The ablative expresses the means by which an action is accomplished. rigido fodi ore: “digs with rigid mouth” Place Where: Often denoted by in + ablative, but the preposition is commonly omitted in poetry or poetic prose. res utili loco: “this thing is in a useful place” Place From Which: The ablative denotes the place a noun has moved from usually with a preposition. ore cadit: “falls from his mouth” Separation: Separation is expressed with or without a preposition especially with verbs and adjectives of deprivation, freedom, and want. rupisti…rivoque decorum: “you separated the beauty from the river” Source: The ablative of source is denoted by the ablative with or without a preposition. ore serit: “sews from the mouth” Specification: The ablative of specification provides details with respect to which anything is or is done. nive canet: “is white with snow” Time: Both time when and time within which are denoted by the ablative. die fixo: “on a fixed day” tanto tempore: “in such a great time” xx Aesop’s Fables 2. Uses of the Subjunctive Independent Uses of the Subjunctive Deliberative questions occur when the speaker wonders what he or she should do. quid agam? quo me conferam?: “What am I to do? Where am I to take myself?” Hortatory, Jussive, Prohibition Clauses Jussive and hortatory subjunctives “urges” some action in a more polite manner than an imperative. “Hortatory” applies to first person (“let us...”); “jussive” applies to second and third person (“may you...,” “let her...”); “prohibition” refers to the negative (don’t...). virgo ista teneatur: pr. pass., “let that maiden be held” consilium validum requiramus: “let us seek strong counsel” neque respondeas, immo nec prospicias: “neither answer nor look towards” The volitive subjunctive expresses a wish for the future: moriar: “may I die” Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive Tenses of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses follow the sequence of tenses: present or perfect subjunctive for primary sequence, imperfect or pluperfect for secondary sequence. tense of main clause same time or time after main verb time before main verb present or future tense present subjunctive perfect subjunctive past tense pluperfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive Concessive clauses with cum or licet take the subjunctive. cum moveant objecta: “although the accusations move” licet instet hiems: “although winter threatens” Conditions: The subjunctive is used in future less vivid and contrafactual conditions (see below). Cum Causal Clauses: When cum introduces a causal clause, the subjunctive is used. xxi The Elegaic Romulus cum patrisses: “since you are taking after your father” Cum Circumstantial Clauses: When cum introduces a general circumstance rather than a specific time, the subjunctive is used. cum pariat fructum: “when it produces fruit” cum…armet: “since grief equipped” Proviso clauses with dum take the subjunctive. dum sit..tanta secures: “as long as there is so great an ax” General temporal clauses take the subjunctive. dum juvet umbra fugam: “until the shade helps flight” (i.e., whenever that may be) Indirect commands are an example of a jussive noun clause used as the object of a verb. For more on jussive noun clauses, see below. supplicuere…ne sine rege forent: “they asked not to be without a king” Indirect questions are formed with the subjunctive following the sequence of tenses and introduced by an interrogative word. quid reddere possit: “nor has what she could return” quod sequaris iter: “identifies what road you should flee” Indirect statement: The subjunctive is used with quod to introduce an alleged statement, as opposed to a statement of fact. quod sanius esset: “to complain that it would be healthier” Noun Clauses: clauses following certain verbs are introduced with our without ut or ne with the subjunctive, as in indirect commmands. Reddat ovis panem vult canis: “the dog wishes that the sheep give back” ne fortem societ fragilis vult: “wishes that the fragile not unite with” Purpose Clauses explain the purpose behind the action of the main clause and are usually introducted by ut or ne. ut secum murem demergat: “plunges in order to drown the mouse” Relative Clauses of Characteristic: Relative clauses in the subjunctive suggest that the clause does not simply state a fact but rather indicates another type of subjunctive clause such as purpose, result, cause, concession, etc. They are xxii Aesop’s Fables called relative clauses of characteristic for introducing a defining quality or characteristic. quod tibi non faceres: “what you would not do to yourself ” Result clauses explain the outcome of the action in the main clause, often with an adverb in the main clause signaling the result clause. Result clauses are usually introduced by ut or ut non. tanti ut …velim: “so great so that I wish” 3. Indirect Statements, Questions, and Commands Indirect statements are formed with the accusative plus infinitive after verbs of saying, thinking, etc. seque spondet habere: “and he pledges that he has” Indirect questions are formed with the subjunctive following the sequence of tenses and introduced by an interrogative word: cur detur respice: “consider why it is given” Indirect Commands are formed with the subjunctive, with or without ut or ne, and are a type of jussive noun clause (see section on the subjunctive above). supplicuere…ne sine rege forent: “they asked not to be without a king” 4. Conditional sentences Future more vivid conditions express a future probability. The protasis (the clause expressing the condition, i.e. the “if ” clause) can be the future or future perfect, the apodosis (the clause expressing consequence, i.e. the “then” clause) is the future tense or some equivalent. In English this is expressed with the present tense in the protasis, future tense in the apodosis: “If she comes…then I will go.” si venerit Argus, Argum si poteris fallere, victor eris: “if Argus comes, if you are able to deceive Argus, you will be the victor” Future less vivid conditions express a future possibility and thus use the potential subjunctive in the apodosis and present or perfect subjunctive in the protasis; In English, “If it should…then it would…” or “If it were to…then it would.” si nece dignetur murem leo: “if the lions were to deem the mouse worthy of death” xxiii The Elegaic Romulus Contrafactual conditions indicate an untrue premise and conclusion and use the subjunctive mood: imperfect subjunctive for the present (e.g., “if he were now doing this, he would be doing badly”); pluperfect subjunctive for the past (e.g., “if he had done this, he would have done badly”). si tibi nunc esset ... viveret nitor: if he were now here ... the splendor would be living” 5. Rhetorical terms used in the commentary Alliteration – the repetition of the same consonant. commendat conditque cibos clementia (Fable 12) Anaphora – the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. dum…dum…dum (Fable 1) dormit…dormit…dormit (Fable 16) Chiasmus – the repetition of words or concepts in reversed order. Omnia quae vici, me vincunt omnia (Fable 16) Hendiadys - (“one through two”) the use of two nouns instead of a noun and adjective. advena hostis: “a foreign enemy” (Fable 23) Litotes - (undestatement) is the use of two negatives to produce a positive. non omni non omnibus omnia: “not every time should you trust all to not all” (Fable 24) Personification – the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristic to something nonhuman. sine Marte: “without war” (Fable 22) Polysyndeton – excessive use of conjunctions in succession. custosque boum stabulique (Fable 58) Transferred epithet - when an epithet is transferred from its proper noun to one with which it is associated. civis in lege novelli: “citizens new under the law,” i.e. “under a new law” (Fable 21) xxiv Aesop’s Fables 6. Other terminology Apocopation – when a word is formed by the removal of the end of a longer word. potuere: (= potuerunt) “they were able” Figura Etymologica – the same stem used in more than one part of speech. Sic nocet innocuo nocuus, causamque nocendi: “Thus the harmful harms the harmless, and a cause of harming” Periphrastic – the use of a participle and a form of the verb esse to create a tense. timenda fuit: (gerundive): “punishment ought to have been feared”; literally, “punishment was that which ought to be feared” Polyptoton – “many cases” is the use of the same noun in different cases. Sentit enim fraudes et fraudi fraude resistit Mente prius texens retia fraudis, ait: For he senses trickeries and resists the trickery with a trick. Weaving the threads of a trick in his mind first, he says. xxv The Elegaic Romulus An Important Disclaimer: This volume is a self-published “Print on Demand” (POD) book, and it has not been vetted or edited in the usual way by publishing professionals. There are sure to be some factual and typographical errors in the text, for which we apologize in advance. The volume is also available only through online distributors, since each book is printed when ordered online. However, this publishing channel and format also account for the low price of the book; and it is a simple matter to make changes when they come to our attention. For this reason, any corrections or suggestions for improvement are welcome and will be addressed as quickly as possible in future versions of the text. Please e-mail corrections or suggestions to editor@faenumpublishing.com. About the Authors: Greta Smith received her PhD in the English Department at Miami University. Evan Hayes is a graduate in Classics and Philosophy at Miami University and the 2011 Joanna Jackson Goldman Scholar. Stephen Nimis is an Emeritus Professor of Classics at Miami University and Professor of English and Comparative Literature at the American University in Cairo. xxvi Abbreviations abs. acc. act. adj. adv. aor. attrib. circum. dat. dir. f. fut. gen. imper. impf. ind. inf. absolute accusative active adjective adverb aorist attributive circumstantial dative direct feminine future genitive imperative imperfect indirect infinitive m. mid. n. neg. nom. obj. opt. part. pass. perf. pl. plupf. pot. pres. pred. s. sc. st. subj. voc. xxvii masculine middle neuter negative nominative object optative participle passive perfect plural pluperfect potential present predicate singular scilicet (“supply”) statement subjunctive vocative The Elegaic Romulus Aesop’s Fables Fable 1: De gallo et jaspide This first fable, the Cock and the Jasp, was moved from the middle of the Phaedrus collection to the beginning of the Romulus, and is lengthened and the moral shifted in order to show how the reader is to approach the rest of the collection. Jill Mann calls this a “fable about fables,” and also points out that it was “probably for this reason that it was moved from its relatively late position in the Phaedrus to stand at the very beginning of the Romulus collection” (34). In this fable, while searching through a dungheap for food, a rooster comes upon a precious gem. Rather than keeping the gem, however, the rooster leaves it aside, arguing that it might be valuable to someone else, but as he cannot eat it, it has no value for him. The moral of the fable compares the gem to wisdom, and the reader is told that they are not to behave as the rooster, casting wisdom aside, but to seek out the wisdom in the following fables. The emphasis on wisdom in this fable in the elegiac Romulus certainly allows for a more complex understanding of this fable in relationship to the rest of the fable collection, and the moving of this fable to the beginning of the collection is evidence that the work is aware of itself as a whole, and it encourages the reader as to how they are to read the fables that follow. Dum rigido fodit ore fimum, dum quaeritat escam, Dum stupet inventa jaspide, gallus ait: “Res utili pretiosa loco natique nitoris, esca, -ae f.: food, meat fimus, -i m.: dung fodio (3): to dig, dig out gallus, -i m.: a cock, rooster invenio (4): to come upon, discover, find jaspis, -idis f.: jasper, gem locus, -i m.: a place, site natus, -a, -um: inborn, natural nitor, -is m.: brightness, splendor os, oris n.: a mouth pretiosus, -a -um: of great value, precious quaerito (1): to seek res, rei f.: a thing rigidus, -a, -um: stiff, hard stupeo (2): to be astounded utilis, -e: useful, helpful dum ... dum ... dum: an example of anaphora rigido ore: abl. of means, “digs with rigid mouth i.e. beak” inventa jaspide: abl. abs., “the jasper having been found” utili loco: abl. of place where, “in a useful place” i.e. a common place where treasures would not be expected natique nitoris: gen of description, “a thing of natural splendor” 3 The Elegaic Romulus Hac in sorde jacens nil mihi messis habes. Si tibi nunc esset qui debuit esse repertor, Quem limus sepelit viveret arte nitor. Nec tibi convenio, nec tu mihi; nec tibi prosum, Nec mihi tu prodes, plus amo cara minus.” Tu gallo stolidum, tu jaspide pulcra sophiae Dona notes: stolido nil sapit ista seges. amo (1): to love, like ars, artis f.: skill, craft, art carus, -a -um: dear, beloved, precious convenio (4): to be appropriate to (+ dat.) debeo (2): to owe, be indebted donum, -i n.: a gift, present habeo (2): to have, hold jaceo (2): to lie limus, -i m.: filth messis, messis m./f.: harvest, crop minus: (adv.) less noto (1): to observe, record, understand plus: (adv.) more prosum, prodesse: be useful to (+ dat.) pulcer, -ra -rum: beautiful repertor, -oris m.: discoverer sapio (3): to understand, taste seges, segetis f.: crop, harvest sepelo (3), sepeli: to bury sophia, -ae f.: wisdom sordes, sordis f.: filth, dirt stolidus, -a, -um: dull, stupid vivo (3): to live, reside messis: gen. partitive after nil, “nothing of harvest” si esset: impf. subj. pres. contrafactual protasis, “if he were now here,” repertor: pred. nom., “who ought to be your discoverer” quem: relative pron. antecedent nitor, “the splendor which” viveret: impf. subj. contrafactual apodisis, “the splendor would be living” arte: abl. of means, “living by his art” cara minus: “I love less precious things more” tu: i.e. the reader gallo ... jaspide: abl. of means, “understand by the rooster ... by the jasper” stolidum ... pulcra dona: acc. obj. of notes, “you should understand stupidity ... you should understand the beautiful gifts” sophiae: gen. of description, “gifts of wisdom” notes: pres. subj. jussive, “you should understand” stolido: dat. of advantage, “has for the stupid” nil sapit: “has no flavor,” note the pun on sapit 4 Fable 2: De lupo et agno “The Wolf and the Lamb” seems to have been a popular medieval fable; it is occasionally illustrated in manuscripts, and is contained in a number of later translations of the fables. A wolf accuses a lamb of polluting his drinking water, even though the lamb is drinking downstream; the resulting moral is clear: the villainous will find a way to injure the innocent. Interestingly, the end of this moral notes that “these wolves reign in any city,” one of only a few fables in the elegiac Romulus to have a political message. These political messages are picked up by fable authors later in the Middle Ages, and particularly in the Renaissance, when, as Annabel Patterson notes, fables are often used for political ends. Est lupus, est agnus: sitit hic, sitit ille, fluentum Limite non uno quaerit uterque siti. In summo bibit amne lupus, bibit agnus in imo. Hunc timor impugnat verba movente lupo: “Rupisti potumque mihi rivoque decorem.” Agnus utrumque negat se ratione tuens: agnus, i m.: a lamb amnis, amnis m.: a river bibo (3): to drink decor, -is m.: beauty, decent appearance fluentum, -i n.: a stream, river impugno (1): to attack, assail imus, -a, -um: lowest limes, limitis m.: a path, track lupus, -i m.: a wolf moveo (2): to move, provoke, disturb nego (1): to deny, refuse potus, -us m.: a drinking quaero (3): to seek rivus, -i m.: a stream rumpo (3): to break, destroy sitio (4): to be thirsty sitis, sitis f.: thirst summus, -a, -um: highest, the top of timor, -is m.: fear, dread unus, -a -um: alone uterque, utraque, utrumque: each (of two) verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb limite non uno: abl. of place, “not on the same path” siti: abl. of cause, “sought because of thirst” in summo ... imo: abl of place where, “at the highest place of the river ... the lowest” hunc: i.e. the lamb movente lupo: abl. abs., “the wolf moving these words” i.e. speaking mihi: dat. of advantage, “you destroyed for me” rivoque: abl. of separation, “the beauty from the river” 5 The Elegaic Romulus “Nec tibi nec rivo nocui: nam prona supinum Nescit iter nec adhuc unda nitore caret.” Sic iterum tonat ore lupus: “Mihi damna minaris?” “Non minor,” agnus ait. Cui lupus: “Immo facis; Fecit idem tuus ante pater sex mensibus actis: Cum bene patrisses, crimine patris obi.” Agnus ad haec: “Tanto non vixi tempore, praedo.” Sic tonat: “An loqueris, furcifer?” huncque vorat. Sic nocet innocuo nocuus, causamque nocendi adhuc: till now ago, agere, egi, actus (3): to drive, act bene: well, very careo (2): to be without (+ abl.) crimen, criminis n.: a crime, offense, fault damnum, -i n.: an injury furcifer, -i m.: a rascal idem, eadem, idem: same, the same immo: on the contrary, rather iter, itineris n.: a journey, road iterum: again, a second time loquor (3): to speak, talk mensis, mensis m.: a month minor (1): to threaten nescio (4): to not know noceo (2): to harm (+ dat.) obeo, obire: to die os, oris n.: a mouth, speech pater, patris m.: a father patrisso (1): to take after one’s father praedo, praedonis n.: a theif pronus, -a -um: inclined downward ratio, rationis f.: an account, reasoning sex: six supinus, -a -um: backwards tantus, -a, -um: so great, so much tempus, temporis n.: a time tono (1): to thunder, speak thunderously tueor (2): to defend unda, -ae f.: a wave vivo (3), vixi, victus: be alive, live voro (1): to swallow, devour utrumque: “denies each (accusation)” ratione: abl. of means, “defending with reason” prona: nom. agreeing with unda, “water inclined downward” supinum iter: obj. of nescit, “does not know a backward journey” nitore: abl. of separation after caret, “nor does the wave lack brightness” ore: abl. of means, “speaks with his mouth” idem: neut. acc., “did the same thing” sex mensibus actis: abl. abs., “six months having past” i.e. six months ago cum patrisses: pres. subj. in cum causal clause, “since you are taking after your father” crimine: abl. of cause, “because of the crime of your father” obi: imper., “die!” tanto tempore: abl. of time where we would expect the accusative, “I have not lived for so much time” an loqueris: “are you still speaking?” expressing indignation 6 Aesop’s Fables Invenit. Hi regnant qualibet urbe lupi. causa, -ae f.: a cause, reason innocuus, -a, -um: innocent, harmless invenio (4): to come upon, discover nocuus, -a, -um: hurtful, injurious regno (1): to reign, rule urbs, urbis f.: a city nocendi: gerund gen. after causam, “a reason for harming” qualibet urbe: abl. of place where, “rule in any city” 7 Fable 3: De mure et rana This fable is particularly grim; a mouse mistakenly trusts a frog to carry her across a lake, but when the frog tries to drown her, the resulting struggle attracts a kite, who devours them both. In this version of the fable, the mouse isn’t blamed for her gullibility, rather it is the frog who is chastised in the moral for hindering when he promised to help. Later versions of the fable, such as Robert Henryson’s in the 1400s, focus on the mistakes that the mouse made; some versions, such as the earlier Marie de France (1200s), save the mouse from her ominous end to further emphasize the critique of the frog’s character. Muris iter rumpente lacu, venit obvia muri Rana loquax et opem pacta nocere cupit. Omne genus pestis superat mens dissona verbis, Cum sentes animi florida lingua polit. Rana sibi murem filo confederat; audet Nectere fune pedem, rumpere fraude fidem. animus, -i m.: mind, intellect audeo (2): to dare (+ inf.) confedero (1): to join X (acc.) to Y (dat.) cupio (3): to wish, desire (+ inf.) dissonus, -a, -um: discordant (+ abl.) fides, fidei f.: faith, loyalty filum, fili n.: a thread, string floridus, -a, -um: flowery, florid fraus, fraudis f.: fraud, trickery funis, funis m.: a rope genus, generis n.: a race, family iter, itineris n.: a path lacus, lacus m.: a lake, pond lingua, linguae f.: a tongue, speech loquax, -acis (gen.): talkative, loquacious mens, mentis f.: mind, reason mus, muris m./f.: a mouse necto (3): to tie, bind obvius, -a, -um: in the way (+ dat.) omne, omnis: all, every ops, opis f.: help, resources paciscor, (3), pactus sum: to negotiate pes, pedis m.: a foot pestis, pestis f.: pestilence, destruction polio (4): to polish, smooth rana, -ae f.: a frog rumpo (3): to break sentis, sentis m.: thorns, roughness supero (1): to overcome, surpass venio (4): to come rumpente lacu: abl. ab., “a pond interrupting the path” pacta: deponent perf. part. instrumental, “by bargaining” verbis: abl. of separation after dissona, “discordant with its words” sentes: acc., “smoothes thorns of the mind” (i.e. roughness of the mind) filo: abl. of means, “joins with a thread” fune: abl. of means, “to tie with a rope” fraude: abl. of means, “to destroy with trickery” 8 Aesop’s Fables Pes coit ergo pedi, sed mens a mente recedit. Ecce natant: trahitur ille, sed illa trahit. Mergitur ut secum murem demergat; amico Naufragium faciens naufragat ipsa fides. Rana studet mergi, sed mus emergit et obstat Naufragio: vires suggerit ipse timor. Milvus adest miserumque truci rapit ungue duellum. Hic jacet, ambo jacent, viscera trita fluunt. naufragium, -i n.: a shipwreck, ruin naufrago (1): to be shipwrecked obsto (1): to oppose, hinder, (+ dat.) rapio (3): to snatch, seize, carry off recedo (3): to recede, withdraw studeo (2): to desire (+ inf.) suggero (3): to furnish traho (3): to draw, drag tritus, -a, -um: worn trux, trucis (gen.): wild, savage, fierce unguis, unguis m.: a nail, claw, talon vis, viris f.: strength viscus, visceris n.: internal organs adsum: to be present amicus, amici m.: a friend coeo, coire: fit together with (+ dat.) demergo (3): to sink, plunge duellum, -i n.: a pair ecce: behold! look! emergo (3): to rise up out of the water, escape fluo (3): to flow, proceed from jaceo (2): to lie, lie down dead mergo (3): to plunge, drown milvus, -i m.: a bird of prey miser -a -um: poor, miserable, wretched nato (1): to swim, float mens a mente: abl. of separation, “one mind recedes from the other mind” (i.e. their intentions are disparate) ut demergat: pres. subj. purpose clause, “(the frog) plunges in order to drown the mouse” faciens: pres. part. instrumental, “by making a shipwreck” mergi: pres. pass. inf., “to be submerged” ungue: abl. of means, “seizes with its talon” hic jacet ... ambo jacent: Note the pun, “this one (the kite) lands ... the two (the mouse and frog) lie dead” i.e. the kite lands and kills them both 9 The Elegaic Romulus Sic pereant qui se prodesse fatentur et obsunt; Discat in auctorem poenam redire suum. auctor, auctoris m./f.: originator disco (3): to learn fateor (2): to admit, claim obsum, obesse: hurt, be a nuisance to pereo (4): to die, pass away poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment prosum, prodesse: to be useful, benefit redeo, redire: to return sic pereant: pres. subj. jussive clause, “may those die!” se prodesse: pr. inf. in ind. st. after fatentur, “claim that they are helping” discat: pres subj. jussive, “let him learn!” in auctorem: “returns against its own author” poenam redire: pres. inf. in ind. st. after discat, “learn that the punishment returns” 10 Fable 4: De cane et ove Even more so than the Wolf and the Lamb, this fable is explicitly political, and later used to critique legal systems. A lamb is again falsely accused, this time by a dog, who says that she has stolen a loaf of bread. You will note that the court who judges the sheep is made up of rather questionable characters, a kite, a wolf, and a vulture. These animals find the sheep guilty, and she is forced to sell the fleece off her back to repay the debts. Here again the moral does not critique the animal that the reader might think should be questioned-- the dog-rather it is the false witnesses of the kite, wolf, and vulture who are condemned. In causam canis urget ovem; sedet arbiter, audit. Reddat ovis panem vult canis, illa negat. Pro cane stat milvus, stat vultur, stat lupus: instant Panem, quem pepigit reddere, reddat ovis. Reddere non debet, nec habet quid reddere possit; Et tamen ut reddat arbiter instat ovi. arbiter, arbitri m.: a judge audio (4): to hear, listen canis, -is m.: a dog, hound causa, causae f.: a lawsuit, case, trial debeo (2): to owe, ought (+ inf.) habeo (2): to have, hold insto (1): to threaten, demand (+ dat.) lupus, lupi m.: a wolf milvus, -i m.: a kite, bird of prey ovis, ovis f.: a sheep pango (3), pepigi: agree upon, pledge (+ inf.) panis, panis m.: bread, loaf reddo (3): to return, give back sedeo (2): to sit, remain sto (1): to stand, stand up for urgeo (2): to press, push volo, velle: to be willing, wish vultur, vulturis m.: a vulture in causam: “into court” reddat: pres. subj. noun clause after vult, “the dog wishes that the sheep give back.” Note the variations of this verb in the fable. pro cane: “on behalf of the dog” reddat: pres. subj. noun clause after instant, “they insist that she return.” quid…possit: pres. subj. indirect question, “nor has what she could return” ut reddat: pres. subj. noun clause after instat, “insists that she return it” ovi: dat. after instat, “insists to the sheep that she return it” 11 The Elegaic Romulus Ergo suum, licet instet hiems, pervendit amictum, Et Boream patitur vellere nuda suo. Saepe fidem falso mendicat inertia teste, Saepe dolet pietas criminis arte capi. amictus, amictus m.: a cloak, clothing ars, artis f.: skill, craft, trick Boreas, Boreae n.: the North Wind capio (3): to take hold, seize crimen, criminis n.: a crime, offense doleo (2): to grieves (+ inf.) ergo: therefore falsus, -a, -um: false, deceiving hiems, hiemis f.: winter inertia, -ae f.: laziness licet: although mendico (1): to obtain by importuning nudus, -a, -um: nude patior (3): to suffer, endure pervendo (3): to sell pietas, pietatis f.: responsibility, sense of duty testis, testis m.: a witness vellus, velleris n.: fleece instet: pres subj. concessive after licet, “although winter threatens” amictum: i.e. her wool vellere suo: abl. of separation, “nude from her fleece” falso teste: abl. of means, “obtains with a false witness” arte: abl. of means, “by the skill” capi: pres. pass. inf. complementing doleo, “grieves to be caught” 12 Fable 5: De cane carnem ferente In this familiar fable, a dog carries a piece of meat in his mouth until he sees his reflection in a pool of water. Jealous of the reflection of his own meat, the dog drops the piece in his mouth hoping to be able to grab the larger piece. The moral reminds us not to desire things that are not our own. This fable is perhaps one of the most ancient, referred to by the philosopher Democritus in the 5th century BC. The fable also appears in the 12th century Aberdeen Bestiary, where the dog is illustrated as swimming across a pond with the meat in his mouth. This fable has been reinterpreted with a number of other foods, most often a piece of cheese, which the dog again drops hoping to gain a larger piece; some versions that include the cheese also show the dog seeing the reflection of the moon behind him, which he mistakes as a larger piece of cheese. Dum canis ore gerit carnem, caro porrigit umbram; Umbra cohaeret aquis: has canis urget aquas. Spes canis plus carne cupit, plus faenore signum Faenoris; os aperit, sic caro spesque perit. Non igitur debent pro vanis certa relinqui. Non sua quis avet, mox caret ipse suis. aperio (4): to open aqua, -ae f.: water aveo, (2): to desire, wish for canis, -is: dog, hound careo (2): to be without caro, carnis f.: meat certum, -i n.: that which is fixed, certain cohaereo (2): to clings to (+ dat.) faenus, fenoris n.: profit, gain fero, ferre: to carry gero (3): to bear, carry multum: much, greatly os, oris n.: a mouth pereo (4): to be destroyed, go to waste plus: (adv.) more porrigo (3): to stretch out, cast relinquo (3): to leave behind, abandon signum, signi n.: an image spes, spei f.: hope, expectation umbra, -ae f.: a shadow urgeo (2): to push, press vanus, -a, -um: empty, vain ore: abl. of means, “carries in his mouth” aquis: dat. after compound verb, “clings to the water” carne… faenore: abl. after plus, “more than the meat ... more than the profit” spes canis… signum faenoris: both subjects of cupit, “the hope of the dog…the image of profit” relinqui: pres. pass. inf. after debent, “certain things ought not be left behind” quis (=quisque): “whoever desires” non sua: “does not desire his own things” suis: abl. of separation after caret, “he will be without his own possessions” 13 Fable 6: De ove et capra et juvenca et leone With possibly one of the largest cast of characters, this fable is the first of many that critique corrupt leaders. The four animals capture a deer, but the lion claims all four shares of the spoils, citing various levels of power in his claim. You will note again that the villainous character isn’t blamed in the moral, rather these fables seem to be showing the reader how to navigate a world populated with these villains. The fable suggests that weaker people, here represented by the goat, sheep, and heifer, should not associate with the strong. Ut ratione pari fortunae munera sumant, Sumunt foedus ovis capra juvenca leo. Cervus adest, cervum rapiunt. Leo sic ait. “Heres Primae partis ero: nam mihi primus honor. Et mihi defendit partem vis prima secundam, Et mihi dat major tertia jura labor. Et pars quarta meum, nisi sit mea, rumpet amorem.” munus, muneris n.: duty, gift ovis, ovis f.: a sheep par, paris (gen.): equal pars, partis f.: a part, portion primus, -a, -um: first, best publicus, -a, -um: public, common quattuor: fourth rapio (3): to destroy, seize ratio, rationis f.: an account, reckoning rumpo (3): to break, destroy secundus -a -um: second, next sumo (3): to take up, begin, obtain tertius, -a, -um: third vis, viris f.: strength adedo, adesse: to eat up amor, amoris m.: love capra, -ae f.: a she-goat cervus, -i m.: a stag, deer defendo (3): to defend, guard foedus, -eris n.: a bargain fortuna, -ae f.: chance, luck, fate heres, heredis m./f.: an heir, heiress honor, honoris m.: honor, respect jus, juris n.: law, legal system juvenca, -ae f.: a young cow, heifer labor, laboris m.: labor leo, leonis m.: a lion major, -us: larger, greater ratione pari: abl of manner, “obtain in equal amount” sumant: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “in order to obtain the gifts of fortune” tertia jura: acc. obj., “gives the third privileges” nisi sit: pres. subj. in fut. less vivid protasis, “unless it be mine” rumpet: fut. in a “more vivid” apodosis, “will be destroying” 14 Aesop’s Fables Publica solus habet fortior, ima premens. Ne fortem societ fragilis vult fabula presens: Nam fragili fidus nesciet esse potens. fabula, -ae f.: story, fable fidus, -a, -um: faithful, loyal to (+ dat.) fortior, -ius: stronger, more powerful fortis, -e.: strong fragilis, -e: brittle, frail imus, -a, -um: lowest nescio (4): to not know how to (+ inf.) potens, potentis (gen.): powerful, strong praesens, praesentis (gen.): present, at hand premo (3): to press, press hard socio (1): to unite, join with (+ acc.) solus, -a, -um: only, single publica: neut. pl. acc., “has public things” i.e. common property ima: neut. pl. acc., “represses the lowest” ne...societ: pres. subj. in noun clause after vult, “wishes that the fragile not unite with” fabula praesens: i.e. this very fable fidus: nom. pred., “does not know to be faithful to” + dat. fragili: dat. after fidus, “loyal to the fragile” potens: subj. of nesciet, “the powerful do not know” 15 Fable 7: De fure uxorem ducente In this fable, the woman marrying the thief is a frame used to set up the actual fable, which tells how the sun took a bride. This fable about the sun is taken from the Phaedrus collection, where it is called “The Sun who Wished to Wed.” The moral remains the same; at first the other planets celebrate when the sun wishes to take a bride, but they soon realize that the bride would double the warmth of the sun, making too much of a good thing. It isn’t clear why the author of the elegiac Romulus chooses to frame this fable within the narrative of a woman who married a thief, although this second narrative strengthens the moral by duplicating the situation — again, there would be too much of a not-so-good thing. Femina dum nubit furi, vicinia gaudet. Vir bonus et prudens talia verba movet: “Sol pepigit sponsam. Jovis aurem terra querelis Perculit et causam, cur foret aegra, dedit: aeger, -ra, -rum: sick, grieved auris, auris f.: an ear, hearing bonus, -a, -um: good, honest causa, -ae f.: a cause, reason do (1) dedi datus: to give duco (3): to lead, command femina, ae f.: a woman, female fur, furis m./f.: a thief, robber gaudeo (2): to rejoice Juppiter, Jovis m.: Jupiter, Jove moveo (2): to move, stir nubo (3): to marry, be married to (+ dat.) pango (3) pepigi: to compose, settle upon percello (3), -culi: to strike prudens, -entis (gen.): aware, skilled querela, -ae f.: a complaint, grievance sol, solis m.: sun sponsa, -ae f.: a bride talis, tale: such, so great terra, -ae f.: earth uxor, uxoris f.: a wife verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb vicinia, -ae f.: neighborhood vir, -i m.: a man, husband uxorem ducente: “leading a wife,” i.e. marrying querelis: abl. of means, “the earth struck with quarreling” cur foret : impf. subj. in ind. quest., “gave reason why she should be grieved” 16 Aesop’s Fables ‘Sole necor solo; quid erit, si creverit alter? Quid patiar? Quid aget tanta caloris hiems?’” Hic prohibet sermo laetum praebere favorem, Qui mala fecerunt vel mala facta parant. malum, mali n.:evil neco (1): to kill, murder paro (1): to prepare, furnish patior (3): to suffer praebeo (2): to present, show prohibeo (2): to hinder, forbid, prevent sermo, sermonis m.: conversation, discussion tantus, -a, -um: so great, so much ago (3): to drive, urge alter, -a, -um: one (of two) calor, caloris m.: heat, warmth cerno (3), crevi: to sift, separate, distinguish cresco (3), crevi: to come forth, be born factum, -i n.: a fact, deed favor, favoris m.: favor, goodwill hiems, hiemis f.: winter, storm laetus, -a, -um: happy, joyous sole solo: abl. of means, “I am slain by a single sun” si creverit: fut. perf. in fut. more vivid protasis, “if a second will have been born” caloris hiems: “a storm of heat,” storms usually occur in winter, hence the (paradoxical) metonymy praebere: pr. inf. after prohibet, “prevents from showing” vel mala: “even more evil deeds” 17 Fable 8: De lupo et grue The image in this fable is a rather common one; a crane reaches down a wolf ’s throat to dislodge a stuck bone. This is such a compelling image that it is often illustrated in the fable manuscripts, showing the wolf with its mouth wide open, and just the body of the crane as he works to remove the bone. Once again, this is a lesson in how to live with the wicked; it is the crane who should not have been persuaded by the wolf ’s empty promises of reward. Arta lupum cruciat via gutturis osse retento; Mendicat medicam, multa daturus, opem. Grus promissa petit de faucibus osse revulso; Cui lupus: “an vivis munere tuta meo? munus, -eris n.: a payment, gift ops, opis f.: power, help os, ossis n.: a bone promitto (3) -misi, -missum: to promise retento (1): to hold fast, restrain revello (3): to remove, pull away tutus, -a, -um: safe, prudent via, -ae f.: a way, road vivo (3): to be alive, live artus, -a -um: close, tight crucio (1): to torment, torture faux, faucis f.: pharynx, throat grus, gruis m./f.: a crane guttur, -is n.: a throat, neck lupus, -i m.: a wolf medicus, -a, -um: medical mendico (1): to beg for multus, -a, -um: much, many arta ... via: nom., “the narrow passage” i.e. throat osse retento: abl. abs., “a bone having been stuck” daturus: fut. act. part., “about to give” i.e. promising to give many things promissa: neut. pl. acc., “seeks the things promised” osse revulso: abl. abs., “the bone having been removed” munere meo: abl. of cause, “live safely from my gift” 18 Aesop’s Fables Nonne tuum potui morsu praecidere collum? Ergo tibi munus sit tua vita meum.” Nil prodest prodesse malis: mens prava malorum Immemor accepti non timet esse boni. acceptus, -a -um: welcome, received bonus, -a, -um: good collus, -i m.: neck, head and neck immemor, immemoris: forgetful of (+ gen.) malum, -i n.: an evil, ill mens, mentis f.: mind morsus, morsus m.: a bite, teeth nil: nothing praecido (3): to cut off pravus, -a, -um: crooked, corrupt prosum, prodesse: be useful, benefit timeo (2): to fear (+ inf.) vita, -ae f.: life morsu: abl. of means, “cut off with my bite” sit: pres. subj. jussive, “let your life be my payment” prodesse: pres. inf. subject of prodest, “to benefit benefits” malis: dat. after prodesse, “to benefit evil ones” malorum: gen. of cause after prava, “corrupt from evils” immemor: nom. pred., “fear to be forgetful of” + gen. 19 Fable 9: De duabus canibus This fable is used by other fable authors, such as Marie de France, to interesting ends because the villain is not clear by the species of animal as it often is in the fables. This also makes it a difficult fable to follow-- one dog welcomes another into her home, but the second dog is quickly tricked into taking care the first dog’s young. The sweet-talk of the first dog convinces the other to take the young, and it is these “honeyed words” that are cautioned in the moral. De partu querulam, verborum nectare plenam, Pro cane mota, canis suscipit aede canem. Haec abit, illa manet; haec cursitat, illa quiescit. Huic tamen a partu rumpitur illa quies. Illa redit reddique sibi sub jura precatur; Obserat haec aurem nec minus aure domum. partus, partus m.: a bearing, bringing forth plenus, -a, -um: full of (+ abl.) precor (1): to beg querulus, -a, -um: complaining quies, quietis f.: quiet, calm quiesco (3): to rest, sleep redeo, redire: return, go back rumpo (3): to break, destroy suscipio (3): to undertake tamen: yet abeo, abire: depart, go away canis, canis m./f.: a dog, hound cursito (1): to run domus, -i f.: a house, building duo -ae: two jus, juris n.: law, legal system maneo (2): to remain, stay minus: less nectar, -aris n.: sweetness obsero (1): to lock, stop up de partu: “complaining about her bearing” i.e. her pregancy querulam ... plenam ... canem: acc., “takes up a complaining ... full ... dog” nectare: abl. after plenam, “full of the sweetness of words” mota: perf. part. nom., “she having been moved on behalf of the (pregnant) dog haec ... illa: “the former (the host dog) ... the latter (the guest dog who is pregant)” Note the mannered use of these demonstrative terms throughout huic: dat. of advantage, “that quiet is broken for this one” i.e. for the guest dog after delivering her young illa redit ... precatur: “that one (the host dog) returns and begs” reddi: pres. pass. inf. after precatur, “begs (her home) to be restored” haec obserat: “this one (the guest dog) closes her ear” aure: abl. comp. after minus, “and locks up the home no less than her ear” 20 Aesop’s Fables Plus prece posse minas putat haec, plus bella duobus. Haec scit posse minas plus prece, bella minis. Cum dolor hanc armet, plus matrem filius armat; Cedit sola gregi, causaque justa perit. Non satis est tutum mellitis credere verbis: Ex hoc melle solet pestis amara sequi. mina, -ae f.: threats, menaces pereo (4): to die, pass away pestis, pestis f.: a plague, pestilence plus: more prex, precis f.: a prayer, request puto (1): to think, believe satis: enough, adequately scio, scire: know, understand sequor (3): to follow soleo (2): to be in the habit of (+ inf.) solus, a, um: only, alone tutus, -a, -um: safe amarus, -a, -um: bitter, harsh armo (1): to equip, strengthen bellum, -i n.: war, warfare causa, -ae f.: a cause, reason cedo (3): to go, pass, concede credo (3): to trust in (+ dat.) dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish filius, -i m.: a son grex, gregis m./f.: a flock, herd justus, -a, -um: just mater, matris f.: a mother mel, mellis n.: honey mellitus, -a, -um: sweetened with honey plus ... posse minas: ind. st. after putat, “she calculates that threats are more powerful” prece ... duobus: abl. of comp. after plus, “threats are more powerful than prayer ... that war is more powerful than those two” i.e. than threats and prayer” haec scit: the change of subject is marked only by the contrast in verbs, “now she (the host dog) comes to know that ...” i.e. vs. putat haec above cum ... armet: pres. subj. in cum circumstantial, “since grief equipped this one (the host dog)” gregi: dat. after cedit, “alone, she concedes to the group” i.e. to the mother and her pup mellitis verbis: dat. after credere, “trust in sweet words” credere: pres. inf. epexegetic after tutum, “not sufficiently safe to believe” + dat. sequi: pres. inf. after solet, “a plague usually follows” 21 Fable 10: De rustico et colubro “The Man and the Snake” is essentially the same fable as the preceding two dog fable; a man takes a snake into his home, feeling sorry for the animal because of a particularly harsh winter. The man is rewarded for his hospitality by poison pouring from the snake’s mouth. When the man tries to oust the animal, just like the dog, he is attacked. This time, however, it is poison rather than honey that the animal uses to force the man out of his own home. Dum nive canet humus, glacies dum sopit aquarum Cursus, in colubrum turbida saevit hiems; Hunc videt, hunc reficit hominis clementia: ventum Temperat huic tecto, temperat igne gelu. Ore serit virus coluber, sic toxicat aedem; Hospes ait colubro: “non rediturus abi.” aedes, -is f.: a home aqua, -ae f.: water, sea cano (3): to be white clementia, -ae f.: mercy, clemency coluber, colubri m.: a snake, serpent cursus, cursus m.: a running gelu, -us n.: frost, ice glacies, -i f.: ice hiems, hiemis f.: winter homo, hominis m.: a man hospes, hospitis m.: a host, guest humus, -i f.: ground, earth ignis, ignis m.: fire nix, nivis f.: snow os, oris n.: a mouth, speech reficio (3): to rebuild, restore rusticus, -i m.: a peasant, farmer saevio (4): to rage sero (3): to sow, plant sopio (4): to cause to sleep tectum, tecti n.: a roof, house tempero (1): to temper, make mild toxico (1): to poison turbidus, t-a, -um: wild, stormy ventus, -i m.: wind video (2): to see, look at virus, -i n.: venom nive: abl. of specification, “is white with snow” cursus: acc. pl., “puts to sleep the flowings” in colubrum: “rages against the snake” hunc: i.e. the snake huic: dat., “for this one” i.e. the snake tecto ... igne: abl. of means, “he makes mild with his house ... with fire” ore: abl. of source, “from the mouth” non rediturus: fut. act. part., “go away never to return” 22 Aesop’s Fables Non exit coluber nec vult exire, sed haeret Amplectensque virum sibila dira movet. Reddere gaudet homo nequam pro melle venenum, Pro fructu poenam, pro pietate dolum. nequam (indec. adj.): vile pietas, pietatis f.: responsibility poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment reddo (3): to return, restore sibilum, -i n.: a hissing venenum, -i n.: a poison, drug vir, -i m.: a man, husband vult: be willing, wish (+ inf.) amplector (3): to surround, encircle dirus, -a, -um: awful, fearful dolus, doli m.: a trick, deceit exeo, exire: to leave, depart fructus, fructus m.: produce, fruit gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice (+ inf.) haereo (2): to stick, adhere moveo (2): to move homo nequam: nom. subj., “a vile man enjoys” pro melle: “in return for the honey” 23 Fable 11: De asino et apro In this fable it isn’t clear what exactly it is that is making the ass laugh, but regardless, the boar is quite unhappy with the mockery. The muddled fable makes it less obvious who the villain is, but the ass is chastised for his mocking. Audet asellus aprum risu temptare protervo Audet iners forti dicere: “frater ave.” Vibrat aper pro voce caput: nam verba superbit Reddere, sed dentem vix tenet ira trucem. aper, apri m./f.: a boar, wild boar asellus, i m.: an ass, donkey asinus, -i m.: an ass, donkey audeo (2): to dare/have (+ inf.) ave: hail! caput, capitis n.: a head, person dens, dentis m.: a tooth, tusk fortis, forte: strong, powerful, mighty frater, fratris m.: a brother, cousin iners, inertis (gen.): inactive, inert ira, -ae f.: anger protervus, -a, um: shameless risus, risus m.: laughter superbio (4): to be too proud to (+ inf.) tempto (1): to test, bribe teneo (2): to hold trux, trucis (gen.): wild, savage, fierce verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb vibro (1): to brandish, wave, shake vix: hardly vox, vocis f.: a voice protervo: abl of means or manner, “tempt with shameless laughter” forti: dat., “speak to the strong one” pro voce: “in place of a voice” 24 Aesop’s Fables Sus tamen ista movet: “vilem dens nobilis escam Spernit; desidia tutus es ipse tua.” Non debet stolido laedi prudentia risu, Nec stolidus doctum debet adire jocis. adeo, adire: to approach, attack debeo (2): to ought (+ inf.) desidia, desidiae f.: idleness, slackness doctus, -a, -um: learned, wise esca, -ae f.: food, meat iste -a -ud: that one (derogatory) jocus, -i m.: a joke, jest laedo (3): to strike, hurt nobilis, nobile: haughty prudentia, -ae f.: discretion, wisdom sperno (3): to scorn, despise, spurn stolidus, -a -um: dull, stupid sus, suis m.: a hog tutus, -a, -um: safe vilis, -e: cheap, common desidia ... tua: abl. of cause, “safe because of your idleness” stolido risu: abl. of means, “harmed by stupid laughter” laedi: pass. inf. complementing debet, “ought not to be harmed” jocis: abl. of manner, “attack with jokes” 25 Fable 12: De mure urbano et rustico This fable is perhaps the most commonly known of the entire collection, even today. It is used and elaborated upon throughout the Middle Ages, playing a prominent part in both Marie de France’s and Henryson’s collections. Although considerably lengthened in these other collections, even here the fable is one of the longest in the elegiac Romulus. It seems to have been a particular favorite of the medieval reader, as a number of manuscript copies show marginal markings beside lines which they must have found significant. These marked lines reveal various moral lessons within the body of the fable (see lines 3-4, 9-10, and 20-24). Rusticus urbanum mus murem suscipit, edem Commodat et mensam, mensaque mente minor: In mensa tenui satis est immensa voluntas, Nobilitat viles frons generosa dapes. Facto fine cibis urbanum rusticus audit; Urbani socius tendit in urbis opes. mus, muris m./f.: a mouse nobilito (1): to ennoble ops, opis f.: resources, wealth rusticus, -a, -um: country socius, -i m.: a companion, ally suscipio (3): to receive tendo (3): to go tenuis, tenue: thin, fine urbanus, -a, -um: of the city urbs, urbis f.: a city vilis, -e: cheap, common voluntas, voluntatis f.: will, good will audio (4): to hear, listen cibus, cibi m.: food, fare commodo (1): to provide dapis, -is f: feast, banquet edes, edis f.: food finis, finis m./f.: an end frons, frontis m./f.: look, front generosus, -a, -um: noble immensus, -a, -um: immeasurable, immense mens, mentis f.: mind, intention mensa, mensae f.: a meal metior (4): to measure minus, -or: less mus murem: note the use of polyptoton in the opening lines and elsewhere mente: abl. of comparison, “less than his intention” in mensa tenui ... immensa voluptas: “at a thin table (poor table) ... an immense good will” note the pun on in mensa and immensa frons gernerosa: nom., “his noble intention” facto fine: abl. absolute, “the end of the food having been made” urbani socius: “the friend of the city mouse” i.e. the country mouse in urbis opes: “to the riches of the city” 26 Aesop’s Fables Ecce penum subeunt, inseruit amicus amico, Invigilat mensae, fercula mensa gerit. commendat conditque cibos clementia vultus, Convivam satiat plus dape frontis honor. Ecce sere clavis immurmurat, hostia latrant; Ambo timent, fugiunt ambo, nec ambo latent. Hic latet, hic latebras cursu mendicat inepto, Assuitur muro reptile muris onus. Blanda, penu clauso, parcit fortuna timori; Ille tamen febrit, teste tremore timet. amicus, amici m.: a friend assuo (3): to sew on, cling to blandus, -a -um: flattering, gentle claudo (3): to close, shut clavis, -is f.: door-key clementia, -ae f.: gentleness, mildness, calm commendo (1): to entrust condio (4): to spice, season, resender pleasant conviva, -ae m./f.: a guest, table companion cursus, cursus m.: a running dapis, -is f.: a feast, banquet ecce: behold! febrio (4): to become ill, catch a fever ferculum, -i n.: food fortuna, fortunae f.: chance, luck frons, frontis m./f.: a forehead, face fugio (3): to flee gero (3): to bear, carry honor, honoris m.: honor hostia, -orum n.: enemy immurmuro (1): to murmur ineptus, -a, -um: silly, foolish inservio (4): to take care of, serve (+ dat.) invigilo (1): to watch (over) diligently (+ dat.) latebra, -ae f.: a hiding place lateo (2) latui: lie hidden latro (1): to bark, bark at mendico (1): to beg for, seek murus, -i m.: a wall onus, oneris n.: load, weight parco (3): to spare (+ dat.) penus, -us n.: a pantry, storeroom reptilis, -e: creeping satio (1): to satisfy serus, -a -um: late, too late subeo (4): enter (+ acc.) testis, testis m.: witness timeo (2): to fear timor, timoris m.: fear, dread tremor, tremoris m.: trembling, shuddering vultus, vultus m.: a face, expression, looks commendat ... clementia: note the alliteration clementia vultus: “the gentleness of his face commends” dape: abl. of comp. after plus, “satisfies more than the food” cursu inepto: abl. of manner, “seeks with foolish running” muro: dat. after compound verb, “clings to the wall” muris: gen., “burden of the mouse” i.e. his body penu clauso: abl. abs., “storeroom having been closed teste tremore: abl. abs., “with trembling as a witness” 27 The Elegaic Romulus Exit qui latuit, timidum sic lenit amicum: “Gaude, carpe cibos, haec sapit esca favum.” Fatur qui timuit: “latet hoc in melle venenum, Fellitumque metu non puto dulce bonum; Quam timor obnubit, non est sincera voluptas; Non est sollicito dulcis in ore favus. Rodere malo fabam quam cura perpete rodi, Degenerare cibos cura diurna facit. His opibus gaude, qui gaudes turbine mentis, Pauperiem ditet pax opulenta mihi. bonum, boni n.: good, good thing carpo (3): to seize, gather cura, -ae f.: concern, worry degenero (1): to deteriorate, decline dito (1): to enrich diurnus, -a, -um: by day, daily dulce, -e n.: sweet exeo, exire: to come out faba, -ae f.: bean favus, -i m.: honeycomb fellitus, -a, -um: embittered for (1): to speak, talk, say lenio (4): to calm malo, malle: prefer to (+ inf.) mel, mellis n.: honey metus, metus m.: fear obnubo (3): to veil, cover opulentus, a -um: wealthy, rich in wealth os, oris n.: mouth pauperies, pauperiei f.: poverty pax, pacis f.: peace perpes, perpetis (gen.): continuous, lasting puto (1): to think, believe rodo (3): to gnaw sapio (3): to taste of (+ acc.) sincerus, -a -um: clean, pure sollicitus, -a, -um: worried, troubled timidus, -a, -um: timid, cowardly turben, -inis n.: whirlwind venenum, -i n.: poison voluptas, voluptatis f.: pleasure metu: abl., “embittered by fear” dulce: acc. pred., “a good thing to be sweet” sollicito ... in ore: abl., “in a troubled mouth” dulcis: nom. pred., “is not sweet” cura perpete: abl., “gnawed by perpetual care” rodere ... rodi: pres. inf. pass. complementing malo, “prefer to gnaw than to be gnawed” degenerare: pres. inf. after causative facit, “causes food to deteriorate” hic opibus: abl. after gaude, “enjoy these riches” turbine: abl. after gaudes, “you who rejoice in this whirlwind” ditet: pres subj. jussive, “let peace enrich” 28 Aesop’s Fables Haec bona solus habe, quae sunt tibi dulcia soli, Det pretium dapibus vita quieta meis.” Finit verba, redit. Praeponit tuta timendis, Et quia summa timet, tutius ima petit. Pauperies, si laeta venit, tutissima res est. Tristior immensas pauperat usus opes. bonum, -i n.: good, good thing dapis, -is f.: meal finio (4): to finish habeo (2): to have immensus, -a, -um: immeasurable imus, -a, -um: lowest, deepest laetus, -a, um: happy, joyful paupero (1): to make poor, diminish in value peto (3): to reach towards, make for praepono (3): to place X (acc.) before Y (abl.) pretium, -i n.: price, value, worth quietus, -a, -um: quiet, tranquil, calm redeo, redire: return, go back solus, a, -um: only summus, -a, -um: highest tristis, triste: sad tutus, -a -um: safe usus, usus m.: use, enjoyment, experience venio (4): to come vita, -ae f.: life soli: dat., “to you alone” det: pres. subj. jussive, “may quiet give value” timendis: abl. gerundive, “before things that must be feared” 29 Fable 13: De vulpe et aquila Our modern conceptions of the eagle as a noble animal make this fable confusing; here it is the eagle who is the villain and the fox who is the virtuous character. The eagle has stolen the fox’s young, but the fox, ever wily, builds a fire at the base of the tree in order to smoke out the eagle, and retrieve her kits (although it would seem that she also puts them in danger in the process). This moral is a bit more of a general lesson, as it points out the danger in the greater hurting the lesser, as even weaker are capable of inflicting harm. Dum vulpes aquilam pro rapta prole perungit Melle precum, praedam reddere nescit avis. Praeda gemit nidique timet cibus esse gulosi, Sed redimit natos utilis arte parens. Arboreum zonat stipulis et vimine truncum, In stipulam docto dirigit ore facem. aquila, -ae m./f.: an eagle arboreus, -a, -um: of a tree ars, artis f.: skill, trick avis, avis f.: a bird dirigo (3): to arrange, direct doctus, -a, -um: learned, skilled fax, facis f.: a torch, fire gemo (3): to moan, groan, lament gulosus, -a, -um: gluttonous mel, mellis n.: honey natus, -i m.: a son, child nescio (4): to not know (+ inf.) nidus, nidi m.: a nest os, oris n.: a mouth parens, parentis m./f.: parent, father, mother perungo (3): to anoint, smear praeda, -ae f.: booty, loot, spoils prex, precis f.: a prayer proles, prolis f.: offspring rapio (3) rapui, raptus: snatch, seize reddo (3): to return, restore redimo (3): to recover stipula,-ae f.: a stalk, reed played on as a pipe truncus, -i m.: a trunk (of a tree) utilis, utile: useful, practical vimen, viminis n.: a twig, shoot vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox zono (1): to bind, encircle pro rapta prole: “for the sake of her stolen offspring” melle: abl., “smears with the honey of prayers” cibus: nom. pred., “fears to become food” arte: abl. of means, “redeems with skill” stipulis ... vimine: abl. of means, “encircles with stalks ... with twig” docto ore: abl. of means, “directs with her skilled mouth” 30 Aesop’s Fables In pullos aquilae conjurat copia fumi; Hunc tamen et vulpem provida placat avis. Non sit qui studeat, quia major, obesse minori, Cum bene majori possit obesse minor. obsum, obesse: hurt (+ dat.) placo (1): to appease, placate, reconcile providus, -a, -um: forward-looking pullus, pulli m.: a young hen studeo (2): to desire, be eager to (+ inf.) conjuro (1): to conspire copia, -ae f.: plenty, abundance fumus, -i m.: smoke, steam major, -us: larger, greater minor, -us: smaller, littler non sit: pres. subj. jussive clause, “let there be no one!” qui studeat: pres. subj. relative clause of characteristic, “no one who he is eager” cum possit: pres. subj. causal, “since he is able to hurt” 31 Fable 14: De aquila et testudine There is a third character in this fable, the raven, who does most of the speaking. The eagle has picked up a tortoise, but seems to be unsure if any food is to be found in the hard shell. It is the raven that advises the eagle to drop the tortoise to uncover its fleshy innards. The moral of this fable is opaque, with its warning against being overwhelmed by “the tongue’s whirlwind.” The only explanation here is that the raven is giving this advice so that he can grab the flesh of the tortoise away from eagle, and the moral is warning the eagle from taking the advice. Interestingly, in later versions of the fable the tortoise has been replaced by a mollusk or other shelled animal, often depicted as a snail. It seems that, when the elegiac Romulus was put into print by Heinrich Steinhowel in the 1400s, the translator and illustrator misunderstood what the shelled animal that the eagle carried was, and the mollusk or snail was the only animal they could think of with a hard outer shell. It is this mistaken illustration that is included here. Pes aquilae, praedo testudinis, aëra findit. Hanc sua conca tegit, cornua longa patent. Hoc monitu cornix aquilam praemunit: “Ineptum Fers onus, at fiet utile, crede mihi; Quod geris in conca, cibus est: tibi surripit illum aquila, -ae m./f.: an eagle aër, aëris n.: air, sky, cloud conca, -ae f.: a shell cornix, cornicis f.: a crow cornu, cornus n.: a horn, talon credo (3): to trust (+ dat.) fero, ferre: to bring, bear findo (3): to split, divide fio, fieri: to be made, become gero (3): to bear, carry ineptus, -a, -um: silly, foolish longus, -a, -um: long monitus, monitus m.: a warning onus, oneris n.: load, cargo pateo (2): to lie exposed pes, pedis m.: a foot praedo, -onis n.: a plunderer praemunio (4): to fortify, warn surripio (3): to take away from, steal (+ dat.) tego (3): to cover, protect testudo, testudinis f.: a tortoise utilis, utile: useful aëra: acc. pl., “split the airs” hanc: “cover her” i.e. the tortoise cornua longa: “the long talons (of the eagle) are exposed” i.e. ready to attack fers: 2 sing. of ferro, “you are carrying” fiet: fut., “it will become useful” 32 Aesop’s Fables Conca cibum; concam frange cibusque cadet. Ut concam lanies, pro viribus utere sensu; Hanc, si celsa cadat, saxea franget humus.” Decipientis homo subversus turbine linguae Corruit; et fortes ista procella rapit. procella, -ae f.: a storm rapio (3): to snatch, seize saxeus, -a, -um: rocky, stony sensus, sensus m.: feeling, sense subverto (3) -verti, -versus: overturn turben, -inis n.: a whirlwind utor, uti, usus sum (3): to use (+ abl.) vis, viris f.: strength cado (3): to fall celsus, -a, -um: high corruo (3): to tumble down, sink decipio (3): to cheat, deceive fortis, forte: strong, bold frango (3): to break, shatter homo, hominis m.: a man humus, -i f.: ground lanio (1): to tear cadet: fut., “the food will fall” ut…lanies: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “use your sense in order to tear” pro viribus: “instead of strength” utere: pres. imper., “use!” + abl. si cadat: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis, “if it were to fall” celsa: nom., “if she falls while on high”” franget: pres. subj. in future less vivid apodosis, “the ground would break” turbine linguae: “by the whirlwind of the tongue” i.e. by deceptive rhetoric decipientis: pres. part. gen., “the tongue of the deceiving one” 33 Fable 15: De vulpe et corvo The story line of this fable may seem quite familiar-- a fox appeals to a crow’s pride by complimenting his song, and in doing so convinces him to sing again so the fox can snatch the cheese that is in his beak. This basic conceit is picked up, and significantly elaborated upon, by Chaucer in his Nun’s Priest’s Tale, where the fox takes advantage of the rooster’s pride to convince him to sing with his eyes closed, so that the fox can grab the bird. It is often argued that Chaucer takes his fable from the Reynardian beast epics, but reading this fable will make it clear that it should also be considered as one of Chaucer’s influences. Vulpe gerente famem, corvum gerit arbor et escam Ore gerens corvus, vulpe loquente, silet. “Corve, decore decens, cignum candore peraequas; Si cantu placeas, plus ave quaque places.” arbor, -is f.: a tree candor, -is m.: whiteness cantus, cantus m.: a song, chant, singing cignus, -i m.: a swan corvus, -i m.: a crow decens: pleasing decor, -is m.: beauty, good looks esca, -ae f.: food, meat fames, famis f.: hunger gero (3): to carry, bear loquor (3): to speak, tell os, oris n.: a mouth peraequo (1): to equal placeo (2): to please, satisfy placo (1): to soothe sileo (2): to be silent vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox vulpe gerente: abl. abs., “a fox bearing hunger” being hungry. Note the three different meanings of gero in these two lines, an example of antanaklasis ore: abl. of place where, “carrying in his mouth” vulpe loquente: abl. abs., “the fox speaking” candore: abl. of specification, “you equal in whiteness” si placeas ... places: both verbs are pres. subj. in a future less vivid condition, “if you would please me ... you would soothe me” but from different verbs (placeo and placo), an example of figura etymologica. Note the mannered use of multiple forms of placeo in these three lines 34 Aesop’s Fables Credit avis pictaeque placent preludia linguae; Dum canit ut placeat, caseus ore cadit. Hoc fruitur vulpes, insurgunt taedia corvo; Asperat in medio damna dolore pudor. Fellitum patitur risum quem mellit inanis Gloria; vera parit taedia falsus honor. aspero (1): to sharpen, exacerbate cano (3): to sing caseus, -i m.: cheese damnum, -i n.: a lost possession dolor, doloris m.: pain falsus, -a, -um: wrong, deceptive fellitus, -a, -um: embittered fruror (3): to enjoy (+ abl.) gloria, -ae f.: glory, fame honor, -is m.: honor inanis, inane: void, empty, foolish insurgo (3): to rise up lingua, -ae f.: tongue, speech medium, medi(i) n.: middle mello (3): to delight pario (3): bear, beget patior (3): to suffer pictus, -a, -um: painted, deceptive preludium, -ii n.: prelude, preliminary pudor, pudoris m.: decency, shame risus, -us m.: laughter taedium, -i n.: weariness, aversion placent: pres. of placeo, not subjunctive, “the preludes are pleasing” preludia: nom. subject of placent, referring to the words of the fox, although a “prelude” is usually musical ut placeat: pres subj. purpose clause, “in order to give pleasure” ore: abl of place from which, “falls from his mouth” 35 Fable 16: De leone et apro et tauro et asello Again, the cast of characters in this fable is much greater than just the lion and the boar. In fact, it seems like all of the animals from the earlier “The Lion, the She-Goat, the Sheep, and the Heifer” have come back to punish the lion for his wrongdoing. The lion has now aged, and all of these animals are going to punish him for his tyranny, the cow goring him with his horns, a boar also spearing him, and an ass dealing a swift kick. The moral is just as expected; the lion should have behaved in his younger age. Irretit miserum gravitas annosa leonem, Inglaciat corpus corque senile gelu. Instat aper, pensat veteri pro vulnere vulnus; Frontis eum telo taurus utroque fodit; Saevit asellus iners et frontem calce sigillat. Haec solo gemitu vindicat acta leo: actum, -i n.: an act, deed annosus, -a, -um: aged, old aper, apri m./f.: a boar asellus, -i m.: a donkey calx, calcis m./f.: a heel cor, cordis n.: a heart corpus, corporis n.: a body, person fodio (3): to dig, stab frons, frontis m./f.: a forehead gelu, -us n.: frost, ice gemitus, gemitus m.: a groan gravitas, gravitatis f.: a weight, gravity iners, inertis (gen.): helpless, weak inglacio (1): to freeze insto (1): to threaten, approach irretio (4): to entangle, hinder leo, leonis m.: a lion miser, -a -um: poor, miserable, wretched penso (1): to pay/punish for saevo (4): to rage senilis, senile: aged sigillo (1): to seal, mark solus, -a, -um: only, single, alone taurus, -i m.: a bull telum, -i n.: a weapon, dart, spear uterque, -aque, -umque: each of two veter, -a, -um: old vindico (1): to vindicate, avenge vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound senile gelu: “an old coldness” i.e. the cold of old age, a transferred epithet veteri pro vulnere: “in return for an old wound” eum: i.e. the lion utroque telo: abl. of means, “stabs with both of the horns of his forehead” calce: abl. of means, “marks with his heel” solo gemitu: abl. of means, “avenges with only a groan” i.e. with no deeds 36 Aesop’s Fables “Omnia quae vici, me vincunt omnia. Dormit Vis mea, dormit honor, dormit honoris opus. Cui nocui, nocet ille mihi, multisque peperci, Quae mihi non parcunt, pro pietate nocent.” Hunc timeat casum qui se non fulcit amico, Nec dare vult felix, quam miser optat, opem. amicus, -i m.: a friend casus, casus m.: a fall, chance/fortune dormio (4): to sleep felix, felicis (gen.): happy, lucky fulcio (4): to prop up, support multus, -a, -um: many noceo (2): to harm, hurt, injure (+ dat.) ops, opis f.: power, help opto (1): to choose, wish opus, operis n.: work parco (3) peperci, parsus: to spare (+ dat.) pietas, pietatis f.: mercy timeo (2): to fear, dread, be afraid vinco (3), vici, victus: conquer, defeat vult: be willing, wish (+ inf.) omnium ... omnia: note chiasmus word order with reversal of voice from active to passive. See also below cui ... mihi dormit ... dormit: an example of anaphora pro pietate: “in return for mercy” timeat: pres. subj. jussive, “let him fear” + dat. amico: abl. of means, “support with a friend” quam: antecedent opem, “the aid which he seeks” 37 Fable 17: De asino et catulo et domino Providing one of the most comical images of the fables, here an ass is jealous of the attention that the puppy receives, and jumps on his master just as the puppy does, hoping to receive some of this attention himself. Of course, this is not the place of the ass, and the moral confirms that it is not wise to try to live outside of the station that nature has dealt them. Murmuris et caudae studio testatur amorem, Nunc lingua catulus, nunc pede palpat erum. Gaudet erus comitque canem comitemque ciborum Efficit; alludit turba ministra cani. Arte pari similesque cibos similemque favorem Lucrari cupiens inquit asellus iners: “Me catulo praefert vitae nitor, utile tergum, alludo (3): to frolic, play amor, -is m.: love, affection ars, artis f.: skill, manner asinus, -i m.: an ass, donkey canis, -is m.: a dog, hound catulus, -i m.: a young dog, puppy cauda, caudae f.: a tail cibus, -i m.: food comes, comitis m./f.: a sharer, companion como (3): to make beautiful, embellish cupio (3): to wish, desire, want dominus, -i m.: an owner, master efficio (3): to make X (acc.) Y (acc.) erus, -i m.: a master, owner favor, favoris m.: favor gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice lucror (1): to gain, win minister, -tra, -trum: ministering murmur, -is n.: a mutter, whisper, growl nitor, -is m.: brightness, splendor palpo (1): to stroke par, paris (gen.): equal (to), a match for pes, pedis m.: a foot praefero, praeferre, praetuli, praelatus: place X (acc.) before Y (dat.) similis, simile: like, similar studium, -i n.: eagerness, enthusiasm tergum, -i n.: back, rear testor (1): to give as evidence turba, -ae f.: a crowd utilis, utile: useful vita, -ae. f.: life studio: abl. of manner, “testifies with the eagerness of” + gen. lingua ... pede: abl. of manner, “strikes with his tongue ... with his foot” comitem: acc. pred., “makes him a sharer” cani: abl. of association, “plays with the dog” arte pari: abl., “in a similar manner” note the variatio of pari ... similes lucrari: pres. inf. dep. after cupiens, “wishing to win” catulo: dat. after praefert: “ place me before the puppy” nitor ... tergum: nom. subjects of praefert 38 Aesop’s Fables Nec placeo fructu, sed placet ille joco. Ludam: lude places.” Sic ludit tempore viso, Ut ludo placeat, ludit et instat ero. Blandiri putat ore tonans, umerisque priorum Pressis mole pedum se putat esse pium. Clamat erus, vult clamor opem; subit ordo clientum. Multa domat multo verbere clava reum. Quod natura negat, nemo feliciter audet: Displicet inprudens unde placere putat. audeo (2): to intend, dare blandior (4): to flatter clamo (1): to proclaim, declare, cry clamor, -is m.: a shout clava, -ae f.: a club, staff cliens, clientis m./f.: a client, dependent displiceo (2): to displease domo (1): to subdue, master feliciter: happily fructus, fructus m.: crops, fruit, reward inprudens, -entis (gen.): ignorant jocus, -i m.: a joke ludo (3): to play, mock ludus, -i m.: a game, play moles, molis f.: a large mass multus, -a -um: much, many natura, -ae f.: nature nego (1): to deny ops, opis f.: power, might ordo, ordinis m.: a row, order os, oris n.: a mouth pius, -a, -um: faithful, devoted, pious placeo (2): to please pressus, -a, -um: firmly planted, deliberate prior, prius: ahead, in front puto (1): to think reus, -i m.: guilty one, culprit subeo (4): go to support tempus, temporis n.: time tono (1): to thunder umerus, -i m.: upper arm, shoulder verber, verberis n.: lash, a beating video (2),vidi, visus: see fructu ... joco: abl. of means, “pleases with fruit ... with a joke” ludam: fut., “ I will play,” note the mannered variations on ludo and ludus lude: voc., “you are pleasing, O play” tempore viso: abl. abs., “an occasion having been seen” ut…placeat: pres. subj. purpose clause, “in order to please” ero: dat. after instant, “he approaches the master” blandiri: pres. inf. dep. after putat, “he supposes to flatter” tonans: pres. part. instrumental, “by thundering with his mouth” umeris pressis: abl. abs., “with the shoulders pressed down” priorum ... pedum: gen. pl., “with the mass of his forefeet” pium: acc. pred., “thinks himself to be faithful” multa ... clava: nom. s. subject, “many a club” multo verbere: abl. of means, “with much beating” 39 Fable 18: De leone et mure Aside from the two mice fables, the fable of the lion and the mouse must be one of the most retold (again, even today) of the collection. The lion spares the mouse, and in turn, the mouse nibbles a net that has ensnared the lion. This moral states that even the smallest of creatures can be useful to the greatest, but other medieval versions of the fable play with this moral. Robert Henryson uses this fable as the central in his collection, and although the lion does spare the mouse, in this version of the fable he goes on to rampage the countryside, devouring dozens. Here, the moral shows that the greatest may not be worth helping. Frigida sopito blanditur silva leoni, Cursitat hic murum, ludere prompta, cohors. Pressus mure, leo murem rapit; ille precatur, Ille precem librat, supplicat ira preci. Haec tamen ante movet animo: “Quid, mure perempto, Laudis emes? Summos vincere parva pudet. animus, animi m.: mind blandior (3): to soothe cohors, cohortis f.: a court, attendants cursito (1): to run emo (3): to buy, gain frigidus, -a -um: cold, cool ira, -ae f.: anger, wrath laus, laudis f.: praise leo, -onis m.: a lion libro (1): to balance, weigh moveo (2): to move, stir murus, muri m.: a wall, city wall mus, muris m./f.: a mouse parvus, -a -um: small, little perimo (3) -emi, -emptus: to kill, destroy precor (1): to beg, pray premo (3) presi, pressus: press, press hard prex, precis f.: a prayer, request promptus, -a -um: eager (+ inf.) pudet (2): to shame, make ashamed rapio (3): to snatch, seize silva, -ae f.: wood, forest sopitus, -a, -um: sleeping summus, -a, -um: highest, greatest supplico (1): to yield to (+ dat.) frigida ... silva: nom. subject, “a cold forest” sopito… leoni: dat. after blanditur, “soothes the sleeping lion” mure: abl. of means, “having been pressed by the mouse” Note the polyptoton here and play of mus and murus quid ... laudis: “what of praise will you win?” haec: neut. pl. acc., “he moves these things in his mind” i.e. he ponders these things mure perempto: abl. abs., “a mouse having been killed” vincere: pres. inf. subject of pudet, “to conquer small ones is shameful” 40 Aesop’s Fables Si nece dignetur murem leo, nonne leoni Dedecus et muri coeperit esse decus? Si vincat minimum summus, sic vincere vinci est. Vincere posse decet, vincere crimen habet. Sit tamen esse decus, sit laus sic vincere: laus haec Et decus hoc minimo fiet ab hoste minus. De pretio victi pendet victoria: victor Tantus erit, victi gloria quanta fuit.” Mus abit et grates reddit, si reddere possit Spondet opem. Solus fit mora parva dies. abeo, abire: to depart coepio (3), coepi, coeptus: to begin crimen, criminis n.: sin, crime decet (2): it is fitting decus, decoris n.: glory, honor dedecus, dedecoris n.: disgrace, shame dies, diei m./f.: a day dignor (1): to deem, think worthy fio, fieri (3): to happen, become gloria, -ae f.: glory grates, gratis f.: thanks hostis, -is m/f.: an enemy minimus -a -um: small, little minor, -us: smaller mora, -ae f.: a delay nex, necis f.: death, murder ops, opis f.: power pendeo (2): to depend pretium, preti(i) n.: price, value, worth quantus, -a, -um: how great, how much reddo (3): to return, give back solus, -a, -um: only spondeo: promise, pledge tantus, -a, -um: of such size, so great victor, victoris m.: a conqueror, victor victoria, -ae f.: victory dignetur: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis, “if the lion were to deem the mouse worthy” + abl. muri: dat. of possession, “be the mouse’s glory” coeperit: perf. subj. in future less vivid apodosis, “would it not begin to be?” vincat: pres. subj. in present general protasis, “if (ever) he conquers” vinci: pres. pass. inf. as pred., “to conquer so is to be conquered” crimen habet: “to conquer has a crime” i.e. is a crime sit ... sit: pres. subj. concessive, with infinitives as subjects, “although to conquer is an honor ... although to conquer thus is a praise” minimo ... ab hoste: abl., “less from a very small enemy” minus: pred., “would be less” de pretio: “depends on the value of the conquered” tantus erit .... quanta fuit: correlatives, “will be as great ... as was” si ... possit: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis, “if he could” + inf. 41 The Elegaic Romulus Nam leo rete subit nec prodest viribus uti, Sed prodest querulo murmure damna loqui. Mus redit, hunc reperit, cernit loca, vincula rodit, Hac ope pensat opem; sic leo tutus abit. Rem potuit tantam minimi prudentia dentis. Cui leo dans veniam se dedit ipse sibi. Tu, qui summa potes, ne despice parva potentem: Nam prodesse potest, si quis obesse nequit. cerno (3): to discern damnum, damni n.: loss dens, dentis m.: a tooth despicio (3): to look down on locum, -i n.: a position loquor (3): to speak murmur, -is n.: a roar nequeo (4): to be unable to (+ inf.) obsum, obesse: to hurt penso (1): to compensate prosum, prodesse: to be useful prudentia, -ae f.: skillfulness querulus, -a, -um: complaining redeo, redire: return reperio (4): to discover rete, retis n.: a net rodo (3): to gnaw subeo, -ire: to enter tutus, -a, -um : safe utor (3): to use, make use of (+ abl.) venia, -ae f.: favor, forgiveness vinculum, -i n.: a chain, bond vis, viris f.: strength rete: abl. after subit, “he enters a net” viribus: abl. after uti, “to use his strength” querulo murmure: abl. of manner, “speaks with a mournful roar” hac ope: abl. of means, “by this help” potuit (sc. facere): “was able (to do)” cui: “to whom” i.e. the mouse dans: pres. part. instrumental, “by giving” se ... ipse sibi : “He himself gave himself to himself” i.e. he helped himself potentem: pres. part. acc., “despises the one being capable of” si quis ... nequit: “if someone was unable to” i.e. if someone refrained from + inf. 42 Fable 19: De milvo egrotante This fable relies on the reader understanding that, in this collection, the kite is a wicked animal. Here, a kite is dying, and asks for his last rights, but is denied them because he has been a criminal his entire life. The moral is rather religious, certainly not the kind of moral that would have been ascribed to an ancient fable. Here, appealing to the medieval sense of religion, the reader is reminded that repenting while dying is too late. Morbi mole jacet milvus matremque precatur Ut superis pro se det sacra detque preces. Mater ait: “Mi nate, deos et sacra deorum Laesisti; recolunt inpia facta dei. morbus, -i m.: sickness, illness natus, -i m.: a son, child precor (1): to beg recolo (3): to remember sacer, -a, -um: sacred, holy sacrum, sacri n.: sacrifice, religious rites (pl.) superum, superi n.: heaven (pl.), heavenly beings aegroto (1): to be sick, be distressed deus, dei m.: god factum, -i n.: a fact, deed inpius, -a, -um: wicked jaceo (2): to lie, lie down laedo, (3), laesi, laesus: to strike, hurt mater, matris f.: a mother milvus, -i m.: a kite, bird of prey moles, molis f.: difficulty, weight jacet: “lies” i.e. is bed-ridden ut ... det: pres. subj. noun clause after precatur , “begs her to give” superis: dat., “give to the gods” 43 The Elegaic Romulus Criminis ultores pensant pro crimine poenam. Cum sacra turbares, poena timenda fuit. Te cogit timor esse pium, te poena fidelem; Hic timor, haec pietas cum nece sera venit. poena, poenae f.: a penalty, punishment serus, -a, -um: late timeo (2): to fear, dread, be afraid timor, -is m.: fear, dread turbo (1): to disturb, agitate ultor, -is m.: an avenger, revenger venio (4): to come cogo (3): to restrict, confine crimen, criminis n.: a crime fidelis, fidele: faithful, loyal hirundo, hirundinis f.: a swallow penso (1): to pay/punish for pietas, pietatis f.: responsibility, piety pius, -a -um: pious, devout, holy pro crimine: abl. of manner, “in return for the crime” cum ... turbares: impf. subj. cum circumstantial, “when you were disturbing the holy things” timenda fuit: gerundive in passive past periphrastic with contrafactual force, “punishment ought to have been feared” pium ... fidelem: acc. pred., “compels you to be pious...faithful” pietas ... sera: nom., “this piety comes late cum nece: abl. of attendant circumstance, “with a death” 44 Fable 20: De hirundine aves monente In this fable a wise swallow warns the other birds that they should eat the flax seed when it is sown, so that the farmer will not use it to ensnare them later. The birds refuse to listen, so the swallow befriends the humans instead. Just as the swallow predicted, the other birds are ensnared after the flax is harvested, and the moral warns again rejecting wise council. Ut linum pariat de lini semine, semen Nutrit humus, sed aves tangit hirundo metu: “Hic ager, hoc semen nobis mala vincla minatur; Vellite pro nostris semina sparsa malis.” Turba fugit sanos monitus vanosque timores Arguit; exit humo semen et herba viret. Rursus hirundo monet instare pericula; rident Rursus aves. Hominem placat hirundo sibi ager, agri m.: a field, land arguo (3): to denounce avis, avis f.: a bird exeo, exire: to come, emerge, sprout fugio (3): to flee, fly habito (1): to inhabit, dwell herba, -ae f.: herb, grass humus, -i f.: ground, soil insto (1): to approach, threaten linum, -i n.: flax malus, -a, -um: evil, wicked metus, metus m.: fear, anxiety minor (1): to force, threaten moneo (2): to remind, advise, warn monitus, -us m.: warnings nutrio (4): to nourish pario (1): to acquire periculum, -i n.: danger placo (1): to reconcile X (acc. ) with Y (dat.) rideo (2): to laugh, ridicule rursus: again sanus, -a, -um: sound, healthy semen, seminis n.: a seed spargo (3) sparsi, sparsum: to scatter, sow (seeds) tango (3): to touch, strike turba, ae f.: a crowd, mob vanus, -a, -um: empty, vain vello: (3): to pluck, pull vinclum, -i n.: a chain, bond vir, viri m.: a man vireo (2): to be green, be lively ut pariat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “in order to aquire the flax” metu: abl. of means, “strikes with fear” pro nostris ... malis: expressing purpose, “sown for your harm” vanosque timores: acc. pred., “denounces them as vain fears” humo: abl. of place from which, “sprouts from the ground” instare: pres, inf, in ind. st., “warns that dangers are approaching” 45 The Elegaic Romulus Cumque viris habitans cantu blanditur amico: Nam praevisa minus laedere tela solent. Jam metitur linum, jam fiunt retia, jam vir Fallit aves, jam se conscia culpat avis. Utile consilium qui spernit, inutile sumit; Qui nimis est tutus, retis jure subit. amicus, -a, -um: friendly blandior (4): to soothe cantus, cantus m.: a song conscius, -a, -um: knowing consilium, -i n.: advice, counsel culpo (1): to blame fallo (3): to deceive, ensnare fio, fieri: to happen, become inutilis, -e: useless jure: by right, rightly laedo(3): to strike, hurt linum, lini n.: flax meto (3): to reap minus: less nimis: very much, too much praevisus, -a, -um: foreseen rete, -is n.: a net soleo (2): to be in the habit of (+ inf.) sperno (3): to scorn subeo (4): go into , enter (+ gen.) sumo (3): to take up telum, -i n.: a dart, spear utilis, utile: useful cantu amico: abl. of means, “soothe with friendly song” conscia avis: nom. subj., “the knowing bird(s)” singular for the whole flock 46 Fable 21: De Attica terra et rege In some manuscripts these fables are split, 21a and 21b. In others they are presented as two entirely separate fables, and still others present them as one united fable. They are essentially two versions of the same story. The first, however, is told of the Athenians, who begged for a king until they were ruled by a tyrant. The human characters, and the setting of the fable in Athens makes this story feel rather unfabular, but at the end of the tale, we are told that Aesop tells a tale suitable to this situation. The resulting fable fits well with rest of the collection. Just as the Athenians, the frogs beg for a king. First Jupiter gives them a stick, but they are soon disenchanted with the inanimate king, and beg for another. The second time, Jupiter gives them a snake, who, of course, begins to eat them. The frogs then plead with Jupiter yet again, asking that he deliver them from the snake, but Jupiter only laughs, telling them that he has granted their wishes. The moral of both fables is given at the end, and reminds the reader to be happy with what they have. Fabula, nata sequi mores et pingere vitam, Tangit quod fugias quodve sequaris iter. Rege carens nec regis inops, sine lege nec exlex, Absque jugo gessit Attica terra jugum. Libertas, errare negans, se sponte coegit libertas, libertatis f.: freedom mos, moris m.: custom, habit nascor (3) natus sum: to be born, begotten nego (1): to refuse (+ inf.) pingo (3): to decorate, depict rego (3): to rule rex, regis m.: a king sequor (3): to follow spons, spontis f.: free will tango (3): to touch, influence terra, -ae f.: earth, land vita, -ae f.: life Atticus, -a, -um: Attic, Athenian careo: be without (+ abl.) cogo (3) coegi, coactus: compel erro (1): to wander, err exlex, exlegis (gen.): lawless fabula, fabulae f.: a story, fable fugio (3): to flee gero (3), gessi: bear, carry inops, inopis (gen.): lacking (+ gen.) iter, itineris n.: a journey jugum, -i n.: a yoke lex, legis f.: law sequi…et pingere: pres. inf. of purpose after nata, “born in order to follow and depict” fugias ... sequaris: pres. subj. in indirect deliberative question, “what road you should flee ... or what road you should follow” rege: abl. of separation after carens, “lacking a king” absque jugo .... jugum: “and without a (metaphorical) yoke bore a (literal) yoke” se sponte coegit: “freedom compelled itself willingly” a paradox 47 The Elegaic Romulus Et pudor ob legem fortior ense fuit. Ne libitum faceret, regem plebs libera fecit Et quae non potuit pellere jussa tulit. Rex coepit lenire truces, punire nocentes, Quaequae levanda levans, quaequae premenda premens. Hos onerat novitas: cives in lege novelli, Quod leviter possent, vix potuere pati. Urbem triste jugum querula cervice ferentem Aesopus tetigit, consona verba movens. Aesopus, -i m.: Aesop cervix, cervicis f.: a neck civis, civis m./f.: a fellow citizen coepio (3), coepi: begin (+ inf.) consonus, -a, -um: harmonious ensis, ensis m.: a sword fero, ferre, tuli, latus: to bear fortior, -us: stronger jussum, -i n.: an order lenio (4): to calm, placate leviter: lightly levo (1): to lift up, make smooth liber, -a, -um: free, unconstrained libet: it is pleasing moveo (2): to move nocens, nocentis (gen.): guilty, criminal novellus, -a, -um: new, for the first time novitas, novitatis f.: newness, novelty onero (1): to oppress patior (3): to suffer, endure pello (3): to drive away plebs, plebis f.: common people premo (3): to pursue, oppress pudor, -is m.: decency punio (4): to punish querulus, -a, -um: quarrelsome tango (3), tetigi: touch tristis, triste: sad trux, trucis (gen.): wild urbs, urbis f.: a city verbum, -i n.: a word vix: hardly ob legem: “instead of law” ense: abl. of comparison after fortior, “stronger than a sword” ne faceret: imperf. subj. in negative purpose clause, “lest it (i.e. plebs) do whatever is pleasing” libitum: supine acc. of libet, “lest he do what is pleasing” quae: acc. neut. pl. with ancedent jussa,, “orders which” levanda…premenda: gerundives acc. pl., “what ought to be raised up…what ought to be oppressed” cives ... novelli: transferred epithet, “citizens new under the law” i.e. under a new law possent: imperf. subj. in relative clause of characteristic, “that which they could have endured” potuere: apocope (= potuerunt), “they were able scarcely” +inf. pati: pres. dep. inf., “able to endure” querula cervice: abl. of place, “on its quarrelsome neck” 48 Aesop’s Fables (21b) Cum nihil auderet ludentes laedere ranas, Supplicuere Jovi ne sine rege forent. Jupiter huic voto risum dedit. Ausa secundas Rana preces, subitum sensit in amne sonum. Nam Jove dante trabem, trabis ictu flumine moto, Demersit subitus guttura rauca timor. Placato rediere metu, videre tigillum, Stando procul regem pertimuere suum. amnis, amnis m.: a river audeo (2): to dare demergo (3), demersi: submerge, plunge flumen, fluminis n.: a river, stream guttur, -is n.: a throat, neck ictus, ictus m.: a blow Jupiter, Jovis m.: Jupiter laedo (3): to strike, hurt ludo (3): to play, frolic moveo (2) movi, motus: to set in motion pertimesco (3), pertimui: become very scared (of ) placo (1): to appease, placate prex, precis f.: a prayer, request procul: at distance, far off rana, -ae f.: a frog raucus, -a, -um: hoarse redeo, redire, redii, reditus: return rego (3): to rule risus, risus m.: laughter secundus, -a, -um: following, second sentio (4): to perceive, feel sonus, -i m.: a noise, sound subitus, -a, -um: sudden supplico (1): to supplicate tigillum, -i n.: a small beam trabes, trabis f.: a tree-trunk, beam video (2) vidi: see votum, -i n.: a vow, wish 21b: see introductory note cum auderet: imperf. subj. in cum circumstantial, “when nothing was daring” supplicuere: perf. (= supplicaverunt), “they supplicated” + dat. ne forent: imperf. subj. indirect command after supplicuere, “asked not to be without a king” huic voto: dat. ind. obj., “gave a smile to this wish” ausa: perf. part. dep. nom., “the frogs having dared” Iove dante: abl. abs., “Jupiter giving” ictu: abl. of means, “moved by the blow” flumine moto: abl. abs., “the river having been moved” demersit: perf., “fear submerged them” i.e. caused them all to punge underwater placato metu: abl. abs., “their fear having been placated” rediere: perf. (= redierunt), “they returned” videre: perf. (= viderunt), “they saw” stando: gerund abl. of sto, “by standing far away” pertimuere: perf. (= pertimuerunt), “they feared” 49 The Elegaic Romulus Ut novere trabem per se non posse moveri, Pro duce fecerunt tertia vota Jovi. Ira Iovem movit, regem dedit, intulit hidrum. Hidrus hiante gula coepit obire lacum. Clamitat ecce lacus: “Morimur, pie Jupiter; audi, Jupiter, exaudi! Jupiter, affer opem! Nos sepelit venter, nostri sumus esca tyranni; Aufer caedis opus, redde quietis opes.” Ille refert: “Emptum longa prece ferte magistrum. Vindicet eternus otia spreta metus.” longus, -a, -um: long, boundless magister, magistri m.: a master morior (3): to die moveo (2) movi: move nosco (3) novi: get to know obeo (4): to set upon, approach ops, opis f.: help opus, operis n.: work otium, -i n.: leisure pius, -a, -um: holy quiesco (3): to rest reddo (3): to return refero, referre: to answer sepelo (3): to bury, submerge tyrannus, -i m.: a tyrant venter, ventris m.: a stomach vindico (1): to punish, avenge affero, afferre: to convey to, bring audio (4): to hear aufero, auferre: to convey away caedes, caedis: murder clamito (1): to cry out coepio (3) coepi: begin (+ inf.) dux, ducis m.: a leader emo (3), emi, emptus: acquire, obtain esca, -ae f.: food eternus, -a -um: eternal, everlasting exaudio (4): to hear clearly, comply with gula, -ae f.: a throat hidrus, -i m.: a water-serpent, snake hio (1): to be wide open infero (3) intuli: bring in, inflict ira, -ae f.: anger lacus, -us n.: a lake novere: (= noverunt), “they knew” non posse: pres. inf. in ind. st. after novere, “realized that the beam is not able” +inf. Iovi: dat. ind. obj., “made prayers to Jupiter” hiante gula: abl. abs., “with his throat gaping” lacus: metonymy for all of the frogs in the lake esca: nom. pred., “we are the food” caedis: gen. after opus, “help from the slaughter” quietis: gen. after opes, “wealth of rest” longa prece: abl. of means, “obtained by long prayer” vindicet: pres. subj. jussive, “let eternal fear avenge!” 50 Aesop’s Fables Omne boni pretium nimio vilescit in usu, Fitque, mali gustu, dulcius omne bonum. Si quis habet quod habere decet, sit laetus habendo: Alterius non sit qui suus esse potest. alter, -a, -um: one of two bonus, -i m.: good decet (2): to it is right (+ inf.) dulcior, -us: more pleasant fio, fieri: to happen, become gustus, gustus m.: a tasting habeo (2): to have laetus, -a, -um: happy malus, -a -um: bad, evil nimius, -a, -um: excessive omnis, omne: all pretium, preti(i) n.: a price, value usus, usus m.: use vilesco (3): to become worthless boni: gen. objective, “the value of good” gustu: abl. of means, “by the taste of evil” sit: pres. subj. jussive, “let him be happy” habendo: gerund abl., “be happy by having” alterius: gen. of alter, “of another” non sit: pres. subj. jussive, “let him not be another’s” where ne is normal suus: nom. pred., “able to be his own (master)” 51 Fable 22: De accipitre et columbis This fable continues the theme of the previous two; apparently a tyrranical king is an issue that was particularly significant to the author of this collection. Here, it is the doves that accept a hawk as their king, hoping that he will help them ward off the attacks of the kite. Ultimately the hawk does more damage to the flock than the kite, and the moral encourages bearing lesser burdens (the kite) in order to avoid greater pain. Accipitrem milvi pulsurum bella columbae Accipiunt regem; rex magis hoste nocet. Incipiunt de rege queri, quod sanius esset Milvi bella pati quam sine Marte mori. Si quid agis, prudenter agas et respice finem. Ferre minora volo, ne graviora feram. milvus, -i m.: a kite, bird of prey minor, -us: small, little noceo (2): to harm, hurt patior (3): to suffer, allow pello (3) pulsi, pulsus: beat, drive out queror (3): to complain respicio (3): to look back at, consider sanus, -a, -um: sound, healthy volo, velle: to wish (+ inf.) accipio (3): to take, accept accipiter, accipitris m./f.: a hawk ago (3): to do bellum, -i n.: an attack columba, -ae f.: a pigeon, dove finis, finis m./f.: an end, outcome gravior, -us: heavy, painful hostis, -is m/f.: an enemy incipio (3): to begin (+ inf.) Mars, Martis m.: Mars pulsurum: fut. part. agreeing with regem and expressing purpose, “in order that he beat (the hawk) away” regem: acc. pred., “they accept the hawk as a king” hoste: abl. of comparison after magis, “he harms more than the enemy” quod esset: impf. subj. in ind. st. after queri, “to complain that it would be healthier” pati: inf. epexegetic after sanius, “healthier to suffer” sine Marte: personification, “without war” agas: pres. subj. jussive, “may you do wisely” ne feram: pres. subj. in negative purpose clause, “lest I bear greater ones” 52 Fable 23: De fure et cane In this fable it becomes clear that, in the world of the fables, humans are just another breed of animal, and they interact with the animal characters just as two animals would interact. Here, it is the animal that appears more virtuous and the human who is villainous. A thief tries to lure a dog with baited food, but the dog is wiser than the man, and bays loudly, chasing the man away. While it may seem shocking for humans to play a part in what are typically understood as animal tales, this is not the only occurence in this collection. The use of humans only solidifies the message that man’s behavior isn’t much better than that which is exemplified by the animals. Fure vocante canem praetenso munere panis, Spreto pane, movet talia verba canis: “Ut sileam tua dona volunt furtisque laborant Esse locum; panem si fero, cuncta feres. Fert munus mea damna tuum, latet hamus in esca: Me privare cibo cogitat iste cibus. canis, canis m/f.: a dog, hound cibus, -i m.: food cogito (1): to think, intend (+ inf.) cunctus, -a, -um: all, whole damnum, -i n.: loss, injury donum, -i n.: a gift, present fur, furis m./f.: a thief, robber furtum, -i n.: theft, trick hamus, -i m.: a hook laboro (1): to work, accomplish lateo (2): to lie hidden locum, -i n.: a place, opportunity munus, muneris n.: service, gift panis, panis m.: bread praetendo (3), praetendi, praetensus: extend, offer privo (1): to deprive, rob sileo (2): to be silent sperno (3) sprevi, spretus: to scorn, despise talis, -e: such, so great verbum, -i n.: a word voco (1): to call, summon fure vocante: abl. abs., “the robber calling” praetenso munere: abl. abs., “gift having been extended” spreto pane: abl. abs., “the bread having been despised” sileam: pres. subj. volative clause after volo, “wish that I be silent” furtis: dat. after locum, “ opportunity for thefts” esse: pres. inf. in noun clause after laborant, “labor that there be an opportunity” cibo: abl. of separation, “deprived of food” 53 The Elegaic Romulus Non amo nocturnum panem plus pane diurno, Advena plus noto non placet hostis hero. Non rapiet nox una mihi bona mille dierum: Nolo semper egens esse semelque satur. Latratu tua furta loquar, nisi sponte recedas.” Hic silet, ille manet; hic tonat, ille fugit. Si tibi quid detur, cur detur respice; si des, Cui des, ipse nota; teque, gulose, doma. advena, -ae m./f.: a foreigner amo (1): to love dies, diei m./f.: day diurnus, -a, -um: by day, daily domo (1): to master, conquer egens -ntis (gen.): needy, poor fugio (3): to flee gulosus, -a, -um: gluttonous herus, -i m.: a master latro (1): to bark, bark at loquor (3): to speak, tell maneo (2): to remain, stay mille: thousand nocturnus, -a, -um: nocturnal, of night nolo, nolle: to be unwilling (+ inf.) noto (1): to take note of notus, -a, -um: known nox, noctis f.: night placeo (2): to please, satisfy rapio (3): to drag off, seize recedo (3): to recede, leave satur, -a, -um: well-fed, rich semel: one time semper: always spons, spontis f.: free will tono (1): to thunder unus, -a, -um: alone pane diurno: abl. of comparison, “more than bread of the day” noto hero: abl. of comparison, “more than a known friend” advena hostis: “a foreign enemy” two nouns instead of noun+adj., an example of hendiadys latratu: abl. supine, “tell with barking” recedas: pres. subj. future less vivid apodosis, “unless you recede” sponte: abl. of manner, “leave by free will” si…detur: pres. subj. in pres. general condition, “if something is given to you” cur detur: pres. subj. in indirect question, “consider why it is given” si des: pres. subj, in pres. general condition, “if you give” cui des: pres. subj. in indirect question, “take note to whom you give” 54 Fable 24: De lupo et sue Echoing the message of the previous fable, the fable of the pig and the wolf is one of the few where an animal behaves wisely, and is able to save herself through this wisdom. A wolf attempts to convince a pig to let him watch over her newly born litter so that she might rest. The pig sees through this ploy and sends the wolf away, and the moral emphasizes that the cautious behavior of the pig is one the reader should emulate. Vult lupus ut pariat maturum sucula fetum, Seque novi curam spondet habere gregis. Sus ait: “Hac cur careas, mihi nolo ministres. Horrent obsequium viscera nostra tuum. I procul, ut tutos liceat mihi fundere fetus. I procul, et pietas haec erit apta mihi. aptus, -a -um: suitable to (+ dat.) careo (2): to be without, miss (+ abl.) cur: why? cura, -ae f.: concern, care eo, ire: to go, walk fetus, fetus m.: offspring, young fundo (3): to pour, deliver grex, gregis m./f.: a litter, herd horreo (2): to dread, shrink from licet (2): to it is permitted, one may lupus, -i m.: a wolf maturus, -a, -um: early, mature ministro (1): to attend (to), serve novus, -a -um: new, young obsequium, -i n.: compliance, obedience pario (3): to bear, give birth to pietas, pietatis f.: responsibility, loyalty procul: away, at distance spondeo (2): promise, give pledge sucula, -ae f.: a little pig sus, suis m./f.: a swine, pig tutus, -a -um: safe, secure viscus, visceris n.: innards ut pariat: pres. subj. in noun clause object of vult, “wishes that she (i.e. the sucula) would give birth” se habere: indirect statement after spondet, “he pledges that he has” novi gregis: obj. gen. after curam, “care of the new litter” careas: pres. subj. deliberative, “why would you miss this?” i.e. why would you want this? hac: abl. of separation after careas, referring to curam ministro: pres subj in noun clause after nolo, “I do not wish that you serve” ut liceat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “go so that it is permitted” +inf. mihi: dat. after apta, “suitable to me” timuisse: perf. inf. in ind. com., “orders a parent to fear” 55 The Elegaic Romulus Pro natis natura jubet timuisse parentem.” Fine dato verbis hic abit, illa parit. Tempore non omni non omnibus omnia credas: Qui misere credit, creditur esse miser. natura, -ae f.: nature natus, -i m.: a son, child parens, parentis m./f.: a parent tempus, temporis n.: time timeo (2) timui: fear, dread abeo: depart, go away credo (3): to trust, entrust do (1) dedi, datus: give finis, finis m./f.: a boundary, end jubeo (2): to order, command (+ inf.) miser, -a, -um: poor, miserable fine dato: abl. absolute, “an end having been given to the words” non omni non omnibus omnia: not every time should you trust all to not all” i.e. to anyone. note the elaborate litotes and the acoustic impact of the words and their order credas: pres. subj. in jussive clause, “you should trust” misere: adv., “who trusts miserably” i.e. who trusts too much misere ... miser: note the figura etymologica 56 Fable 25: De terra parturiente murem This is another fable which provides a ridiculous image, something which also seems to have aided its medieval popularity. The earth is swollen, and continues to swell, which frightens many people. Finally the swollen earth gives birth to a mouse, and the fear gives way to laughter because of the small size of the mouse. The moral continues to poke fun, saying that those who claim great things often do less. The cast of characters in this fable is quite unusual; much like the earlier fable about the sun wishing to wed, here both planets and animals are animated, and the fable also has human characters. The animated planets don’t necessarily have the same humbling effect as the humanized animals; it isn’t as easy to look at the planets and see a reflection of human behavior. Instead, perhaps these planets are a carry-over from the ancient fables, and serve effectively to indicate great size, even to a medieval audience. It must have been difficult for the illustrator to conceive what a planet might look like, so it seems a rock is used in the woodcut instead. Terra tumet; tumor ille gemit gemituque fatetur Partum: paene perit sexus uterque metu. Cum tumeat tellus, monstrat se monstra daturam; Dicunt et trepidant et prope stare cavent. caveo (2): to take precautions not to (+ inf.) dico (3): to say, state, allege fateor (2): to admit, bespeaks gemitus, gemitus m.: a groan gemo (3): to moan, groan metus, metus m.: fear, anxiety monstro (1): to show, point out monstrum, -i n.: a monster mus, muris m./f.: a mouse paene: almost parturio (4): to be in labor, bring forth partus, -us m.: a giving birth pereo (4): to die, pass away prope: near, nearly, close by, almost sexus, sexus m.: sex, gender sto (1): to stand tellus, telluris f.: earth terra, -ae f.: earth trepido (1): to tremble, be afraid tumeo (2): to swell, become inflated tumor, tumoris m.: a swelling uterque: each of two metu: abl. of cause, “perishes from fear” tumeat: pres. subj. in cum causal clause, “since the earth was swollen” se daturam (sc. esse): fut. inf. in ind. st. after monstrat, “shows that she is about to give” 57 The Elegaic Romulus In risum timor ille redit: nam turgida murem Terra parit; jocus est quod timor ante fuit. Saepe minus faciunt homines qui magna minantur. Saepe gerit nimios causa pusilla metus. ante: (adv.) before causa, -ae f.: a cause gero (3): to bear homo, hominis m.: a man, human being jocus, -i m.: a joke magnus, -a, -um: large/ minor (1): to threaten minor, minus: less nimius, -a, -um: excessive, too great pario (3): to bear, give birth to pusillus, -a -um: tiny, very small redeo, redire: return risus, risus m.: laughter timor, -is m.: fear, dread turgidus, -a, -um: swollen 58 Fable 26: De agno et lupo There are a number of fables in the elegiac Romulus that feature a wolf and a lamb; in this one, a lamb has been raised by a surrogate mother, a goat. The wolf is trying to cause discord, and asks why the lamb doesn’t find her own mother, but the lamb cannot be shaken, saying that the goat has always provided her with all she needs. The lamb also acknowledges that she has grown much stronger nourished by the goat’s milk, and it is important that she grow as much fleece as possible for her master. The moral notes that nothing is worse than a wicked warning and evil counsel, which the wolf tried to provide. The lamb’s comment about the worth of her fleece is one of a few moments in this collection where the fables are grounded more pragmatically in the medieval world, and it breeches the divide that usually exists between the world of the fables and the realities of medieval life. Moments like these in the fables open the door for later fable collections which bring elements of social and political life into the fables. Cum grege barbato dum ludit junior agnus, Tendit in hunc menti dissona verba lupus: “Cur olidam munda sequeris plus matre capellam? Lac tibi preberet dulcius ipsa parens; agnus, -i m.: a lamb barbatus, -a, -um: bearded, (as sign of ) adult capella, -ae f.: a she-goat dissonus, -a, -um: dissonant, different dulcior, -us: pleasant, charming grex, gregis m.: a flock, herd junior, junius: younger lac, lactis n.: milk ludo (3): to play lupus, -i m.: a wolf mater, matris f.: a mother mens, mentis f.: mind, intention mundus, -a, -um: clean olidus, -a, -um: stinking parens, parentis m./f.: a parent prebeo (2): to present, offer sequor (3): to follow tendo (3): to extend barbato: “with the bearded flock” i.e. goats tendit verba: “extends words” i.e. speaks in hunc: “directs against him” i.e. the lamb menti dissona: abl. of means, “with a dissonant mind” i.e. a troublesome intention munda matre: abl. of comparison after plus, “more than your clean mother” preberet: imperf. subj. in present contrafactual apodosis with protasis suppressed, “your own mother would provide” i.e. if she were here 59 The Elegaic Romulus Est prope, festina, matrem pete, munera matris, Lac bibe: nam servat ubera plena tibi.” Agnus ad haec: “Pia capra mihi lac dulce propinat, Me vice matris alit, me vice matris amat. Non mihi, sed domino prodest me vivere: vivo Ut metat in tergo vellera multa meo. Ergo mihi praestat nutriri lacte caprino Quam, lac matris habens, mergar in ore tuo.” os, oris n.: a mouth peto (3): to desire, beg pius, -a -um: affectionate, tender, devout praesto (1): to be better (+ inf.) prope: near propino (1): to give to drink prosum, prodesse: be useful to (+ dat.) servo (1): to preserve X (acc.) for Y (dat.) tergum, -i n.: a back uber, uberis n.: an udder vellus, velleris n.: fleece vicis, vicis f.: a turn, change vivo (3): to live alo (3): to feed bibo (3): to drink capra, -ae f.: a she-goat, nanny-goat caprinus, -a, -um: of goats dominus, -i m.: an owner, lord dulcis, dulce: pleasant, sweet festino (1): to hasten, hurry habeo (2): to have lacte, lactis n.: milk mater, matris f.: a mother mergo (3): to dip, plunge meto (3): to reap, cut off munus, muneris n.: a gift nutrio (4): to suckle lac: in apposition to munera, “drink milk, the gifts of your mother” vice: abl., “in place of ” + gen. vivere: pres. inf. complementary after prodest, “profits me to live” metat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “I live in order that he reap” lacte caprino: abl. of means, “nurtured with goat milk” habens: pres. part. concessive, “my mother although having milk” mergar: pres. subj. in noun clause after quam, “rather than that I be plunged” 60 Aesop’s Fables Omnes vincit opes securam ducere vitam. Pauperius nihil est quam miser usus opum. Nil melius sano monitu, nil pejus iniquo: Consilium sequitur certa ruina malum. pauper, -a, -um: poor pejor, -us: worse ruina, -ae f.: a fall sanus, -a, -um: sound securus, -a, -um: secure usus, usus m.: use vinco (3): to conquer vita, -ae f.: life certus, -a, -um: certain consilium, -i n.: debate duco (3): to lead iniquus, -a, -um: hostile melior, -us: better miser, -a, -um: poor, miserable monitus, monitus m.: warning, advice ops, opis f.: power, wealth ducere: pres. inf. subject of vincit, “to lead a secure life conquers” sano monitu: abl. of comparison after melius, “better than sound advice” iniquo: abl. of comparison after peius, “worse than hostile advice” 61 Fable 27: De cane vetulo In this fable, an elderly dog is less apt at hunting than he once was. His master is upset and lashes out at the dog, who reminds the master of his prowess in younger years. Rather than punish the master for his unfaithful anger, however, the moral broadens to assert that love is contingent upon the giving of gifts. Once the gifts cease, the love often ends. The last two lines broaden once more to a political point: whoever serves an unjust man is destined to serve in misery. Armavit natura canem pede, dente, juventa: Hinc levis, hinc mordax, fortis et inde fuit. Tot bona furatur senium: nam robore privat Corpus, dente genas, et levitate pedes. Hic leporem prendit, fauces lepus exit inermes. Elumbem domini verberat ira canem. lepus, leporis m.: a hare levis, leve: light levitas, levitatis f.: lightness mordax, -acis (gen.): biting, snappish natura, -ae f.: nature pes, pedis m.: a foot prendo (3): to catch, catch up with privo (1): to deprive, rob robus, roboris n.: strength, firmness senium, -i n.: condition of old age tot: so many verbero (1): to beat, strike vetulus, -a, -um: elderly, aging armo (1): to equip canis, canis m/f.: a dog, hound corpus, corporis n.: a body dens, dentis m.: a tooth elumbis, elumbe: weak, feeble exeo, exire: to come, go faux, faucis f.: a mouth fortis, forte: strong furor (1): to steal, plunder gena, -ae f.: cheeks inde: thence inermis, inerme: unarmed, toothless ira, -ae f.: anger juventa, -ae f.: youth pede, dente, juventa: abl. of means, “armed with feet, teeth, youth” hinc…hinc ... inde: from the first, from the second, from the third” robore, dente, levitate: abl. of separation after privat, “old age separates from his strength, his teeth, his lightness” hic: i.e. the young dog fauces inermes: “the toothless mouth” i.e. of the old dog 62 Aesop’s Fables Reddit verba canis: “Dum me pia pertulit aetas, Nulla meum potuit fallere praeda pedem. Defendit senii culpam laus ampla juventae; Pro sene qui cecidit, facta priora vigent. Nullus amor durat nisi fructus servet amorem: Quilibet est tanti munera quanta facit. Magnus eram, dum magna dedi: nunc marcidus annis Vileo, de veteri mentio nulla bono. aetas, aetatis f.: lifetime, age amor, amoris m.: love amplus, -a, -um: great, large annus, -i m.: a year bonus, -a -um: good, honest cado (3) cecidi: to fall culpa, -ae f.: fault, blame defendo (3): to defend duro (1): to harden factum, facti n.: fact, deed, act, achievement fallo (3): to deceive, slip by fructus, fructus m.: produce, crops laus, laudis f.: praise magnus, -a -um: large, great marcidus, -a, -um: withered mentio, mentionis f.: mention munus, muneris n.: service, gift nullus, -a, -um: no, none perfero (3) pertuli: carry through, endure pius, -a, -um: tender, devoted praeda, -ae f.: prey prior, prius: previous, earlier quantus, -a, -um: how great, how much quilibet: someone reddo (3): to return senex, senis (gen.): aged, old tantus, -a, -um: so great vetus, veteris (gen.): old vigeo (2): to be strong vileo (2): to become worthless servet: pres subj. in future less vivid protasis, “unless the result keeps the love” tanti: gen. of value, “something is of so much value” annis: abl. of specification, “withered by the years” de veteri bono: “concerning my old good” i.e. prior service 63 The Elegaic Romulus Si laudas quod eram, quod sum culpare protervum est. Si juvenem recipis, pellere turpe senem est.” Se misere servire sciat, qui servit iniquo. Parcere subjectis nescit iniquus homo. culpo (1): to blame juvenis, juvenis m./f.: a youth laudo (1): to recommend, praise misere: wretchedly, desperately nescio (4): to not know how to (+ inf.) parco (3): to refrain from, spare (+ dat.) pello (3): to beat, drive out protervus, -a, -um: violent, reckless recipio (3): to accept scio (4): to know, understand servio (4): to serve subjectus, -i m.: a subject turpis, -e: ugly, nasty culpare: inf. epexegetic after protervum, “it is perverse to blame” juvenem ... senem: predicates of me understood, “if you receive me as a youth ... an old man”” se servire: ind. st. after sciat, “knows that he serves” sciat: pres. subj. jussive clause, “let him know” iniquo: dat. after servit, “who serves an unjust master” subjectis: dat. after parcere, “to spare his subjects” 64 Fable 28: De leporibus et ranis Here the animals and action in the fable are secondary to the moral (and religious) lesson that is being taught. A group of hares is frightened by a noise in the forest, but their only means of escape is to dive into a pond which lies ahead of them. The hares see that there are also frogs in the water, and they decide to embrace hope, and dive into the water. The fable ends here, and the remaining eight lines are devoted to discussing the virtue of hope, and how it can serve as a remedy for fear. Not only is this message of hope rather than moral living a bit unusual, but this fable also fails to address the fate of the rabbits, who we are left to assume are able to swim across the pond (apparently rabbits, actually, are quite the swimmers). Silva sonat, fugiunt lepores; palus obviat, haerent. Fit mora: respiciunt ante retroque, timent. Dum librant in mente metus, se mergere pacti, Se metui et ranas stagna subire vident. Unus ait: “Sperare licet; non sola timoris Turba sumus: vano rana timore latet. rana, -ae f.: a frog respicio (3): to look back at, gaze at retro: backwards silva, -ae f.: wood, forest solus, -a, -um: only sono (1): to make a sound spero (1): to hope for, trust stagnum, -i n.: a pool, lake subeo, subire: to go under, undergo timeo (2): to fear timor, timoris m.: fear, dread turba, -ae f.: a crowd unus, -a, -um: one vanus, -a, -um: empty, vain ante: forwards fio, fieri: to happen, be made fugio (3): to flee haereo (2): to hesitate lateo (2): to lie hidden lepus, leporis m.: a hare libro (1): to balance licet (2): to it is permitted, one may (+ inf.) mens, mentis f.: mind mergo (3): to drown, submerge metus, -us m.: fear mora, -ae f.: a delay obvio (1): to meet, be in the way pacisco (3) pactus sum: to decide palus, paludis f.: a swamp, marsh mergere: pr. inf. in ind. st. after pacti, “having decided to submerge themselves” subire: zeugma, construed with both metui and stagna, “they see themselves to undergo fear and they see the frogs to go under the water” turba: nom. pred., “we are not the only crowd” vano timore: abl. of manner, “hides with empty fear,” i.e. empty of fear with transferred epithet 65 The Elegaic Romulus Spem decet amplecti, spes est via prima salutis. Saepe facit metui non metuenda metus. Corporis est levitas et mentis inertia nobis: Ista fugae causam suggerit, illa fugam.” Sic timeat quicumque timet ne mole timoris Spe careat: gravis est spe fugiente timor. Speret qui metuit: morituros vivere vidi Spe duce, victuros spe moriente mori. moles, molis f.: a mass morior (3): to die primus, -a, -um: first salus, salutis f.: safety spero (1): to hope for spes, spei f.: hope suggero (3): to suggest via, -ae f.: a way vinco (3) vici, victus: to conquer vivo (3): to be alive, live amplector (3): to embrace careo (2): to be without (+ abl.) causa, -ae f.: a cause decet (2): to it is fitting (+ inf.) dux, ducis m.: a leader fuga, -ae f.: a flight, fleeing gravis, grave: heavy inertia, -ae f.: sluggishness levitas, -tatis f.: lightness metuo (3) metui: fear amplecti: pres. inf. dep. after decet, “it is fitting to embrace” via prima: pred. nom., “hope is the first way” metui: pres. pass. inf. after facit, “causes to be feared” metuenda: gerundive, neut. pl. acc. obj. of facit and subject of inf. metui, “causes things that ought not be feared to be feared” metus: subject of facit ista ... illa: “the latter (inertia) ... the former (levitas)” timeat: pres subj. jussive, “let him fear!” quicumque timet: relative clause subject of timeat, “let whoever fears fear!” note the mannered variations on the words for fear and hope mole: abl. of cause, “because of the mass of fear” spe: abl. of separation, “lack hope” ne careat: pres subj. negative purpose clause, “lest he lack hope” spe fugiente: abl. abs., “with hope fleeing” Note the anaphora speret: pres subj. jussive, “let him hope!” morituros: fut. part. dep. acc. subject of vivere in ind. st. after vidi, “I have seen those about to die to live” spe duce: abl. abs., “with hope being the leader” victuros: fut. part. acc. subject of mori in ind. st. after vidi,, “I have seen those about to win to die” spe moriente: abl. abs., “with hope dying” 66 Fable 29: De lupo et haedo A source for one of the most popular fable tropes, the wolf in sheep’s clothing, “The Kid and the Wolf ” tells of a wolf who tries to deceive a kid by speaking with a goat’s voice while her mother is away. The kid, however, forewarned of this kind of danger by his mother, is wise enough to see through the disguise, and he turns the wolf away. The moral praises the kid for listening to his parent. This fable is later combined with the Biblical metaphor of a wolf in sheep’s clothing (Matthew 7:15), to form the popular fable of a wolf dressed as a sheep. Henryson tells a similar fable, although in reverse, where it is a sheep that dresses as a dog, in an attempt to protect his flock. Edmund Spenser is one of the first to present a wolf in sheep’s clothing as a part of a fable, in his Shepheardes Calender. Capra, cibum quaerens, haedum commendat ovili; Hunc illic solida servat ovile sera. Natum cauta parens monitu praemunit amico, Ut lateat, nec sit in sua damna vagus. natus, -i m.: a child ovile, ovilis n.: a sheepfold parens, parentis m./f.: a parent praemunio (4): to fortify, forewarn quaero (3): to seek sera, -ae f.: a bar (for fastening doors) servo (1): to watch over, protect solidus, -a -um: solid vagus, -a, -um: wandering amicus, -a, -um: friendly capra, -ae f.: a she-goat, nanny-goat cautus, -a, -um: cautious cibus, -i m.: food commendo (1): to entrust X (acc.) to Y (dat.) damnum, -i n.: damage haedus, -i m.: a kid, young goat illic: there lupus, -i m.: a wolf monitus, monitus m.: a warning ovili: dat. after commendat, “entrusts to the sheepfold” solida sera: abl. of means, “keeps with a solid bar” monitu amico: abl. of means, “forewarns with friendly advice” ut lateat: pres. subj. in ind. com. after praemunit, “warns to lie hidden” nec sit: pres. subj. in negative purpose clause, “lest he be wandering into danger” 67 The Elegaic Romulus Hic latet; ecce lupus movet ostia, voce capellam Exprimit, ut pateant hostia clausa petit. “Sta procul,” haedus ait, “Caprizas gutture falso; Cum male caprizes, te procul esse volo. Quod mea sis mater, mentitur imago loquendi. Rimula, qua video, te docet esse lupum.” Insita natorum cordi doctrina parentum Cum pariat fructum, spreta nocere solet. capella, -ae f.: a she-goat caprizo (1): to pretend to be a goat clausus, -a, -um: shut/locked in, enclosed cors, cordis n.: a heart doceo (2): to show (+ inf.) doctrina, -ae f.: education, learning ecce: see! look! exprimo (3): to imitate, copy falsus, -a, -um: wrong, lying fructus, fructus m.: produce, crops guttur, -uris n: throat, neck hostia, hostiorum n.: an enemy imago, imaginis f.: a likeness insitus, -a, -um: inserted, incorporated lateo (2): to lie hidden mater, matris f.: a mother mentior (4): to lie, deceive moveo (2): to move natus, nati m.: a son, child noceo (2): to harm, hurt ostium, -i n.: a doorway, gate pario (3): to bear, give birth to pateo (2): to stand open, be open peto (3): to attack procul: at distance, far off rimula, -ae f.: a small opening soleo (2): to be in the habit of (+ inf.) sperno (3) sprevi, spretus: to scorn, despise volo, velle: to wish, want (+ inf.) vox, vocis f.: a voice, tone, expression hostia clausa: nom. pl., “that the closed enemies open” i.e. the doors ut pateant: pres. subj. in noun clause after petit, “he seeks that they open” gutture falso: abl. of means, “pretend with a lying throat” cum caprizes: pres. subj. in causal clause, “since you pretend it badly” quod sis: pres. subj. in noun clause after mentitur, “lie that you are my mother” loquendi: gerund, gen., “likeness of speaking” cordi: dat. after insita, “incorporated into the heart” pariat: pres. subj. in cum circumstantial clause, “when it produces fruit” spreta: perf. part. nom., “the teaching having been despised” 68 Fable 30: De rustico et angue This fable has the opposite theme of the earlier serpent fable, “The Man and the Snake.” The man and the snake dine together peacefully for many years, until the man becomes suddenly angered and strikes the snake. The man, overcome with remorse, begs forgiveness of the serpent. Because the man seems genuine in his sorrow, the animal forgives him. The moral, however, argues that this was irrational, and cautions that those who harm once are certain to harm again. The last line even states that the “honey” which comes from the mouth of a faithless man should be considered poison instead. This moral seemingly contradicts the Biblical lesson of turning the other cheek, and the role reversal is also particularly odd, as serpents are typically depicted as evil in the Middle Ages because of their association with the devil. Rustica mensa diu nutritum noverat anguem; Humanam potuit anguis amare manum. Gratia longa viri subitam mutatur in iram; Ira per anguineum dirigit arma caput. Vulneris auctor eget, se vulnere credit egenum, Angui pro venia supplicat; anguis ait: manus, manus f.: a hand mensa, -ae f.: a table muto (1): to move nosco (3) novi, notum: get to know, become acquainted nutrio (4) nutrivi, nutritum: nourish, feed rusticus, -a, -um: country rusticus, -i m.: a peasant, farmer subitus, -a, -um: sudden, rash supplico (1): to pray, supplicate (+ dat.) venia, -ae f.: favor, kindness vir, -i m.: a man vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound amo (1): to love anguineus, -a, -um: of a snake anguis, anguis m./f.: a snake arma, armorum n.: weapons auctor, auctoris m./f.: an originator caput, capitis n.: a head, person credo (3): to trust dirigo (3): to aim, direct egenus, -i m.: a poor man egeo (2): to be in need, poor gratia, -ae f.: goodwill humanus, -a -um: human ira, -ae f.: anger longus, -a, -um: long nutritum: perf. part., “a serpent having been nourished a long time” subitam in iram: into a sudden wrath” i.e. suddenly changed to wrath, transferred epithet vulnere: abl. of cause, “believes because of the wound” egenum: acc. pred. after credit, “he believes himself to be a poor man” 69 The Elegaic Romulus “Non ero securus, dum sit tibi tanta securis, Dum cutis haec memoret vulnera scripta sibi: Qui me laesit, item laedet, si laedere possit. Expedit infido non iterare fidem. Sed, si te piguit sceleris, scelus omne remitto: Nam gemitus veniam vulnere cordis emit.” Qui primo nocuit, vult posse nocere secundo; Quae dedit infidus, mella venena puto. cor, cordis n.: a heart cutis, cutis f.: skin emo (3): to acquire, obtain expedio (4): to be expedient fides, fidei f.: faith gemitus, gemitus m.: a groan, sorrow infidus, -a, -um: false item: (adv.) likewise, further itero (1): to do a second time, repeat laedo (3) laesi: strike mel, mellis n.: honey memoro (1): to remember noceo (2), nocui: to harm omnis, omne: every, all pigeo (2) pigui: to displease, annoy primus, -a, -um: first puto (1): to think, consider remitto (3): to send back, remit scelus, sceleris n.: crime scribo (3) scripsi, scriptum: write secundus, -a -um, second securis, securis f.: an ax securus, -a, -um: secure, safe venenum, -i n.: poison, drug venia, -ae f.: favor vulnero (1): to wound securus ... securis: both nom., note the pun dum sit: pres. subj. in proviso clause, “so long as these is so great an ax” dum…memoret: pres. subj. in proviso clause, “as long as this skin remembers” scripta: perf. part., “wounds written on it” si posset: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis, “if he should be able” infido: dat. after iterare, “to repeat faith to a false one” si piguit: impersonal, “if there was annoyance of the crime to you” i.e. if the crime annoyed you vulnere: abl. of source, “sorrow from a wound” primo ... secundo: “in the first place ... in the second place” venena: acc. pred., “I consider the honey to be poison” 70 Fable 31: De cervo et ove et lupo In this fable an agreement is made between a stag and a sheep that the sheep will repay a jar full of wheat which she owes. However, a wolf is present when the agreement is made, and after the wolf is gone, the sheep refuses to make the payment. The stag alone cannot incite enough fear to convince the sheep to repay, and he is forced to realize that it was only the presence of the wolf that intimidated the sheep. The moral warns against any agreement which is made in fear. Cervus ovi, presente lupo, sic intonat: “Amplum Vas tritici debes reddere, redde mihi.” Sic jubet esse lupus, paret timor ista jubenti: Namque die fixo debita spondet ovis. Fit mora; cervus ovem vexat de foedere. Cervo Inquit ovis: “Non stant foedera facta metu. metus, metus m.: fear mora, -ae f.: a delay ovis, ovis f.: a sheep pareo (2): to obey (+ dat.) praesum, -esse: to be present reddo (3): to return spondeo (2): to promises sto (1): to stand, be valid timor, timoris m.: fear, dread triticum, -i n.: wheat vas, vasis n.: a vessel vexo (1): to harass amplus, -a, -um: great, large cervus, -i m.: a stag, deer debeo (2): to ought, must (+ inf.) debitum, -i n.: debt dies, diei m./f.: day facio (3) feci, factus: do, make figo (3) fixi, fixus: fasten, fix fio, fieri: to happen, be made foedus, foederis n.: a treaty intono (1): to thunder, speak loudly jubeo (2): to order, command (+ inf.) lupus, -i m.: a wolf presente lupo: abl. abs., “the wolf being present” sic jubet esse lupus: “the wolf orders things to be thus” i.e. he agrees jubenti: dat. in i.o. after paret, “obeys the one ordering such things” die fixo: abl. of time when, “on a fixed day” metu: abl. of manner with facta, “made with fear” 71 The Elegaic Romulus Me decuit, presente lupo, quaecumque fateri; Me decuit fraudem pellere fraude pari.” Cum timor in promptu sedeat, promissa timoris Arent: nil fidei verba timentis habent. areo (2): to wither decet (2) decuit: it is fitting, right fateor (2): to admit, confess fraus, fraudis f.: fraud habeo (2): to have, hold par, paris (gen.): equal pello (3): to beat, drive out promissum, -i n.: promise promptus, -us m.: visibity, readiness sedeo (2): to sit timeo (2): to fear verbum, -i n.: a word fateri: pres. inf. dep. after decuit, “it was fitting to say whatever” fraude pari: abl.of means, “drive out with an equal fraud” cum sedeat: pres. subj. in cum circumstantial, “when fear remains” in promptu: “in visibility” i.e. is present fidei: gen. partitive, “have nothing of faith” 72 Fable 32: De calvo et musca A fly buzzes around the head of a bald man, who strikes himself in an effort to hit the fly. The fly laughs at the man, and it appears that once again the animal is the smarter character, until the man points out that he can strike himself many times without harm, while one hit will kill the fly. The moral reminds that a great injury (death to the fly) can come from a little injury (the fly annoying the man). Musca premit calvum; muscam vult cedere calvus. Ut muscam feriat, se ferit; illa redit. Calvus ait: “Te Parca jubet vicina jocari. Si ferior rides, si feriare cades; Sospes ero decies ictus, semel icta peribis. Est mea prompta mihi gratia, surda tibi.” Jure potest laedi laedens ut laedat: in illum, Unde brevis coepit laesio, magna redit. musca, -ae f.: a fly Parca, -ae f.: Fate pereo (4): to die premo (3): to press promptus, -a, -um: manifest, evident redeo (4): to return rideo (2): to laugh at semel: one time . once sospes, -pitis (gen.): safe and sound surdus, -a, -um: falling on deaf ears, stupid unde: from where vicinus, -a, -um: neighboring volo, velle: wish (+ inf.) brevis, breve: little, small cado (3): to fall, die calvus, -i m.: a bald person cedo (3): to go away coepio (3): to begin, starts decem: 10 times ferio (4): to hit, strike gratia, -ae f.: favor ico (3) ici, ictus: hit, strike jocor (1): to pester jus, juris n.: law, legal system laedo (3): to strike, hurt laesio, laesionis f.: injury, harm magnus, -a -um: large, great ut feriat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “in order to strike” Parca vicina: “neighboring or related fate” i.e. as explained in the next lines si feriare: pres. subj. in future more vivid protasis, “if you were to be struck” ictus ... icta: perf. part. conditional, “if you ... if I having been hit” laedi: pres. pass. inf. after potest, “is able to be hurt” laedens: pres. part., nom. subject, “the one striking” ut laedat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “striking in order to hurt” unde: (= ex quo), “against that one from which” 73 Fable 33: De vulpe et ciconia Rather than portraying one character as a villain and one as a hero, this fable portrays a matching of wits. A fox invites a stork over for a meal, but only serves liquid food, so the stork is unable to eat it. The stork in turn invites the fox over, but serves food at the bottom of a glass jar, so that the fox is unable to reach the food. The moral, of course, repeats the familiar “do unto others” idiom. Vulpe vocante, venit speratque ciconia cenam; Fallit avem liquidus, vulpe jocante, cibus. Cum bibat ista cibos, solum bibit illa dolorem: Hic dolor in vulpem fabricat arma doli. Sunt pauci mora pauca dies; avis inquit: “Habemus Fercula quae sapiunt: dulcis amica, veni.” Haec venit; haec vase vitreo bona fercula condit, At solam recipit formula vasis avem. amica, -ae f.: a friend arma, -orum n.: arms, weapons avis, avis f.: a bird bibo (3): to drink cena, -ae f.: dinner cibus, -i m.: food ciconia, -ae f.: a stork condo (3): to contain dolor, doloris m.: pain dolus, -i m.: a trick dulcis, dulce: sweet fabrico (1): to build fallo (3): to deceive ferculum, -i n.: food formula, -ae f.: a shape joco (1): to joke liquidus, -a, -um: liquid, flowing paucus, -a -um: little recipio (3): to keep back sapio (3): to taste of, be tasty solus, -a, -um: only spero (1): to hope for vas, vasis n.: a vessel, dish venio (4): to come vitreus, -a, -um: of glass voco (1): to call vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox vulpe vocante: abl. abs., “the fox calling” vulpe jocante: abl. abs., “the fox playing joke” cum bibat: pres. subj. in cum circumstantial, “when that one drinks that food” bibit dolorem: “he drinks grief ” i.e. because he is unable to drink with his long beak” dolor ... doli: an example of figura etymologica mora pauca: nom. pred., “are a small delay” vase vitreo: abl. of place where, “in a dish of glass” formula: nom., “the shape of the dish” i.e. with a long narrow neck 74 Aesop’s Fables Laudat opes oculo vasis nitor; has negat ori Formula: sic geminat visus odorque famem. Sic vulpes jejuna redit, sic fallitur audens Fallere, sic telo laeditur ipsa suo. Quod tibi non faceres alii fecisse caveto, Vulnera ne facias quae potes ipse pati. audeo (2): to intend, dare to (+ inf.) caveo (2): to beware not to (+ inf.) facio (3) feci: do, cause fames, famis f.: hunger gemino (1): to double, repeat jejunus, -a -um: hungry laudo (1): to recommend (+ dat.) nego (1): to deny, refuse (+ dat.) nitor, nitoris m.: brightness, splendor oculus, -i m.: an eye odor, -is m.: a scent, odor ops, opis f.: resources, wealth os, oris n.: a mouth patior, (3): suffer telum, -i n.: a weapon visus, visus m.: appearance vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound laudat ... nitor: “the splendor praises” i.e. it recommends to the eye visus odorque: “the sight and odor (each) doouble” jejuna: nom. pred., “the wolf returns hungry” telo suo: abl. of means, “is wounded by her own weapon” i.e. by her own joke quod faceres: imperf. subj. in relative clause of characteristic, “what you would not do to yourself ” fecisse: perf. inf. after caveto, “beware to have done to another” caveto: 3rd person imper., “let him beware” ne facias: pres. subj. in prohibition, “don’t cause wounds” 75 Fable 34: De lupo et capite In this strange fable a wolf happens upon a bust, which he believes to be a human head. The wolf laments that the head is without a voice and without a mind. The moral has a rather religious tone, stating that the only brightness in the world is the soul, ignoring any potential moral about the ignorance of the wolf. Dum legit arva lupus, reperit caput arte superbum; Hoc beat humanis ars pretiosa genis. Hoc lupus alterno volvit pede, verba resolvit: “O sine voce genas, o sine mente caput! Fuscat et extinguit cordis caligo nitorem Corporis: est animi solus in orbe nitor. alternus, -a, -um: one of two animus, -i m.: mind ars, artis f.: skill, art arvum, -i n.: a field beo (1): to bless, enrich caligo, caliginis f.: mist, darkness caput, capitis n.: a head, bust of a head cor, cordis n.: a heart corpus, corporis n.: a body, person extinguo (3): to extinguish fusco (1): to darken gena, -ae f.: cheeks humanus, -a -um: human lego (3): to pick over lupus, -i m.: a wolf mens, mentis f.: mind nitor, -oris m.: splendor orbis, orbis m.: world pes, pedis m.: a foot pretiosus, -a, -um: expensive, costly reperio (4): to discover, learn resolvo (3): to loosen, release superbus, -a, -um: arrogant, haughty volvo (3): roll vox, vocis f.: voice, tone, expression arte: abl. of specification, “superb in its art” i.e. artfully made” humanis genis: abl. of means, “enriches with human cheeks” alterno pede: abl. of means, “with alternate foot” i.e. now this way, now that animi: gen. pred., “is of the mind” 76 Fable 35: De graculo et pavone The animal interactions in this fable are rather predictable; a grackle dresses as the more beautiful peacock until he is eventually caught and stripped. The moral, however, must have been of great importance to the medieval readers, as the last eight lines of the fable are marked with paragraph symbols in a number of the manuscripts. The moral warns against attempts to rise beyond your own station, for such is sure to lead to a great fall. This moral seems to have heavy Biblical overtones, and would certainly resonate with medieval audiences. Graculus, invento picti pavonis amictu, Se polit et socias ferre superbit aves. Quem fore pavonem pavonis penna fatetur, Pavonum generi non timet ire comes. Pavo dolum sentit, falsi pavonis honorem Increpat et domitam verbere nudat avem. Nuda latet sociosque fugit minuique pudorem amictus, amictus m.: a cloak, clothing comes, comitis m./f.: comrade, companion dolus, -i m.: a trick domo (1): to subdue eo, ire: to go falsus, -a, -um: wrong, false fateor (2): to admit, confess fero, ferre: to bear, suffer fugio (3): to flee, run away (+ inf.) genus, generis n.: kind, race graculus, -i m.: a jackdaw honor, honoris m.: honor increpo (1): to rebuke invenio (4) veni, ventus: to discover lateo (2): to lie hidden minuo (3): to lessen, reduce nudo (1): to lay bare, strip nudus, -a, -um: naked pavo, pavonis m.: a peacock penna, -ae f.: a feather, wing pictus, -a, -um: painted, colored polio (4): to smooth, polish pudor, pudoris m.: decency, shame sentio (4): to perceive socia, -ae f.: a companion socius, -i m.: an associate, companion superbio (4): to disdain to (+ inf.) timeo (2): to fear (+ inf.) verber, verberis n.: a blow invento amictu: abl. abs., “the clothing having been discovered” se polit: “decorated himself ” fore: fut. inf. after fatetur, “whom the feather claimed to be” 77 The Elegaic Romulus Sic putat; hanc duro corripit ore comes: “Ascensor nimius nimium ruit, aptus in imis Est locus: haec levis est, illa ruina gravis. Qui plus posse putat sua quam natura ministrat, Posse suum superans, se minus esse potest. Si tibi nota satis naturae meta fuisset, Non vilis nec inops nec sine veste fores.” Cui sua non sapiunt, alieni sedulus auceps Quod non est rapiens, desinit esse quod est. alienus, -i m.: other, another aptus, -a, -um: suitable ascensor, ascensoris m.: one who ascends auceps, -ipis m.: a bird-catcher, grasper corripio (3): to seize, grasp desino (3): to cease, desist (+ inf.) durus, -a -um: harsh gravis, grave: heavy, painful imus, -a, -um: lowest inops, inopis (gen.): weak, poor levis, leve: light, smooth locus, -i m.: seat, rank meta, -ae f.: a boundary ministro (1): to provide minus, minor: less than (+ abl.) natura, -ae f.: nature nimius, -a, -um: excessive, too great notus, -a, -um: known os, oris n.: a mouth rapio (3): to drag off, snatch ruina, -ae f.: a fall ruo (3): to destroy, ruin sapio (3): to be tasty satis: enough sedulus, -a, -um: persistent, greedy supero (1): to overcome vestis, vestis f.: clothing vilis, -e: cheap, common comes: nom. pred., “to go as a companion” verbere: abl. of means, “subdued with a blow” minui: pres. pass. inf. after putat, “she thinks her decency to be diminished” duro ore: abl. of manner, “grasps with a harsh mouth” haec...illa: “the latter...the former” i.e. the ascent ... the ruin plus...quam: “more...than” sua natura: nom. subj. of ministrat, “than his own nature provides” posse suum: inf. as noun, “exceeding his own ability” minus: nom. pred., “to be less than himself ” si ... fuisset: plupf. subj. past contrafactual protasis, “if the boundary had been known” fores: impf. subj. in present contrafactual apodosis, “you would not be” cui sua non sapiunt: “the one to whom his own things are not tasty” alieni auceps: “the grasper of another” but also, “the bird-catcher of another (bird)” rapiens: pres. part. instrumental, “by snatching what he is not” 78 Fable 36: De mula et musca As is often the case, this fable has the same basic lesson as the preceding fable. Here, it is a fly that tries to rise above his station, giving orders to the mule. The mule responds that he only takes direction from his master, and the fly is put back into his humble position. The moral, however takes a slightly different approach, stating that weak men often assert themselves against the strong, but rarely are effective. Mula rapit cursum: nam mulam mulio cogit. Mulae musca nocet vulnere sive minis: “Cur pede sopito cursum tempusque moraris? Te premo, te pungo: pessima, curre levis. Mula refert: “Quia magna tonas? Vis magna videri? Nec tua facta nocent, nec tua verba mihi, Nec te sustineo, sed eum, quem sustinet axis, axis, axis m.: an axis, chariot cogo (3): to force, compel cur: why? curro (3): to run cursus, cursus m.: a running, way factum, -i n.: a fact, deed levis, -e: smooth, light magnus, -a, -um: great mina, -ae f.: threats moror (1): to delay mula, -ae f.: a mule mulio, mulionis m.: a muleteer, mule driver musca, -ae f.: a fly noceo (2): to harm, hurt (+ dat.) pes, pedis m.: a foot pessimus, -a, -um: worst premo (3): to press pungo (3): prick, sting refero, referre: return sopitus, -a, -um: sleepy sustineo (2): to put up with, support tempus, temporis n.: time tono (1): to thunder verbum, -i n.: a word videor (2): to seem rapit cursum: “he hurries on his way” mulam mulio: figura etymologica pede sopito: abl. of manner, “with a sleepy foot” mulae: dat. after nocent, “harms the mule” levis: nom. with adverbial force, “he runs lightly” vis: pres. of volo, “do you wish” +inf. nec tua ... nec tua/ qui mea ... qui mea: examples of anadiplosis, “doubling” 79 The Elegaic Romulus Qui mea frena tenet, qui mea terga ferit. Audet in audacem timidus fortique minatur Debilis, audendi dum videt esse locum. locus, -i m.: a place minor (1): to threaten teneo (2): to hold tergum, -i n.: a back timidus, -a, -um: timid, fearful audax, audacis (gen.): bold debilis, debile: weak ferio (4): to hit fortis, forte: strong frenum, -i n.: a bridle audet in audacem: “he dares against a daring one” a figura etymologica forti: dat. after minatur, “threatens the strong” audendi: gerund gen. with locum, “an opportunit of daring” 80 Fable 37: De musca et formica This fable is as close as the elegiac Romulus comes to the now-popular fable of the ant and the grasshopper. Here it is a fly rather than a grasshopper that is inciting the ant; the fly seeks to glorify her own lifestyle by talking about the glories of flying, and the royal tables that she is able to take food from. The ant retaliates by noting that although her lifestyle may be more humble, she always has a guaranteed next meal, and she is not forced to live as a thief. The moral, however, does not glorify the humble lifestyle of the ant as might be expected. Instead, it warns to watch the tongue, for sweet words produce sweetness, while words spoken in hatred continue to produce hate. Musca movens lites formicam voce fatigat, Se titulis ornat turpiter ipsa suis: Torpes mersa cavis, levitas mihi queritur alis; Dat tibi fossa domum, nobilis aula mihi. Deliciae sunt grana tuae, me regia nutrit Mensa; bibis fecem, sed bibo lene merum. ala, -ae f.: a wing aula, -ae f.: a hall bibo (3): to drink cavum, -i m.: a cave, hole deliciae, -arum f.: pleasure, delight domus, -i f.: a house faex, faecis f.: dregs, grounds fatigo (1): to weary formica, -ae f.: an ant fossa, -ae f.: a ditch granum, -i n.: a grain, seed lenis, -e: smooth, mild levitas, levitatis f.: lightness lis, litis n.: a quarrel mensa, -ae f.: a table mergo (3) mersi, mersus: to immerse merum, -i n.: wine (unmixed with water) moveo (2): to move musca, -ae f.: a fly nobilis, nobile: noble nutrio (4): to nourish, feed orno (1): to equip, decorate quaero (3): to seek regius, -a, -um: royal titulus, -i m.: title, honor torpeo (2):, be struck motionless from fear turpiter: shamelessly vox, vocis f.: a voice voce: abl. of means, “wearies with his voice” se ... ipsa suis: she herself decorates herself with her own titles” mersa: perf. part. nom., “you immersed in caves” alis: abl. of means, “is sought with my wings” grana: nom. pred., “your delights are seeds” 81 The Elegaic Romulus Quod bibis a limo sugis; mihi suggerit aurum Quod bibo. Saxa premis, regia serta premo. Sede, cibis, potu, thalamis cum regibus utor, Reginae teneris oscula figo genis.” Non minus urentes mittit formica sagittas Et sua non modicum spicula fellis habent: “Ludo mersa cavis: nescit tua penna quietem. Sunt mihi pauca satis: sunt tibi multa parum. Me laetam videt esse cavus: te regia tristem. Plus mihi grana placent quam tibi regis opes. Venatur mihi farra labor: tibi fercula furtum. aurum, auri n.: gold cibus, -i m.: food far, farris n.: grain fel, fellis n.: poison ferculum, -i n.: food figo (3): to fix formica, -ae f.: an ant furtum, -i n.: theft gena, -ae f.: cheeks habeo (2): to have labor, laboris m.: labor laetus, -a, -um: happy limus, -i m.: mud, mire ludo (3): to play minor, -us: smaller mitto (3): to send, throw modicus, -i m.: a small amount nescio (4): to not know ops, opis f.: wealth osculum, -i n.: a kiss parum: too little paucus, -a -um: little penna, -ae f.: a feather, wing placeo (2): to please plus ... quam: more ... than potus, potus m.: a drink premo (3): to press, pursue quies, quietis f.: quiet regia, -ae f.: a palace regina, -ae f.: a queen rex, regis m.: a king sagitta, -ae f.: an arrow saxum, -i n.: a stone sedes, sedis f.: a seat, home sertum, serti n.: a wreath spiculum, -i n.: a sting suggero (3): to carry, furnish sugo (3): to suck tener, -a, -um: tender, delicate thalamus, -i m.: a bedroom tristis, triste: sad, sorrowful uro (3): to burn utor (3): to use, enjoy (+ abl.) venor (1) venatus sum: hunt, seek after premis ... saxa: “you press on rocks” i.e. when you sleep teneris genis: abl. of place where, “fix kisses on the tender cheek” sunt mihi ... sunt tibi: note antithesis in each line laetam...tristem: acc. pred., “sees me to be happy... you to be sad” i.e. I am happy in the cave, you are sad in the palace plus...quam: “seeds please more...than wealth” 82 Aesop’s Fables Haec mihi pax mellit: toxicat illa timor. Mundo farre fruor: tu foedas omnia tactu. Cum nulli noceam, cuilibet una noces. Est mea parcendi speculum: tua vita vorandi. Sunt mea quae carpo: non nisi rapta voras. Ut comedas vivis: comedo ne vivere cessem. Me nihil infestat: te fugat omnis homo. Unde petis vitam, rapitur tibi vita; palato Dulcia vina bibens, fel necis acre bibis. acer, acris: sharp, bitter carpo (3): to seize cesso (1): to cease from (+ inf.) comedo (3): to eat, consume cuilibet: whomever (dat.) dulcis, dulce: sweet far, farris n.: husked wheat fel, fellis n.: poison foedo (1): to defile fruor (3): to enjoy (+ abl.) fugo (1): to chase away, flee homo, hominis m.: a man infesto (1): to harass mello (3): to sweeten mundus, -a, -um: clean nex, necis f.: death nihil: nothing nullus, nulli m.: no one palatum, -i n.: palate, sense of taste parco (3): to forbear, show pax, pacis f.: peace, harmony peto (3): to attack speculum, -i n.: a mirror tactus, tactus m.: touch timor, timoris m.: fear, dread toxico (1): to posion unde: from where unus, -a -um: alone vinum, -i n.: wine vita, -ae f.: life vivo (3): to live, survive voro (1): to swallow, devour farre: abl. after fruor, “I enjoy my husk” tactu: abl. of means, “with your touch” cum...noceam: pres. subj. in cum circumstantial, “while I harm no one” parcendi ... vorandi: gerunds gen., “mirror of sparing ... life of devouring” non nisi: litotes, “you do not eat unless” i.e. you only eat comedas ... cessem: pres. subj. in purpose clauses, “in order to eat ... lest I cease” palato: dat. of specification, “sweet to the palate” bibens: pres. part. instrumental, “by drinking you drink” 83 The Elegaic Romulus Si negat ala tibi ventoso victa flabello, Aut nece vinciris, aut semiviva jaces. Si potes aestivi dono durare favoris, Cetera si parcant, non tibi parcit hiems. Dulcia pro dulci, pro turpi turpia reddi Verba solent: odium lingua fidemque parit. lingua, -ae f.: a tongue, speech nego (1): to deny, fail (+ dat.) odium, -i n.: hate, hatred parco (3): to spare pario (3): bear, give birth to reddo (3): to return, restore semivivus, -a, -um: half-alive, almost dead soleo (2): to be in the habit of (+ inf.) turpis, -e: ugly, nasty ventosus, a, um: windy vinco (3): to conquer, defeat aestivus, -a, -um: summery, summer ala, alae f.: a wing ceterus, -a, -um: the other donum, -i n.: a gift, present dulcis, -e: sweet duro (1): to harden favor, favoris m.: favor fides, fidei f.: faith, loyalty flabellum, -i n.: a small fan hiems, hiemis f.: winter, winter time jaceo (2): to lie, lie down ventoso flabello: abl. of means, “conquered with the windy fan” aestivi favoris: “gift of summery kindness” transferred epithet parcant: pres. subj. in present general conditional, “if others are sparing” reddi: pres. inf. pass. complementing solent, “are in the habit of being returned” 84 Fable 38: De lupo et vulpe Here, the two greatest villains of the fable collection meet, but it is only the wolf that is wicked in this fable. The fox is accused of theft, but is acquitted by the judge, an ape, by his virtuous living. The moral condemns living without a sense of truth, which is apparently what has motivated the wolf ’s accusation. The implication is that the filthy lifestyle of the wolf has proven him to be an unsavory character repeatedly, and so the judge is unable to take his claim seriously. Respondere lupo de furti labe tenetur Vulpes; causa vocat: hic petit, ille negat. Simius est judex; docti non errat acumen Judicis: arcanum mentis in ore legit. Judicium figit: “Poscis quod poscere fraus est Visque fidem de re quam negat ipsa fides. Tu bene furta negas: te vitae purior usus acumen, acuminis n.: sharpened point, fraud arcanum, -i n.: a secret causa, -ae f.: a cause, motive doctus, -a -um: learned, cunning, shrewd erro (1): to wander, go astray fides, -i f.: faith figo (3): to establish fraus, fraudis f.: fraud furtum, -i n.: theft judex, judicis m.: a judge judicium, -i n.: a judgment, sentence labes, labis f.: disaster, debacle lego (3): to read, gather lupus, -i m.: a wolf mens, mentis f.: mind os, oris n.: a mouth, expression peto (3): to attack posco (3): to ask, demand purus, -a, -um: pure, clean respondeo (2): to answer simius, -i m./f.: ape usus, usus m.: use, enjoyment vita, -ae: life voco (1): to call vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox lupo: dat. after respondere, “respond to the wolf” poscere: inf. epexegetic after fraus, “is a fraud to demand” poscis: “you (the wolf ) demand” vis: 2 s. of volo, “you (the fox) wish” + inf. 85 The Elegaic Romulus Liberat. Hanc litem pax domet, ira cadat.” Simplicitas veri fraus estque puerpera falsi: Esse solent vitae disssona verba suae. Sordibus imbuti nequeunt dimittere sordes. Fallere qui didicit, fallere semper amat. amo (1): to love (+ inf.) cado (3): to decay, subside dimitto (3): to dismiss, part with disco (3) didici: learn, hear (+ inf.) dissonus, -a, -um: discordant, different domo (1): to subdue, master fallo (3): to deceive falsum, -i n.: falsehood imbuo (3) imbui, imbutus: wet, soak ira, -ae f.: anger libero (1): to free, release lis, litis f.: lawsuit, quarrel nequeo (4): to be unable (+ inf.) pax, pacis f.: peace, harmony puerpera, -ae f.: a mother semper: always simplicitas, -tatis f.: innocence soleo (2): to be accustomed (+ inf.) sordes, sordis f.: filth, dirt verum, -i n.: truth vita, -ae f.: anger domet ... cadat: pres. subj. jussive clause, “let peace subdue ... let anger subside” simplicitas veri: “innocence of the truth” i.e. being unaware of the truth, a paradoxical metaphor dissona: pred. nom., “are accustomed to be discordant to” + dat. 86 Fable 39: De rustico et mustela The moral of the “Man and the Weasel” relies on rather complex logic, and again asks the reader to look into the soul of a man, just as in the earlier tale about the wolf and the bust. A weasel has been living in a man’s house for a number of years, and as a result, the house has remained free of mice and other nuisances. The weasel cites this as a reason that the man might grant him particular favor. The man refuses however, noting that the deeds that the weasel has done may have been beneficial to him, but the animal did not do them with this in mind. He argues that in keeping the house clear of varmints, the weasel was only thinking of himself, as the mice filled his stomach. Furthermore, the man notes, the weasel allowed the mice to get plump on the man’s bread before eating them, again thinking of his own stomach. The moral then notes that the fruit of a deed should not be counted as good unless the accompanying motives were good as well. Praeda viri, praedo murum mustela precatur: “Da veniam, debes parcere, parce mihi. Quod caret hoste domus, quod abest a sorde, fatetur Esse meum, pro me te rogat, ergo fave. praeda, -ae f.: prey, captured animal praedo, praedonis m.: a robber, thief precor (1): to beg rogo (1): to ask, ask for rusticus, -i m.: a peasant, farmer sordes, sordis f.: filth, dirt venia, -ae f.: favor, kindness vir, viri m.: a man absum: to be away careo (2): to lack, be without (+ abl.) debeo (2): to owe fateor (2): to admit, bear witness to (+ inf.) faveo (2): to favor hostis, -is m/f.: enemy murus, -i m.: a wall, city wall mustela, -ae f.: a weasel parco: (3): to forbear, refrain from praeda, praedo: nom. in apposition to mustella, the subj. of precatur, “a captured animal, a thief, a weasel” Note the figura etymologica da ... mihi: the three pairs of words in this verse all mean the same thing, an example of pleonasm hoste: abl. of separation after caret: “the house lacks an enemy” meum (sc. donum): “bears witness that it is my (gift)” rogat: pres., “(your home) asks you” 87 The Elegaic Romulus Servitio me redde tuo, mihi redde laboris Praemia, pro dono sit mea vita mihi.” “Ille refert: “Operum debetur gratia menti, Non operi: gratum mens bona reddit opus. Nemo, licet prosit, nisi vult prodesse, meretur: Nam prodesse potest hostis, obesse putans. Cum mihi prodesses, mihi non prodesse volebas: Hostibus ipsa meis et meis hostis eras; Non mihi, monstra necans, sed eras tibi provida soli; Sic panem poteras rodere sola meum. opus, operis n.: need, work panis, panis m.: bread, loaf praemium, -n.: reward prosum, prodesse: to be useful providus, -a, -um: providing for (+ dat.) puto (1): to think, believe reddo (3): to return refero, referre: bring, reply rodo (3): to gnaw, peck servitium, -i n.: slavery, servitude solus, -a, -um: only, alone volo, velle: to wish, want (+ inf.) debeo (2): to owe donum, -i n.: a gift, present gratia, -ae f.: gratitude, thanks gratus, -a, -um: pleasing, acceptable labos, laboris m.: labor licet (2): it is permitted, one may mens, mentis f.: mind, intention mereo (2): to be deserving monstrum, -i n.: a beast neco (1): to kill, murder obsum, obesse: to hurt, be an enemy to (+ dat.) tuo servitio: dat. after redde, “return me to your service” pro dono: “in return for my gift” sit: pres. subj. jussive, “let my life be” menti ... operi: dat. ind. obj., “is owed to the mind not to the deed” prosit: pres. subj. concessive after licet, “although it is useful” prodesses: impf. subj. concessive, “although you were useful to me” hostibus ...meis: dat., “you were an enemy to my enemies” necans: pres. part. instrumental, “by killing beasts” soli: dat. after provida, “providing for yourself alone” sola: nom., “you alone were able” 88 Aesop’s Fables Pane meo pinguis, mihi da pinguedinis usum: Damnis penso necem; digna perire peri.” Nil honorat factum nisi facti sola voluntas: Non operis fructum, sed noto mentis opus. damnum, -i n.: loss, damage dignus, -a, -um: suitable (+ inf.) factum, facti n.: a fact, deed fructus, fructus m.: enjoyment, reward nil: nothing noto (3): to observe, record panis, panis m.: bread penso (1): to weigh, judge pereo (4): to die, pass away pinguedo, -inis f.: abundance pinguis, pingue: fat, rich voluntas, voluntatis f.: will, desire pane meo: abl. of cause, “you are fat from my bread” damnis: abl., “for your crimes I judge” perire: inf. epexegetic after digna, “you, worthy to die” 89 Fable 40: De rana et bove A frog is jealous of the large size of an ox, so she swells herself. Her son employs her to stop, noting that there is no way that the size of the frog, even inflated, could compare to the ox. The frog becomes increasingly upset by this, and swells so greatly that she bursts. The moral for this fable, as to be expected, cautions the lesser from comparing themselves to the greater. Aequari vult rana bovi: tumet ergo. Tumenti Natus ait: “Cessa; prae bove tota nihil.” Rana dolet meliusque tumet; premit ille tumentem: “Vincere non poteris, victa crepare potes.” Tertius iratam vexat tumor; illa tumoris Copia findit eam: viscera rupta patent. Cum majore minor conferri desinat et se Consulat et vires temperet ipse suas. aequo (1): to make equal to (+ dat.) bos, bovis f.: a cow cesso (1): to be remiss confero, -ferre: to bring together, compare consulo (3): to consult, consider copia, -ae f.: plenty, abundance of (+ gen.) crepo (1): to rattle, crack desino (3): to stop, cease to (+ inf.) doleo (2): to hurt, suffer pain findo (3): to split, divide iratus, -a -um: enraged, angered major, -us: large, great melior, -ius: better minor, -us: smaller natus, -i, m. son nihil: nothing pateo (2): to stand open, be open premo (3): to press, press hard rana, -ae f.: a frog rumpo (3), rumpsi, ruptus: to burst, destroy tempero (1): to moderate, control oneself tertius -a -um: three totus, -a, -um: whole, all tumeo (2): to swell, be swollen with conceit tumor, tumoris m.: a swelling vexo (1): to shake, vex vinco (3), vixi, victus: to conquer, outlast vis, viris f.: strength viscus, visceris n.: entrails aequari: pres. inf. pass. after vult, “he wishes to be made equal to” + dat. tumenti: pr. part. dat. ind. obj., “speaks to the one swelling” prae bove: “before the cow,” i.e. in comparison to a cow conferri: pres. inf. pass. after desinat, “cease to be compared” desinat: pres. subj. in jussive, “let the smaller cease” + inf. consulat ... temperet: pres. subj. jussive, “let him consider ... let him moderate!” 90 Fable 41: De pastore et leone This fable was taken from an ancient story found in the 2nd century Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. In the tale, a man named Androcles helps an injured lion by removing a thorn from his foot. He is later repaid for his kindness when he is thrown into a pit of lions in punishment for fleeing slavery; the lion in the pit is, of course, the lion that he had helped earlier, who remembers Androcles’ kind deed. The lion immediately behaves as though he is tame, and the astonished Romans free both the lion and Androcles. The fable version of this story is told almost exactly as the ancient tale, except that Androcles is recast as an unnamed shepherd, and the crime that sends him to the lion’s den is unnamed. The moral repeats the adage of doing unto others. This story retains popularity in the Middle Ages outside of the elegiac Romulus, and versions of it can be found in Chretien de Troyes’ romances, as well as in the Gesta Romanorum. The story remained so popular that George Bernard Shaw turned the narrative into a play in 1912 (Ashliman, Androcles and the Lion). Sollicitus praedae currit leo; spina leonem Vulnerat; offendit, in pede mersa, pedem. Fit mora de cursu: levitas improvida lapsum Saepe facit; laeso stat pede turba pedum. curro (3): to run, hurry cursus, cursus m.: running fio, fieri: to happen, made improvidus, -a, -um: thoughtless, unwary laedo (3) laesi, laesus: strike, hurt lapsus, lapsus m.: a slip, fall leo, leonis m.: a lion levitas, levitatis f.: levity, lightness mergo (3) mersi, mersus: dip, plunge mora, -ae f.: delay, hindrance offendo (3): to offend pastor, pastoris m.: a shepherd, herdsman pes, pedis m.: a foot praeda, -ae f.: booty, prey sollicitus, -a, -um: concerned, worried spina, -ae f.: a thorn sto (1): to stand turba, turbae f.: a crowd vulnero (1): to wound praedae: dat. after sollicitus, “concerned for prey” mersa: perf. part., “the thorn, having been plunged in” laeso pede: abl. abs., “his foot having been hurt” turba pedum: “the crowd of his feet” i.e. all four feet 91 The Elegaic Romulus Vix aegrum sinit ire dolor saniemque fatetur; Major idem loquitur vulneris ipse dolor. Cum laedit miseros, fortuna medetur eisdem: Hoc est cur medicum plaga leonis habet. Nam leo pastorem reperit, pastorque leoni Pro dape tendit oves. Respuit ille dapes; Supplicat et plagam tenso pede monstrat et illi Orat opem; pastor vulnera solvit acu. Exit cum sanie dolor et res causa doloris; Hic blando medicam circuit ore manum, Sospes abit meritique notas in corde sigillat. abeo: depart, go away acus, acus f.: a needle, pin aeger, -gra, -grum: sick blandus, -a -um: flattering, coaxing causa, -ae f.: a cause, source circueo, circuire: encircle, surround cor, cordis n.: a heart, mind cur: why? dapis, -is f.: a feast dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish exeo, exire: to leave, pass fateor (2): to disclose, bear witness to fortuna, -ae f.: chance, luck loquor (3): to speak, tell major, -us: larger, greater manus, manus f.: a hand medeor (2): to heal, cure medicus, -a, -um: healing medicus, -i m.: a healer meritum, -i n.: merit miser, -a, -um: poor, miserable monstro (1): to show, point out nota, -ae f.: a mark, sign ops, opis f.: help oro (1): to beg, ask for os, oris n.: a mouth, speech ovis, ovis f.: a sheep plaga, -ae f.: a wound reperio (4): to discover respuo (3): to reject, spit sanies, saniei f.: bloody matter, wound sigillo (1): to seal, confirm sino (3): to allow, permit (+ inf.) solvo (3): to loosen, free sospes, sospitis (gen.): safe and sound supplico (1): to pray, supplicate tendo (3): to stretch, offer to (+ dat.) tendo (3) tensi, tensus: to stretch, spread vix: hardly, barely vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound aegrum: acc. subject of ire, “allows the sick one to go” eisdem: dat. after medetur, “cures the same people” leoni: dat. of advantage, “for the lion” tenso pede: abl. abs., “his foot having been stretched out” 92 Aesop’s Fables Tempore deleri gratia firma nequit. Hic leo vincla subit. Romanae gloria praedae Hunc habet et multas miscet arena feras. Ecce necis poenam pastori culpa propinat: Clauditur in mediis et datur esca feris. Hunc leo presentit, petit hunc. Timet ille; timenti Haec fera blanditur; sperat, abitque timor. Nil feritatis habens, ludit fera, cauda resultat. Dum fera mansuescit, se negat esse feram. Hunc tenet, hunc lingit pensatque salute salutem: Nulla sinit fieri vulnera, nulla facit. arena, -ae f.: sand, arena blandior (4): to flatter (+ dat.) cauda, -ae f.: a tail claudo (3): to close, shut culpa, -ae f.: a fault, crime deleo (2): to erase, wipe esca, -ae f.: food, meat fera, -ae f.: a wild beast, animal feritas, feritatis f.: wildness fio, fieri: to happen, come about firmus, -a -um: firm, steady gloria, -ae f.: glory, fame gratia, -ae f.: favor, goodwill lingo (3): to lick, lick up ludo (3): to play, tease, trick mansuesco (3): to become tame medius, -a, -um: middle, center misceo (2): to mix, mingle multus, -a -um, large, intense nego (1): to deny, refuse nequeo (4): be unable nex, necis f.: death nullus, -a, -um: no penso (1): to compensate X (acc.) with Y (abl.) peto (3): to seek, approach poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment praeda, -ae f.: booty, loot praesentio (4): to recognize propino (1): to pledge X (acc.) to Y (dat.) resulto (1): to wag Romanus, -a, -um: Roman salus, salutis f.: health, prosperity sino (3): to allow, permit (+ inf.) spero (1): to hope subeo (4): submit to tempus, temporis n.: time teneo (2): to hold, keep timeo (2): to fear, dread timor, timoris m.: fear, dread vinclum, -i n.: a chain, bond tempore: abl. of means, “by time” deleri: inf. pass. after nequit, “is unable to be erased” esca: pred. nom., “is given as food” feris: either abl. (with in mediis), “in the middle of the beasts” or dat. after datur, “given to the beasts” timenti: dat. after blanditur, “he flatters the one fearing” 93 The Elegaic Romulus Roma stupet parcitque viro parcitque leoni. Hic redit in silvas et redit ille domum. Non debet meritum turpis delere vetustas: Accepti memores nos decet esse boni. acceptum, -i n.: favor bonus, -a -um: good, honest decet (2): to it is fitting, right (+ inf.) deleo (2): to erase, wipe domus, -i f.: a house memor, memoris: remembering, grateful (+ gen.) meritum, meriti n.: merit, value parco (3): to spare (+ dat.) redeo (4): return, go back Roma, -ae f.: Rome silva, -ae f.: wood, forest stupeo (2): to be astounded turpis, -e: ugly, disgraceful vetustas, vetustatis f.: old age vir, viri m.: a man Roma: “Rome sees” i.e. the Romans, an example of metonymy se ... esse: ind. st., “denies that he is a beast” domum: acc., “returns home” 94 Fable 42: De leone et equo This fable also features a lion, but one notably less kind than in the previous fable. Here, the lion approaches a herd of horses, hoping to trick them into befriending him so that he might eat one. The horses, however, can sense the deceit and tell the lion that he has come at the perfect time, as one of them has stepped on a thorn and needs help from the lion to remove it. As soon as he bends to examine the hoof, the horse stomps on his head, rendering him senseless. When the lion regains his senses he acknowledges that he deserved this punishment, for he had feigned kindness to the horses with the intention of harming them. The moral emphasizes the importance of not pretending to be what one is not. The reoccurrence of the lion character, as well as the thorn stuck in a foot would not be lost on the medieval reader, a theme which is certainly repeated by the fabulist in order to emphasize the importance of intentions over deeds, a lesson which is set up in the earlier “Man and the Weasel.” Tondet equus pratum, petit hunc leo. Causa leonem Haec movet, ut fiat esca leonis equus. Inquit equo: “Mi frater, ave, fruor arte medendi, Et comes et medicus sum tibi.” Paret equus: Sentit enim fraudes et fraudi fraude resistit. Mente prius texens retia fraudis, ait: ars, artis f.: skill, art ave: hail! comes, comitis m./f.: comrade, companion equus, -i m.: a horse, steed fio, fieri: to happen, be made frater, fratris m.: a brother fraus, fraudis f.: fraud, trickery fruor (3): to enjoy, delight in (+ abl.) inquit: he says leo, leonis m.: a lion medeor (2): to heal medicus, -i m.: a doctor, physician mens, mentis f.: mind, intellect moveo (2): to move, agitate pareo (2): to obey, yield to peto (3): to attack pratum, -i n.: a meadow prior, prius: earlier resisto (3): to pause, continue sentio (4): to perceive, feel texo (3): to weave tondeo (2): to cut, clip, graze ut fiat: pres. subj. in purp. clause, “in order for the horse to become food” medendi: gerund gen., “art of healing” fraudi: dat. after resistit, “he resists the fraud” fraude: abl. of means, “by means of fraud” note the polyptoton 95 The Elegaic Romulus “Quaesitus placitusque venis, te temporis offert Gratia, te rogitat pes mihi sente gravis.” Hic favet, instat equo; subjecto vertice calcem Inprimit et sopit membra leonis equus. Vix fugit ille sopor, vix audet vita reverti, Vix leo, colla movens, respicit. Hostis abest. Se leo sic damnat: “Patior pro crimine poenam: Nam gessi speciem pacis et hostis eram.” Quod non es, non esse velis; quod es, esse fatere: Est male quod non est, qui negat esse quod est. absum, abesse: to be away, absent audeo (2): to dare to (+ inf.) calx, calcis m./f.: heel collum, -i n.: a neck, throat crimen, criminis n.: crime, offense damno (1): to pass judgment fateor (2): to admit, confess faveo (2): to favor, support fugio (3): to flee, fly gero (3) gessi: bear, carry gravis, grave: heavy, painful hostis, -is m/f.: enemy inprimo (3): to impress, imprint insto (1): to be close to (+ dat.) membrum, -i n.: a limb, organ offero (3): to offer, present patior (3): to suffer, allow pax, pacis f.: peace, harmony pes, pedis m.: a foot placitus, -a, -um: pleasing poena, -ae f.: penalty, punishment quaero (3) quaesivi, quaesitus: search for, seek respicio (3): to look back at, consider rete, retis n.: a net, snare revertor (3): to turn back, go back rogito (1): to ask, inquire sentis, sentis m.: a thorn, briar sopio (4): to renders insensible by a blow sopor, soporis m.: insensibility species, -i f.: sight, appearance subjicio (3) -jeci, -jectus: to throw under, bend down venio (4): to come vertex, verticis m.: crown (of his head) vita, -ae f.: life vix: hardly, scarcely volo, velle: wish, want temporis gratia: “the favor of time presents you” i.e. you come at a good time sente: abl. of cause, “painful from a thorn” equo: dat. after instant, “approaches the horse” subiecto vertice: abl. abs., “the crown of his (the lion’s) head having been bent down” reverti: pres. inf. after audet, “dares to return” velis: pres. subj. volative, “you ought not to wish” +inf. fatere: 2 s. imper., “confess!” +inf. est male: “he is badly what he is not” i.e. he plays the part badly quod est: predicate clause after esse, “who denies to be (that) which he is” Note the mannered variations of forms of the verb sum, esse in these last two lines 96 Fable 43: De equo et asino Now it is the character of the horse that is repeated for a number of fables; here, just as in the previous pairing, the horse turns from a wise, discerning character, to an overly proud animal. The horse in this fable is particularly proud of the nice bridle and saddle that his owner has given him, and brags about these trappings to an ass who carries a heavy load humbly. The ass ignores the threats, and as they both age, the glory of the horse declines. As he becomes less useful, his master replaces him, and he is stripped of his noble bridle and saddle, and is hooked to a work cart instead. The ass sees this, and asks the horse what has become of his noble appearance. The moral notes that it is best to learn to tolerate lesser things, for everything is fleeting, and he who is once rich can easily be made poor. Gaudet equus faleris, freno sellaque superbit; Ista quidem vestit aureus arma nitor. Obstat asellus equo; vicus premit artus asellum, Vexat onus, tardat natus eundo labor. Quod sibi claudit iter, sonipes inclamat asello: “Occurris domino, vilis aselle, tuo. armum, -i n.: implements artus, -a, -um: close, dense asellus, -i m.: a donkey asinus, -i m.: an ass, donkey aureus, -a, -um: of gold claudo (3): to closes in dominus, -i m.: an owner, lord, master falerae, falerarum f.: an ornament frenus, -i m.: a bridle, harness gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice (+ abl.) inclamo (1): to cry out (+ dat.) iter, itineris n.: a journey, path nascor (3): to produce nitor, nitoris m.: brightness, splendor obsto (1): to oppose, comes before (+ dat.) occurro: run to meet, oppose (+ dat.) onus, oneris n.: a load premo (3): to pursue, oppress quidem: indeed sella, -ae f.: a wagon seat, saddle sonipes, sonipedis m.: a horse, steed superbio (4): to be proud of (+ abl.) tardo (1): to slows down vestio (4): to clothe, decorate vexo (1): to shake, jolt vicus, -i m.: a street vilis, -e: worthless ista arma: acc. pl., “decorates those implements” i.e. the items mentioned in the previous line eundo: gerund of eo, “produced by going” asello: dat. ind. obj., “cries out to the ass” 97 The Elegaic Romulus Vix tibi do veniam de tanti crimine fastus; Cui via danda fuit libera, dignus eram.” Supplicat ille minis nutatque timore silendo Tutior et surda praeterit aure minas. Summus equi declinat honor: dum vincere certat, Vincitur et cursum viscera rupta negant. Privatur faleris, freno privatur honesto; Hunc premit assiduo raeda cruenta jugo, Huic tergum macies acuit, labor ulcerat armos. Hunc videt inque jocos audet asellus iners: acuo (3): to sharpen armus, -i m.: a side, flank assiduus, -a, -um: unremitting auris, auris f.: an ear certo (1): to contend, contest (+ inf.) cruentus, -a, -um: bloody cursus, cursus m.: running declino (1): to diminishes dignus, -a -um: worthy, deserving falerae, falerarum f.: an ornament fastus, fastus m.: destain, haughtiness frenus: a bridle, harness honestus, -a -um: distinguished, reputable honor, honoris m.: honor, respect iners, inertis (gen.): helpless, weak jocus, -i m.: a joke, jest jugum, -i n.: a yoke liber, -a, -um: free, unconstrained macies, maciei f.: leanness, poverty mina, -ae f.: threats, menaces nuto (1): to nod praetereo, praeterire: pass by privo (1): to deprive, rob, free raeda, -ae: wagon rumpo (3) rupi, ruptus: break, destroy sileo (2): to be silent summus, -a, -um: highest supplico (1): to humbles oneself before (+ dat.) surdus, -a, -um: deaf, muted tantus, -a, -um: of such size, so great tergum, -i n.: a back timor, timoris m.: fear, dread tutus, -a, -um: safe, prudent ulcero (1): to cause to fester venia, -ae f.: pardon via, viae f.: a way, road, journey video (2): to see, look at vinco (3): to conquer viscus, visceris n.: innards fastus: gen. with crimine, “crime of haughtiness” danda fuit: gerundive in passive periphrastic, “a free way ought to have been given” timore: abl. of manner, “nods with fear” silendo: gerund abl. of means, “safer by being silent” surda aure: abl. of manner, “with a deaf ear” faleris: abl. of separation, “he is deprived of his ornaments” freno honesto: abl. of separation, “deprived of his reputable harness” raeda cruenta: nom. subject, “the bloody wagon presses”” 98 Aesop’s Fables “Dic, sodes ubi sella nitens, ubi nobile frenum? Cur est haec macies, cur fugit ille nitor? Cur manet hic gemitus, cur illa superbia fugit? Vindicat elatos justa ruina gradus: Stare diu nec vis nec honor nec forma nec aetas Sufficit in mundo. plus tamen ista placent. Vive diu, sed vive miser, sociosque minores Disce pati; risum det tua vita mihi.” Pennatis ne crede bonis; te nulla potestas In miseros armet: nam miser esse potes. aetas, aetatis f.: lifetime, age armo (1): to rouse bonum, -i n.: good credo (3): to trust, entrust (+ dat.) dico (3): to say disco (3): to learn to (+ inf.) diu: (for) a long time elatos, -a, -um: lofty forma, -ae f.: form gemitus, gemitus m.: a groan, sigh gradus, gradus m.: a step, position justus, -a -um: just, fair maneo (2): to remain, stay minor, -us: smaller miser, -a, -um: poor, miserable mundus, -i m.: world niteo (2): to shine nobilis, nobile: noble patior (3): to suffer, allow pennatus, -a, -um: winged placeo (2): to please, satisfy potestas, potestatis f.: power, rule risus, risus m.: laughter ruina, -ae f.: fall, catastrophe socius, -i m.: a companion, ally sodes: if you do not mind, please sufficio (3): to be sufficient, be able to (+ inf.) superbia, -ae f.: arrogance, pride vindico (1): to claim, vindicate vis, viris f.: strength vivus, -a, -um: alive sodes: (= si audes): parenthetical, “if you please” tergum acuit: sharpens his back (i.e. makes his bones protrude) det: pres. subj. jussive, “let your life give laughter to me” pennatis bonis: dat. after crede, “trust in winged goods” i.e. in fleeting goods armet: pres. subj. jussive, “let no power rouse you against wretched people” 99 Fable 44: De quadrupedibus et avibus Again, the horse appears in this fable, but this time only as a secondary character. The horses are engaged in a battle against the birds, and they appear poised to emerge victorious. A particular bird sees that he may be losing, and switches his allegiances to the horses. An eagle joins the birds, and adds to their strength, so that the birds are able to win the battle. The traitor is then revealed, and stripped of his feathers, and forced to fly only at night. The moral notes that no man can serve two masters. Although it is not explicitly noted, the description of the punishment the bird receives-- stripped of his feathers, and forced to fly only at night-- also fits the description for a bat. The medieval readers must have noted this, and this fable is often illustrated in later print versions with a woodcut of a bat. Quadrupedes pugnant avibus, victoria nutat; Spes onerata metu vexat utrumque gregem. Linquit aves quae sumit avis de vespere nomen, Nec timet oppositi castra juvare chori. Armat aves aquilae virtus, et viribus implet Et monitu; torpet altera turba metu. alter, -a, -um: one (of two) aquila, -ae f.: an eagle avis, avis f.: a bird castrum, -i n.: a camp, fort chorus, -i m.: a group grex, gregis m./f.: flock, herd impleo (2): to fill up, satisfy juvo (1): to help, assist linquo (3): to leave, quit metus, metus m.: fear, anxiety monitus, monitus m.: a warning, command nomen, nominis n.: a name nuto (1): to waver, be in doubt onero (1): to burden, oppress oppono (3) opposui, oppositus: to oppose pugno (1): to fight, dispute quadrupes, quadrupedis m./f.: four-footed animals spes, -i f.: hope sumo (3): to take up, begin timeo (2): to fear, dread (+ inf.) torpeo (2): to be struck motionless turba, -ae f.: a mob vesper, vesperis m.: evening victoria, -ae f.: victory virtus, virtutis f.: strength, power avibus: abl. of association, “with birds” metu: abl. of means, “with fear” de vespero: “takes its name from evening” i.e. the bat (vespertilio) viribus...monitu: abl. after implet, “the king fills them with strength and warning” metu: abl. of means, “strick motionless from fear” 100 Aesop’s Fables Amplexatur aves ulnis victoria laetis; Pro titulo poenam transfuga sumit avis: Vellere nuda suo, pro plumis vellera vestit Edictumque subit ne nisi nocte volet. Non bonus est civis qui praefert civibus hostem: Utiliter servit nemo duobus eris. amplexor (1): to embrace, clasp bonus, -a, -um: good, honest civis, civis m./f.: fellow citizen edictum, -i n.: a proclamation, edict erus, eri m.: a master, owner hostis, -is m/f: an enemy laetus, -a, -um: joyful nudus, -a, -um: nude, bare pluma, -ae f.: a feather, plume poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment praefero: prefer X (acc.) over Y (dat.) servio (4): to serve (+ dat.) subeo (4): go underneath, undergo, endure sumo (3): to take titulus, -i m.: a title, distinction transfuga, -ae f.: a deserter ulna, -ae f.: an arm utiliter: usefully vellus, velleris n.: fleece, hide vestio (4): to clothe, put on volo (1): to fly ulnis laetis: abl. of manner, “embraces with joyful arms” pro titulo: “instead of distinction” vellere suo: abl. of separation after nuda, “nude of her proper fleece” (i.e. her feathers) vellera: “he wears the hides” i.e. he receives blows from others ne volet: pres. subj. in indirect prohibition, “an edict not to fly” duobus eris: dat. after servit, “serve two masters” 101 Fable 45: De filomena et accipitre A hawk attacks a swallow’s nest, and the mother begins to plead with the hawk to save her young. The hawk concedes, and tells the swallow to sing her lovely song for him. The swallow sings, although she feels hatred for the hawk in her heart; the hawk must notice this, for he says that the song is vulgar, and kills all of the young, with the mother looking on. The fable devotes an entire four lines to lamenting the misfortunes of the mother, who would have rather died than lose her young. In the last lines of the fable, however, justice is served, as the hawk is trapped by a fowler. The moral points out that an evil way of life deserves an evil end; although, notably, this doesn’t account for the swallow’s loss. Dum filomena sedet, studium movet oris amoenum, Sic sibi, sic nido visa placere suo. Impetit accipiter nidum: pro pignore mater Supplicat; alter ait: “Plus prece carmen amo. Nec prece pretio, sed amoeno flectere cantu Me potes.” ille silet, dulcius illa canit. accipiter, accipitris m./f.: a hawk amo (1): to love amoenus, -a, -um: beautiful cano (3): to sing cantus, cantus m.: a song carmen, carminis n.: a song, music dulcior, -us: pleasant, sweet filomena, -ae f.: a nightingale flecto (3): to bend, persuade impeto (3): to attack, assail mater, matris f.: a mother moveo (2): to move, stir, agitate nidus, -i m.: a nest os, oris n.: a mouth, speech pignus, pignoris n.: a hostage placeo (2): to please, satisfy plus (adv.): more pretium, -i n.: a price, value prex, precis f.: a prayer, request sedeo (2): to sit, settle sileo (2): to be silent studium, -i n.: eagerness, enthusiasm supplico (1): to pray video (2) vidi, visus: see, look at studium ... amoenum: “moves the sweet enthusiasm,” i.e. she sings prece: abl. of comparison after plus, “more than prayer” prece pretio: abl. of means, hendiadys, “not to persuade with a valuable prayer” 102 Aesop’s Fables Mente gemit, licet ore canat, mens eius acescit, Cuius mellifluum manat ab ore melos. Impia fatur avis: “Sordet modus iste canoris.” Et laniat natum, matre vidente, suum. Mater obit, nec obire potest: sic vivit, ut ipsam Vincat vita necem, plus nece cladis habens. Cor matris patitur plus nati corpore: corpus Rodit avis rostro, cor fodit ense dolor. acesco (3): to turn sour canor, canoris m.: a song clades, cladis f.: defeat cor, cordis n.: a heart corpus, corporis n.: a body fodio (3): to dig, dig out for (1): to speak, talk gemo (3): to moan, groan impius, -a, -um: wicked, impious lanio (1): to tear, mangle licet (2): to it is permitted mano (1): to flow, pour mellifluus, -a, -um: sweet flowing melos, -i n.: a song mens, mentis f.: mind modus, -i m.: a manner, mode natus, -i m.: a son, child nex, necis f.: death, murder obeo, obire: die patior (3): to suffer plus, pluris (gen.): more rodo (3): to gnaw, peck rostrum, -i n.: a beak sordeo (2): to be dirty, vulgar vinco (3): to conquer, defeat vita, -ae f.: life, career mente ... ore: abl. of place, “in the mind ... in the mouth” an antithesis” canat: pres. subj. concessive after licet, “although she sings” mellifluum ... melos: “sweet-flowing song” figura etymologica matre vidente: abl. abs., “with the mother watching” suum: reflexive pronoun where eius would be expected ut...vincat: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “in order that life conquer death” nece ... corpore: abl. of comparison after plus, “having more of defeat than death” corpore: abl. of comparison after plus, “suffers more than the body of the child” rostro ... ense: abl. of means, “gnaws with his beak ... with a sword” i.e. like a sword (which is sharper than the beak) 103 The Elegaic Romulus Vestigat sua poena scelus: nam, fraudibus uso Aucupe, fraudosam viscus inescat avem. Fine malo claudi mala vita meretur: iniquus, Qua capit insontes, se dolet arte capi. ars, artis f.: skill, art, trick auceps, aucupis m.: a bird-catcher, fowler capio (3): to take hold, seize claudo (3): to close, shut claudus, -a, -um: defective doleo (2): to hurt, feel pain dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish ensis, ensis m.: a sword finis, finis m./f.: an end fraus, fraudis f.: fraud, trickery inesco (1): to entice, fill with food iniquus, a, -um: unjust, unfair insons, insontis (gen.): guiltless, innocent malum, -i n.: evil mereo (2): to earn, deserve poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment scelus, sceleris n.: a crime utor (3): to use vestigo (1): to track down, search for viscus, -i m.: bird-lime (used for trapping birds) uso aucupe: abl. abs., “the fowler having used” +abl. fraudibus: abl. after uso, “used trickery” fine malo: abl. of means, “closed by a bad end” claudi: pres. pass. inf. after meretur, “deserves to be closed” qua: abl. with antecedent arte, “captured by the art by which” capi: pres. pass. inf. after dolet, “grieves that he is captured” 104 Fable 46: De lupo et vulpe Here the two villains meet again, but this time the fox is not so honest as in the other fable by the same name. The fox is envious of the prey that the wolf has caught and speaks sweetly to the wolf, trying to score a share for herself. The wolf sees through the fox’s disguise and refuses to share his catch. The fox, sorely disappointed, finds the shepherd, and tells him the location of the wolf ’s den, so that he is able to slay the wolf. The fox is then able to devour the wolf ’s hoard, but her joy is short lived, as she falls into a snare but an hour later. The moral of this fable is not unlike the previous fable in cautioning that an envious man will bring harm unto himself. Ditat praeda lupum; ducit lupus otia longo Fausta cibo. Vulpes invidet, ista movet: “Frater, ave. Miror cur tanto tempore mecum Non fueris; nequeo non memor esse tui.” Ille refert: “Pro me vigilet tua cura, precari Numina non cesses, ne mea vita ruat. cesso (1): to be remiss, cease from cibus, -i m.: food cura, -ae f.: concern, worry dito (1): to enrich duco (3): to lead, command faustus, -a, -um: favorable frater, fratris m.: a brother invideo (2): to envy longus, -a, -um: long lupus, lupi m.: a wolf memor, memoris (gen.): remembering (+ gen.) miro (1): to be amazed, surprised nequeo, (4): be unable, cannot (+ inf.) numen, numinis n.: divine will otium, -i n.: leisure, spare time praeda, -ae f.: booty, loot precor (1): to beg, implore refero, referre: to respond ruo (3): to destroy, ruin tantus, a, um: of such size, so great vigilo (1): to remain awake, be awake vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox longo cibo: abl. of cause, “from the long food” an example of transfered epithet since the longo more properly goes with otia tanto tempore: abl. of time within which, “for such a great time” where we would expect an accusative cur...non fueris: perf. subj. in indirect question, “wonder why you have not been” nequeo non: “I am not able to not be mindful” i.e. I can’t forget vigilet: pres. subj. jussive, “let your care stay awake!” non cesses: pres. subj. jussive, “may you not cease” +inf. ne...ruat: pres. subj. in noun clause after precari, “pray that my life not be destroyed” 105 The Elegaic Romulus Fraude tamen munita venis falsoque venenum Melle tegis. Dolor est copia nostra tibi. Extorquere paras aliquid furtumque minaris, Sed mea furtivam respuit esca gulam.” Spreta redit; spretam stimulat dolor; apta dolori Fraus subit: ad pecorum transvolat illa ducem. Hunc monet his verbis: “Tua gratia muneris instar Sit mihi, namque lupum dat mea cura tibi. Hostem perde tuum: tuto jacet hostis in antro.” antrum, -i n.: a cave, cavern aptus, -a, -um: suitable, adapted copia, -ae f.: plenty, abundance dux, ducis m.: a leader, guide esca, -ae f.: food, meat extorqueo (2): to extort, tear away falsus, -a, -um: wrong, false faveo (2): to favor, oblige furtivus, -a, -um: stolen, secret furtum, -i n.: theft, trick gratia, -ae f.: favor, thanks gula, -ae f.: a throat, neck hostis, -is m/f.: anenemy instar: as large as (+ gen.) jaceo (2): to lie, lie down mel, mellis n.: honey, sweetness minor (1): to threaten moneo (2): to remind, advise, warn munio (4) munivi, munitus: fortify, arm munus, muneris n.: service, duty namque: on the other hand paro (1): to prepare (+ inf.) pecus, pecoris n.: a herd, flock perdo (3): to ruin, destroy redeo, redire: return, retire respuo (3): to reject, spit, spew out sperno (3) sprevi, spretus: scorn, despise stimulo (1): to incite, rouse to frenzy subeo, subire: arise, comes from below tego (3): to cover, protect transvolo (1): to fly across tutus, -a, -um: safe, prudent venenum, -i n.: poison, drug venio (4): to come verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb vir, -i m.: a man munita: perf. part. nom., “you, having been armed with fraud” falso melle: abl. of means, “cover with false sweetness” dolor: nom. pred., “our abundance is grief” furtivam gulam: a stolen throat, i.e. a throat intending to steal, transferred epithet spreta: perf. part. nom., “she, having been scorned” dolori: dat. after apta, “suitable to her pain” pecorum ducem: the leader of the flocks, i.e. a shepherd sit: pres. subj. jussive, “let your thanks be” tuto in antro: “in a safe cave” transferred epithet 106 Aesop’s Fables Vir favet: antra petit, hic necat ense lupum. Ista lupi consumit opes, sed floret ad horam Vita nocens. Vulpes, casse retenta, gemit: “Cur nocui? Nocet ecce mihi nocuisse nocivo. Jure cado, cuius concidit arte lupus.” Vivere de rapto vitam rapit: invidus, instans Alterius damnis, in sua damna redit. alter, -a, -um: one (of two) ars, artis f.: art, skill cado (3): to fall, sink cassis, cassis n.: a hunting net concido (3) concidi: to die consumo (3): to burn up, destroy damnum, -i n.: damage, harm floreo (2): to flourish, bloom gemo (3): to moan, groan hora, -ae f.: an hour, time instans, instantis (gen.): eager for (+ dat.) invidus, -a, -um: hateful jus, juris n.: law, right lupus, lupi m.: a wolf neco (1): to kill, murder nocens, nocentis (gen.): harmful, guilty noceo (2) nocui: harm, hurt nocivus, -a, -um: harmful, injurious ops, opis f.: wealth peto (3): to attack, seek rapio (3): to drag off, snatch raptum, -i n.: plunder retineo (2) retinui, retentus: to hold back, restrain vivo (3): to be alive, live muneris instar: “as large as my service” ista: i.e. the fox ad horam: “blooms up to an hour” retenta: perf. part. nom., “she, having been caught by a net” nocuisse: perf. inf. after impersonal nocet, “it harms to have harmed” note the polyptoton jure: abl. of manner, “I fall justly” mihi ... novivo: dat., “harms harmful me” vivere: subj. of rapit, “to live from plunder plunders life” alterius: gen. of alter, “the harm of another” 107 Fable 47: De cervo, tibiis, et cornibus Here is another common fable in the elegiac Romulus: a stag sees the reflection of his antlers in a pool, which gladdens him. He then looks down and notices his legs, which are very thin, and scorns their weakness. A pack of dogs begins to chase him, and he runs away, but is soon trapped in a tree by his horns. The end of the fable notes that his legs, which he had shamed, would have been his escape, while the horns that he was so proud of ensnared him and brought upon his death. The moral notes the foolishness of scorning anything that might be of benefit. The woodcut that both Steinhowel and Caxton use to correspond to this fable is particularly interesting-- you will see that there is a man playing a pipe leading the dogs, even though no such character appears in the fable. The language in the fable however does describe his legs as “tibia macra pedum,” or the “thin flutes of his feet.” It seems that the flute in the image may not have been meant to depict a part of the fable at all, but instead as a kind of visual mnemonic to signal to the reader that it was his pipe-like legs which could have been the key to the stag’s freedom. Fons nitet, argento similis. Sitis arida cervum Huc rapit; haurit aquas, se speculatur aquis. Hunc beat; hunc mulcet ramosae gloria frontis; Hunc premit, hunc laedit tibia macra pedum. Ecce canes, tonat ira canum; timet ille, timenti aqua, -ae f.: water argentum, -i n.: silver aridus, -a -um: dry, parched beo (1): to bless canis, canis m/f.: a dog, hound cervus, -i m.: a stag, deer cornu, cornus n.: a horn fons, fontis m.: a spring, fountain frons, frontis m./f.: a forehead gloria, -ae f.: glory, fame haurio (4): to drink, swallow, drain ira, -ae f.: anger, ire laedo (3): to hurt, embarass macer, -ra, -rum: thin mulceo (2): to appease, please niteo (2): to shine, glitter pes, pedis m.: a foot premo (3): to press, overwhelm ramosus, -a, -um: having many branches rapio (3): to snatch, catch sitis, sitis f.: thirst speculor (1): to watch, observe tibia, -ae f.: a leg, flute timeo (2): to fear, dread tono (1): to thunder argento: dat. after similis, “like silver” hunc ... hunc: anaphora 108 Aesop’s Fables Fit fuga: culpati cruris adorat opem. Silvae claustra subit, cornu retinente moratur: Crure neci raptum cornua longa necant. Spernere quod prosit et amare quod obsit ineptum est. Prodest quod fugimus et quod amamus obest. adoro (1): to beg amo (1): to love claustrum, -i n.: an enclosure crus, cruris n.: a leg, shank (of a tree) culpo (1): to blame, find fault with fuga, -ae f.: a flight, fleeing fugio (3): to flee, avoid ineptus, -a, -um: silly, foolish longus, -a, -um: long, tall moro (1): to delay nex, necis f.: death obsum, obsesse: to hurt ops, opis f.: power, might prosum, prodesse: to be useful retineo (2): to hold back, restrain silva, -ae f.: wood, forest subeo (4): go, move underneath culpati: perf. part. agreeing with cruris, “power of the faulted leg” cornu retinente: abl. abs., “with the horn holding back” crure: abl. of means, “caught by a tree shank” note the pun on crus, which is somewhat forced because presumably his horns would be caught by the branches, not the “shank” of the tree neci: dat. of purpose, “snatched for death” spernere...amare: inf. subject of est, “to spurn... to love is foolish” quod prosit...quod obsit: pres. subj. in relative clause of characteristic, “that which is useful...that which harms” 109 Fable 48: De viro et uxore Better known as the widow of Ephesus, the story in this fable is more familiar from its apearance in the Satyricon of Petronius. The fable here is told just as the earlier story; a widow is mourning over the body of her husband when she is seen by a soldier who is guarding the body of a thief on a cross. The soldier finds himself captivated by the widow, but while he is pouring out his love to her, the thief ’s body is taken off the cross. The soldier laments that he will surely be sent into exile for this, but the wife strategizes that the body of her husband might substitute for the thief ’s missing body. This tale is used by Petronius, and by countless others, to point out the fickleness of a woman’s love, and this version is no different; the woman is chastised in the moral for oppressing men with fear and pain. Later versions of the fable, beginning with Marie de France, praise the ingenuity of the widow and approve her logic of using her dead husband’s body, which is a useless corpse, to prevent the death of another. Dum vir et uxor amant, uxorem privat amato Parca viro, nec eam privat amore viri. Conjugis amplectens tumulum, pro conjuge vexat Ungue genas, oculos fletibus, ora sono. amor, amoris m.: love, affection amplector (3): to surround, embrace conjunx, -conjugis m.: a spouse fletus, fletus m.: crying, tears gena, -ae f.: cheeks, eyes oculus, -i m.: an eye os, oris n.: a mouth, speech Parca, -ae f.: Fate privo (1): to deprive, rob, free sonus, -i m.: a noise, sound tumulus, -i m.: a mound, tomb unguis, -is m.: a fingernail uxor, uxoris f.: a wife vexo (1): to shake, torment vir, -i m.: a man, husband amato viro ... amore: abl. separation after privat, “deprives her of beloved husband ... but not her love” i.e. she still loves him after losing him viri: gen. objective, “love for her husband” ungue ... fletibus ... sono: abl. of means, “torments with her nail ... with tears ... with sound” 110 Aesop’s Fables Hanc juvat ipse dolor, nequit haec de sede revelli Grandine seu tenebris seu prece sive minis. Ecce reum damnat judex: crux horrida punit, In cruce custodit tempore noctis eques. Hic sitit; ad tumulum vocat hunc et clamor et ignis: Oratque aquae munus; haec dat et ille bibit. aegrum nectareis audet cor inungere verbis; Hunc vocat ad primum cura timoris opus. Sed redit et dulces monitus intexit amaro Cordi: victa subit castra doloris amor. aeger, -ra, -rum: sick amarus, -a, -um: bitter aqua, -ae f.: water audeo (2): to intend, dare bibo (3): to drink castrum, -i n.: a fort, fortress clamor, clamoris m.: a shout, war-cry cor, cordis n.: heart, mind crux, crucis f.: a cross cura, -ae f.: anxiety custodio (4): to guard damno (1): to pass judgment, find guilty dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish dulcis, dulce: pleasant, sweet eques, equitis m.: a horseman, knight grando, grandinis f.: hail, hail-storm horridus, -a, -um: horrible ignis, ignis m.: fire, passion intexo (3): to weave in inungo (3): to anoint judex, judicis m.: a judge, juror juvat (1): to it pleases, delights mina, -ae f.: threats, menaces monitus, monitus m.: warning, advice nectareus, -a, -um: sweet as nectar nequeo (4): be unable, cannot nox, noctis f.: night opus, operis n.: duty, work oro (1): to beg, ask for prex, precis f.: prayer, request primus, -a, -um: first punio (4): to punish redeo (4): return, go back reus, -i m.: a culprit, guilty party revello (3): to tear, pull away sedes, sedis f.: a seat sitio (4): to be thirsty tempus, temporis n.: time tenebra, t-ae f.: darkness timor, timoris m.: fear verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb vinco (3), vici, victus: to conquer voco (1): to call revelli: pres. inf. pass. after nequit, “refuses to be pulled away” crux punit: “the cross punishes” i.e. he is condemned to the cross, transferred epithet tempore noctis: (= nocte) “at night” cura: nom. subject, “the anxiety of fear calls” amaro cordi: dat after intexit, “weaves advice into her bitter heart” victa castra: “the conquered fortress of grief ” an example of prolepsis 111 The Elegaic Romulus Vir, metuens furi furem, suspendia furis Visit, sed viduam, tactus amore, petit. Hanc ligat amplexu fructumque ligurit amoris. Hinc redit ad furem, sed loca fure carent. Hic dolet, hoc questu dolor hic instigat amicam: “Non bene servato fure, timore premor. Rex mihi servandum dederat: me regius ensis Terret et extorrem me jubet esse timor.” amica, -ae f.: a girl-friend amplexus, amplexus m.: a clasp, embrace careo (2): to be without (+ abl.) doleo (2): to hurt ensis, ensis m.: a sword extorris, -e: exiled fructus, fructus m.: crops, fruit fur, furis m./f.: a thief, robber instigo (1): to urge on, stir jubeo (2): to order, command ligo (1): to bind, fasten ligurio (4): to desire, taste locum, -i n.: a seat, place metuo (3): to fear, be afraid peto (3): to attack premo (3): to press, pursue questus, -us m.: a complaint regius, -a, -um: royal, of a king rex, regis m.: a king servo (1): to watch over subeo, -ire:: to approach, attack suspendium, -i n.: a hanging tango (3) tetigi, tactus: to touch terreo (2): to frighten, scare viduus, -a, -um: widowed viso (3): to visit, go to see furi: dat. of advantage, “fearing a thief for the thief” i.e. that someone would steal the thief ’s body, which in fact happens ligat ... ligurit: “he binds ... he tastes” note the pun fure: abl. of specification after carent, “lack the thief” note the polyptoton questu: abl. of means, “stirs her with this complaint” servato fure: abl. abs., “the thief having been guarded” sevandum: supine acc. expressing purpose, “had given him in order to be guarded” extorrem: acc. pred., “orders me to be exiled” 112 Aesop’s Fables Haec ait: “Inveni, quae spem tibi suscitet, artem. Vir meus implebit in cruce furis onus.” Ipsa viri bustum reserat, pro fure catenat Ipsa virum, restem subligat ipsa viro. Huic merito succumbit eques; succumbit amori Illa novo, ligat hos firmus amore torus. Sola premit vivosque metu poenaque sepultos Femina: femineum nil bene finit opus. ars, artis f.: a device bustum, -i n.: a tomb cateno (1): to chain, bind femina, -ae f.: a woman, female femineus, -a, -um: woman’s, female finio (4): to limit, end firmus, -a, -um: firm, steady impleo (2): to satisfy, fulfill invenio (4), inveni: to come upon ligo (1): to bind, unite merito: (adv.) rightly metus, metus m.: fear, anxiety nil: nothing novus, -a, -um: new, fresh onus, oneris n.: a load, burden poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment resero (1): to open up, unseal restis, restis f.: a rope, cord sepelio (4) sepelivi, sepultus: to bury solus, -a, -um: only, alone spes, spei f.: hope subligo (1): to fasten X (acc.) to Y (dat.) succumbo (3): to yield to (+ dat.) suscito (1): to encourage, stir up torus, -i m.: a wedding bed vivus, -a, -um: alive, living quae suscitet: pres. subj. in relative clause of characteristic, “device which would raise” viro: dat. after subligat, “she ties a cord to her husband” huic ... amori novo: dat. after succumbit, “he yields to her ... she to a new love”” amore: abl. of specification, “firm with love” vivosque ... sepultos : (sc. viros) acc., “oppresses men living ... and dead” metu poenaque: abl. of means, “oppresses with fear and punishment” nil: indec., “ends well not at all” 113 Fable 49: De juvene et Thaide Continuing the theme of the previous fable, here women are again presented in a negative light. Thais ensnares young men with her wiles, and then receives all she wants from them by promising them true love. Thais preforms her tricks on a particular young man who is familiar with her ways; he tells the woman that he would be happy to return her love, except that he fears to be deceived by her wicked tongue. The moral further incriminates Thais by saying that she lacks love itself, only caring for the gifts of love. Arte sua Thais juvenes irretit: amorem Fingit et ex ficto fructus amore venit. A multis fert multa procis; ex omnibus unum Eligit, huic veri spondet amoris opes. “Sum tua sisque meus cupio; plus omnibus unum Te volo, sed nolo munus habere tuum.” Percipit ille dolos et reddit qualia sumpsit: “Sis mea simque tuus. Nos decet equus amor; Vivere non vellem nisi mecum vivere velles: Tu mihi sola salus, tu mihi sola quies; ars, artis f.: skill, art, trick cupio (3): to wish, long for, desire eligo (3): to pick out, choose fero, ferre: to bring, bear fingo (3) finxi, fictus: to mold, form, shape habeo (2): to have irretio (4): to entangle, catch in a net juvenis, juvenis m./f.: a young man multus, -a, -um: much, many munus, muneris n.: service, gift nolo, nolle: wish not to ops, opis f.: wealth plus (adv.): more (+ abl.) procus, -i m.: a wooer, suitor spondeo (2): to promise X (acc.) to Y (dat.) Thais, Thaidis f.: Thais, a famous Greek courtesan whose name became generic for a courtesan unus, -a, -um: alone venio (4): to come verus, -a, -um: true volo, velle: wish, want fert multa: “she takes many gifts” sis: pres. subj. in noun clause after cupio, “I desire that you be mine” plus omnibus: “I want you alone more than all” 114 Aesop’s Fables Sed falli timeo, quia me tua lingua fefellit. Preteriti ratio scire futura facit. Vitat avis taxum quam, gustu teste, probavit. Fallere vult hodie, si qua fefellit heri.” Thaida si quis amat, sua, non se, credat amari: Thais amore caret, munus amantis amat. aequus, -a, -um: equal, reciprocal avis, avis f.: a bird careo (2): to be without (+ abl.) credo (3): to trust, entrust decet (2): it is fitting dolus, doli m.: a trick, device fallo (3), fefelli: to deceive futurus, -a, -um: about to be, future gustus, gustus m.: tasting, appetite heri: yesterday hodie: today lingua, -ae f.: a tongue, speech percipio (3): to perceive praeteritum, -i n.: the past probo (1): to try, examine quies, quietis f.: quiet, calm ratio, rationis f.: an account reddo (3): to return, restore salus, salutis f.: health scio (4): know, understand solus, -a, -um: only sumo (3) sumpsi: to take up, begin taxus, -i f.: a yew-tree testis, testis m.: a witness timeo (2): to fear, dread vito (1): to avoid, evade vivo (3): to be alive, live sis ... sim: pres. subj. in hortatory and jussive clauses, “may you be mine ... may I be yours” vellem ... velles: impf. subj. in present contrafactual condition, “I would not wish ... unless you would wish” falli: pres.inf. pass., “fear to be deceived” scire: pres. inf. after causative facit, “causes to know” gustu teste: abl. abs., “with taste as a witness” si qua: abl. of manner, “if in any way” sua, non se: acc. subj. of amari in ind. st. after credat, “believe his own things, not himself to be loved” credat: pres. subj. in future less vivid apodosis, “he would believe” 115 Fable 50: De patre et filio Like the early “Woman Marrying a Thief,” the narrative of the father and the son serves as a framework for the animal fable. Here a father is frustrated with his son’s bad behavior, but continuously punishes his servants for it. The fable is included to instruct the old man; a wise man hooks both an ox and his calf to a yoke, so that the calf might learn to plow from his parent. The moral suggests to the father this form of instruction — teaching by example . Est pater, huic natus; hic patri cedere nescit: Nam fugienda facit et facienda fugit. Mens vaga discurrit et menti consonat aetas: Mentis et aetatis turbine frena fugit. Ira senis punit pro nati crimine servos. Instruit ista senem fabula nota seni. Cauta bovem vitulumque manus supponit aratro: aetas, aetatis f.: lifetime, age aratrum, aratri n.: a plow bos, bovis m.: an ox, bull cautus, -a, -um: cautious, careful cedo (3): to yield, submit consono (1): to sound, utter crimen, criminis n.: a sin, crime discurro (3): to wander, roam fabula, -ae f.: a story, tale filius, -i m.: a son frenum, -i n.: a bridle, check fugio (3): to flee instruo (3): to prepare, instruct ira, -ae f.: anger, ire manus, manus f.: a hand mens, mentis f.: mind, reason natus, -i m.: a son, child nescio (4): to not know how to (+ inf.) notus, -a, -um: well known, familiar pater, patris m.: a father punio (4): to punish senex, senis m.: an old man servus, -i m.: a slave, servant suppono (3): to place X (acc.) under Y (dat.) turbo, turbinis n.: a whirlwind, storm vagus, -a, -um: roving, wandering vitulus, -i m.: a calf patri: dat. after cedere, “yield to the father” fugienda ... facienda: gerundives, “things to be fled ... things to be done” menti: dat. after consonat, “conforms to the mind” turbine: abl. of cause, “because of the storm of his mind and age” pro nati crimine: it was not uncommon in antiquity to punish servants for the crime of their master seni: dat. after nota, “known to the old man” cauta ... manus: nom. subject, “a cautious hand plans” aratro: dat. after supponit, “places under the plow” 116 Aesop’s Fables Hic subit, ille jugum pellit. Arator ait: “Gaude, laetus ara, tu quem domat usus arandi. A bove majori discat arare minor. Non placet ut sudes, sed des exempla minori, Qui pede, qui cornu, pugnat abire jugo.” Sic domat indomitum domito bove cautus arator, Sic veterem sequitur junior ille bovem. Proficit exempli merito cautela docendi, Majorique sua credat in arte minor. arator, aratoris m.: a plowman, farmer aro (1): to plow, till cautela, -ae f.: caution, precaution cornu, cornus n.: a horn, hoof disco (3): to learn to (+ inf.) doceo (2): to teach, show domo (1): to subdue, master exemplum, -i n.: an example gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice indomitus, -a, -um: untamed jugum, jugi n.: a yoke junior, junius: younger laetus, -a, -um: happy, joyful major, -us: larger, greater meritum, -i n.: merit, service minor, -us: inferior in rank pello (3): to beat, resist pes, pedis m.: a foot placeo (2): to please, satisfy proficio (3): to accomplish, be useful pugno (1): to fight, dispute (+ inf.) sequor (3): to follow subeo (4): go/move underneath sudo (1): to sweat, perspire utor (3): to use veterrimus, -a, -um: old, aged arandi: gerund gen., “the use of plowing masters” discat: pres. subj. jussive, “let a small one learn to plow” ut sudes: pres subj in noun clause after placet, “it does not please you to sweat” des: pres. subj. jussive, “you ought to give” jugo: dat. after abire, “to endure the yoke” domito bove: abl. abs., “while taming the cow” merito: abl. of manner, “is deservedly useful” docendi: gerundive agreeing with exempli, “of the example that must be taught” i.e. teaching by example credat: pres. subj. jussive, “let the lesser trust” + dat. 117 The Elegaic Romulus Fable 51: De vipera et lima In this fable, not only do animals have the ability to speak, but inanimate objects suddenly are able to discern good from evil as well. A viper begins to gnaw on a file that she found in a workman’s shop. The file speaks to the viper, explaining that her bite is stronger than the viper’s, and that she is able to turn hard materials into dust. The moral doesn’t truly address either character, but notes that the strong should love other things which are strong, while the smaller should fear those with strength. Vipera fabrilem, dapis anxia, tendit in aedem; Incipit haec limam rodere, lima loqui: “Nescis posse meum, quae sit mea gloria nescis: Dente meo pateris. Non ego dente tuo. In tenuem ferrum forti molo dente farinam, Et cadit attritu dura farina meo. aedis, -is f.: a dwelling anxius, -a, -um: anxious about (+ gen.) attritus, -us m.: rubbing cado (3): to fall, sink daps, dapis f.: a feast dens, dentis m.: a tooth durus, -a, -um: hard, rough fabrilis, -e: of a workman farina, -ae f.: flour, dust ferrum, -i n.: iron fortis, forte: strong gloria, -ae f.: glory, fame incipio (3): to begin, start lima, -ae f.: a file loquor (3): to speak, say molo (3): to grind nescio (3): to not know patior (3): to suffer, undergo rodo (3): to gnaw, peck tendo (3): to stretch, spread tenuis, tenue: thin, fine vipera, -ae f.: a viper, snake loqui (sc. incipit): pres. inf., “the file (begins) to speak” posse: inf. used as a substantive, “know my power” quae sit: pres subj. in ind. quest. after nescis, “know what is my glory” in tenuem ... farinam: “grind iron into fine flour” attritu meo: abl. means., “by my rubbing” 118 Aesop’s Fables Ferrea mordaci castigo tubera morsu, Aspera plano, seco longa, foranda foro. Deliras, igitur, cum dente minaris inermi. Rideo, quod ferior; vulnera ferre gemis.” Fortem fortis amet: nam fortem fortior angit. Maiori timeat obvius ire minor. amo (1): to love, like ango (3): to choke, strangle, cause pain asperus, -a, -um: uneven, rough castigo (1): to correct, smooth deliro (1): to be mad, crazy ferio (4): to hit, strike fero, ferre: bring, bear ferreus, -a, -um: made of iron foro (1): to pierce, bore gemo (3): to moan, grieve (+ inf.) igitur: therefore inermus, -a, -um: unarmed, defenseless longus, -a, -um: long, tall major, -us: greater, larger minor (1): to threaten minus, -or: less, smaller mordax, mordacis (gen.): biting morsus, morsus m.: a bite obvius, -a, -um: in the way of (+ dat.) plano (1): to level, flatten rideo (2): to laugh at seco (1): to cut, sever tuber, tuberis n.: a protuberance, bump vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound foranda: neut. pl. gerundive, “I bore the things that must be bored amet: pres. subj. jussive, “let the strong love” timeat: pres. subj. jussive,” let the smaller fear to go” 119 Fable 52: De lupis et ovibus The wolves are engaged in a battle with the sheep, and with the help of the dog and the ram, the sheep seem to be winning. The wolves loose hope, turning to deceit instead. The wolf and the ram negotiate a treaty, which is marked by the exchange of hostages. The sheep trade the dog, while the wolves trade their young. This agreement holds until the young wolves grow up; the treaty is then soon forgotten and the wolves devour the sheep. The moral warns against loosing a defender as the sheep did, saying that without a strong defense you are vulnerable to the enemy. Pugna lupis opponit oves, oviumque satelles Est canis, est vervex: haec ope fidit ovis. Palma diu dormit, desperat turba luporum Et, simulans foedus, foedere temptat ovem. Foedus utrumque fides jurato numine fulcit, Id lupus, id simplex obside firmat ovis, cane, canis n.: a dog, hound despero (1): to despair dormio (4): to sleep, rest fides, fidei f.: faith fido (3): to trust (in) (+ abl.) firmo (1): to support, confirm foedo (3): to pollute foedus, foederis n.: a treaty, pledge fulcio (4): to prop up, support juro (1): to swear lupus, -i m.: a wolf numen, numinis n.: divine will, divinity obses, obsidis m./f.: a hostage oppono (3): to oppose, place opposite ops, opis f.: help ovis, ovis f.: a sheep palma, -ae f.: palm award, victory pugna, pugnae f.: a battle, fight satelles, satellitis m./f.: an accomplice simplex: simple, plain simulo (1): to imitate, pretend tempto (1): to test, bribe turba, -ae f.: a crowd, mob uterque, -a, um: each, either of two vervex, vervis (M): wether lupis: dat. after compound verb, “opposes the sheep to the wolves” ovium ... canis: gen. of material, “accomplice consisting of sheep and a dog” foedus, foedere: “pretending a treaty, they try to pollute” a pun jurato numine: abl. abs., “a divinty having been sworn” i.e. an oath having been taken 120 Aesop’s Fables Datque lupis, male sana, canes, recipitque luporum Pignora: nec metuit nec sua damna videt. Cum natura jubet natos ululare lupinos, Turba lupina furit, foedera rupta querens. Ergo pecus, tutoris egens, in viscera mergit: Praeside nuda suo sic tumulatur ovis. Tutorem retinere suum tutissima res est: Nam si tutor abest, hostis obesse potest. absum, abesse: absent, be lacking damnum, damni n.: injury egeo (2): to lack, want (+ gen.) furo (3): to rave, rage hostis, -is m/f.: an enemy jubeo (2): to order, command lupinus, -a, -um: of or belonging to a wolf malus, -a, -um: bad, evil mergo (3): to dip, plunge metuo (3): to fear, be afraid natura, -ae f.: nature natus, -i m.: a child, children (pl.) nudus, -a, -um: nude, stripped of (+ abl.) obsum, obesse: to hurt pecus, pecoris n.: a herd, flock pignus, pignoris n.: a pledge queror (3): to complain, protest recipio (3): to recover retineo (2): to retain,preserve rumpo (3): to break, destroy sanus, -a, -um: sound, healthy tumulo (1): to bury tutissimus, -a, -um: safe tutor, tutoris m.: a protector, defender ululo (1): to howl, yell video (2): to see, look at viscus, visceris n.: innards male sane (= insana): “she, madly, gives” luporum pignora: “receives pledges of the wolves” i.e. the wolves’ pups as hostages foedera rupta (sc. esse): ind. st. after querens, “protesting that the pledges have been broken” in viscera mergit: “plunge into their stomachs” i.e. they are eaten by the wolves praeside suo: abl. of separation after nuda, “stripped from their own protector” retinere: pres. inf. subject of est, “to keep your protecter is safest” 121 Fable 53: De viro et securi With a moral similar to the previous fable, here an ax-blade is without a handle, so it travels into the woods, asking a tree to supply a handle. The tree agrees, but soon the ax, equipped with a handle, is used to chop down the entire forest. The tree then laments his foolishness, and the readers are again reminded not to strengthen their enemy. Quo teneatur eget nil ausa secare securis. Armet eam lucus, vir rogat; ille favet. Vir nemus impugnat lassans in caede securim: Arboris omne genus una ruina trahit. arbor, arboris f.: a tree armo (1): to equip audeo (2) ausus sum: to dare caedes, caedis f.: murder, slaughter egeo (2): to lack, be without (+ abl.) faveo (2): to grant a favor genus, generis n.: a kind, sort, variety impugno (1): to fight against, attack lasso (1): to tire, wear out lucus, -i m.: a grove nemus, nemoris n.: wood, forest rogo (1): to ask, ask for ruina, -ae f.: fall, catastrophe, destruction seco (1): to cut securis, securis f.: an ax teneo (2): to hold, support traho (3): to draw, drag, haul vir, viri m.: a man quo teneatur: pres. subj. in rel. clause of characteristic, “lacks (something) by which it is held” i.e. a handle ausa: perf. part., “an ax having dared to cut nothing” i.e. able to cut nothing secare securis: figura etymologica armet: pres. subj. in ind. quest. after rogat, “the man asks the grove to equip her (the ax) ille: i.e. the grove 122 Aesop’s Fables Lucus ait: “Pereo. Mihimet sum causa pericli, Me necat ex dono rustica dextra meo.” Unde perire queas, hostem munire caveto: Qui dat quo pereat, quem juvat hoste perit. causa, -ae f.: a cause, source caveo (2): to beware, avoid dextra, -ae f.: a right hand donum, -i n.: a gift, present hostis, -is m/f: an enemy juvo (1): to help, assist munio (4): to fortify, strengthen neco (1): to kill, murder pereo (4): to die, pass away periclum, -i n.: danger, peril queo (3): to be able to (+ inf.) rusticus, -a, -um: country, rustic mihimet: -met is intensive, “cause to my own self” queas: pres. subj. in relative clause of characteristic, “whence you could die” caveto: fut. imper., “beware” + inf. quo pereat: pres. subj. in rel. clause of characteristic, “by which he may perish” hoste: abl. of cause, “dies from an enemy whom he helps” 123 Fable 54: De cane et lupo Another popular fable, “The Dog and the Wolf ” seems to have been particularly important to medieval readers, as the last nine lines are marked with paragraph indicators in a number of manuscript copies. The theme in this fable remains popular today. A wolf befriends a dog, and the dog begins to tell of all the luxuries that his master provides, including a warm bed and an abundance of food. The wolf is almost convinced to join the dog in this lifestyle until he notes the bare patches on the dog’s neck. The dog explains that those are left by the chains which bind him during the day so that he doesn’t injure anyone. The wolf explains that he would rather be a beggar and remain free than be fettered. Much like the country mouse and the ant of earlier fables, the wolf chooses to remain poor and retain his freedom, and the moral praises this. Cum cane silva lupum sociat. Lupus inquit: “Amoena Pelle nites, in te copia sancta patet.” Pro verbis dat verba canis: “Me ditat erilis Gratia, cum domino me cibat ipsa domus. Nocte vigil fures latratu nuntio, tutam Servo domum; mihi dat culmus in aede torum.” aedis, -is f.: a dwelling amoenus, -a, -um: beautiful, attractive canis, canis m/f.: a dog, hound cibo (1): to feed, give food copia, -ae f.: plenty, abundance culmus, -i m.: hay, straw dito (1): to enrich dominus, -i m.: a lord, master domus, -i f.: a house, household erilis, erile: of a master or mistress fur, furis m./f.: a thief, robber gratia, -ae f.: goodwill, kindness inquit: he says latratus, -us m.: barking lupus, -i m.: a wolf niteo (2): to shine, glitter nox, noctis f.: night nuntio (1): to announce, report pateo (2): to be well known, be accessible pellis, pellis f.: skin, hide sanctus, -a, -um: holy, inviolable servo (1): to watch over, protect silva, -ae f.: wood, forest socio (1): to unite, join torus, -i m.: a bed, cushion tutus, -a, -um: safe, secure verbum, -i n.: a word, proverb vigil, vigilis (gen.): awake, wakeful cum cane: abl. of accompaniment, “joins with a dog” pelle: abl. of specification, “you shine in your beautiful skin” nocte: abl. of time when, “awake at night” tutam: perd. acc., “I keep the house safe” 124 Aesop’s Fables Haec movet ore lupus: “Cupio me vivere tecum: Communem capiant otia nostra cibum.” Reddit verba canis: “Cupio te vivere mecum; Una dabit nobis mensa manusque cibum.” Ille favet sequiturque canem gutturque caninum Respicit et querit: “Cur cecidere pili?”; Inquit: “Ne valeam morsu peccare diurno, Vincla diurna fero, nocte labante vagor.” Reddit verba lupus: “Non est mihi copia tanti Ut fieri servus ventris amore velim. amor, amoris m.: love, affection cado (3) cecidi: fall caninus, -a, -um: of a dog capio (3): to take hold, seize cibus, -i m.: food communis, commune: common, shared diurnus, -a, -um: by day faveo (2): to befriend, support fero, ferre: to receive, get fio, fieri: to be made guttur, gutturis: throat, neck labor (1): to glide manus, manus f.: a hand mensa, -ae f.: a table morsus, morsus m.: a bite moveo (2): to move, stir noster, -a, -um: our os, oris n.: a mouth, speech otium, -i n.: leisure, spare time pecco (1): to sin, do wrong pilus, -i m.: hair quaero (3): to ask, inquire reddo (3): to return respicio (3): to look back at, consider sequor (3): to follow servus, -i m.: a slave, servant tantus, -a, -um: so great, so much unus, -a, -um: one vagor (1): to wander, roam valeo (2): to be strong, prevail venter, ventris m.: a stomach vinclum, -i n.: a chain, bond vivo (3): to live, reside volo, velle: wish, want ore: abl. of means, “moved these things with his mouth” i.e. he speaks capiant: pres. subj. jussive, “let our leisure seize food” i.e. let us seize food at out leisure una mensa manusque: nom., “one hand and one table will give” cecidere (=ceciderunt): perf., “why have your hairs fallen out?” ne valeam: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “lest I be able to sin” morsu: abl. of manner, “to sin by biting” nocte labente: abl. abs., “I wander with the night gliding by” i.e. at night ut ... velim: pres. subj. in result clause, “so great so that I wish to become” amore: abl. of cause, “because of the love of the stomach” 125 The Elegaic Romulus Ditior est liber mendicus divite servo: Servus habet nec se nec sua, liber habet; Libertas, praedulce bonum, bona cetera condit: Qua nisi conditur, nil sapit esca mihi. Libertas animi cibus est et vera voluptas, Qua qui dives erit, ditior esse nequit. Nolo velle meum pro turpi vendere lucro; Has qui vendit opes, hic agit ut sit inops.” Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro: Hoc celeste bonum praeterit orbis opes. ago (3): to drive, act animus, -i m.: mind, soul aurum, -i n.: gold bonum, -i n.: good celestis, celeste: heavenly ceterus, -a, -um: the remaining, rest condo (3): to put together, preserve ditior, -us: rich, wealthy dives, divitis (gen.): rich, wealthy esca, -ae f.: food, meat inops, inopis (gen.): weak, poor liber, -a, -um: free libertas, libertatis f.: freedom, liberty lucrum, -i n.: gain, profit, avarice mendicus, -i m.: a beggar nequeo, nequire: be unable (+ inf.) nolo, nolle: to be unwilling, wish not to ops, opis f.: power, might orbis, orbis m.: the orb, world praedulcis, praedulce: very sweet praetereo, praeterire: surpass, excel sapio (3): to be tasty servus, servi m.: a slave, servant totus, -a, -um: whole, all turpis, -e: disgraceful, shameful vendo (3): to sell verus, -a, -um: true, real volo, velle: wish, want, be willing voluptas, voluptatis f.: pleasure, delight divite servo: abl. of comparison, “wealthier than a rich slave” qua: abl. of specficiation with dives with antecedent libertas, “rich in which thing” velle: pres. inf. object of vendere, “to sell my willing” i.e. my free will pro turpi lucro: “sell for vile gain” ut sit: pres. subj. in purpose clause, “acts so that he is poor” 126 Fable 55: De ventre et membris This fable seems to reflect the Biblical idea of each member of the church body contributing an equal amount, found in 1 Corinthians 12:12-22, with which the medieval reader certainly could have been familiar. The scripture invokes a scenario in which one part of the body decides that it does not want to serve the rest of the body, and compares this to the members of the church working together. This fable elaborates this idea; the foot and the hand complain about the easy life that the stomach lives: it receives the profits of the work that the rest of the body preforms, but doesn’t have to do any work itself. The hand and foot suddenly refuse to feed the stomach, but, of course, this leads to the death of the body. The moral corresponds to the Biblical idea that no man can subsist alone. Incusant avidi pes et manus otia ventris: “Omnia solus habes lucra, labore cares. Nos labor edomuit, te fovit inertia: sorbes Omnia, quae nostri cura laboris emit. Disce pati famis acre jugum vel disce labori Cedere, teque tui cura laboris alat.” acer, acris: sharp, bitter alo (3): to feed, nourish avidus, -a, -um: greedy careo (2): to be without, lack cedo (3): to concede, yield cura, -ae f.: care, pains disco (3): to learn to (+ inf.) edomo (1) edomui: conquer, overcome emo (3): to gain, acquire fames, famis f.: hunger, want foveo (2): to keep warm, favor incuso (1): to criticize, condemn inertia, -ae f.: ignorance, inactivity jugum, -i n.: a yoke labor, laboris m.: labor, work lucrum, -i n.: gain, profit membrum, -i n.: a member, limb otium, -i n.: leisure patior (3): to suffer, endure pes, pedis m.: a foot solus, -a, -um: only, alone sorbeo (2): to drink, absorb venter, -tris n.: a stomach labore: abl. of sep., “you lack labor” i.e. you jdon’t work famis acre jugum: “the fierce yoke of hunger” labori: adt. after cedere, “yield to labor” i.e. agree to work alat: pres. subj. jussive, “and let the pain of your labor feed you” 127 The Elegaic Romulus Sic ventri servire negant; se venter inanem Comperit, orat opem: nil dat avara manus. Ille preces iterat: iterum fugit illa precantem. In stomachi fundo torpet obitque calor; Victa fame natura fugit, vis arida fauces Obserat ut solitum non sinat ire cibum. Vult epulas dare sera manus, sed corporis aegri Perdita non reparans machina tota perit. Nemo sibi satis est: eget omnis amicus amico. Si non vis alii parcere, parce tibi. aeger, -a, -um: sick, ill amicus, -i m.: a friend aridus, -a, -um: dried, thirsty avarus, -a -um: avaricious, greedy calor, caloris m.: heat, warmth comperio (4): to learn, discover corpus, corporis n.: a body egeo (2): to need (+ abl.) eo, ire: to go epula, -ae f.: food fames, famis f.: hunger, famine faux, faucis f.: a throat fugio (3): to flee, fly fundus, -i m.: bottom, lowest part inanis, inane: void, empty itero (1): to do a second time, repeat iterum: again machina, -ae f.: a machine natura, -ae f.: nature nego (1): to deny, refuse (+ inf.) nemo, neminis m./f.: no one, nobody obeo, obire: to die obsero (1): to fasten, shut off ops, opis f.: wealth oro (1): to beg, ask for parco (3): to spare, show consideration perdo (3) perdidi, perditus: to ruin, destroy pereo (4): to die, pass away precor (1): to beg, implore prex, precis f.: a prayer, request reparo (1): to renew, revive satis: enough, adequately serus, -a, -um: too late servio (4): to serve (+ dat.) sino (3): to allow, permit solitus, -a, -um: usual, customary stomachus, -i m.: a gullet, stomach torpeo (2): to be numb or lethargic vinco (3) vici, victus: to conquer, defeat vis, viris f.: strength, power inanem: acc. pred., “discovered itself to be empty” ille ... illa: “the stomach ... the hand” victa: perf. part. nom., “having been overcome by hunger, substance flees” ut...sinat: pres subj. in result clause, “so that it does not permit” + inf. sera: nom. agreeing with manus, “the hand too late wishes” alii: dat. after parcere, “to be sparing to another” 128 Fable 56: De simia et vulpe An ape is upset about her ugly child and tries to convince a vixen to give part of her tail to the child so that it might be more beautiful. The ape’s logic argues that the vixen’s tail is just a useless weight to her anyway and she can certainly spare part of it. The vixen replies that she is happy with her tail, which she considers to be light and short. The moral notes that something which a greedy person might try to downplay can be important to a poor man. Simia de turpi queritur nate; porrigit aures Vulpes: non recipit mente, sed aure preces. Simia sic fatur: “Natis ut mihi dedecus ornem Sufficeret caudae pars mihi parva tuae. Quid prodest nimia campos insculpere cauda Quod mihi prodesset, est tibi pondus iners.” Illa refert: “Nimio damnas de pondere caudam: Est brevis estque levis; haec duo damna queror. auris, auris f.: an ear brevis, breve: short, little campus, -i m.: a plane, level field cauda, -ae f.: a tail damno (1): to condemn damnum, -i n.: damage dedecus, dedecoris n.: disgrace duo, duae, duo: two iners, inertis (gen.): helpless insculpo (3): to carve, scrape levis, leve: light, thin natis, -is f.: buttocks nimius, -a, -um: excessive, too great orno (1): to furnish, decorate pars, partis f.: a part, share parvus, -a, -um: small, little pondus, ponderis n.: a weight, burden porrigo (3): to stretch out, extend prosum, prodesse: be useful queror (3): to complain, protest recipio (3): to accept, take in refero, referre: recall, reply simia, -ae m./f.: a monkey, ape sufficio (3): to be sufficient, suffice vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox mente...aure: abl. of means, “does not accept in her mind but in her ear” natis deducus: “the disgrace of my buttocks” the plural (natium) is more normal for this meaning ut ornem: pres. subj. in result clause after sufficeret, “could suffice for me to decorate” sufficeret: impf. subj. potential, “a small part could suffice” nimia cauda: abl. of means, “ to carve the plain with too great a tail” i.e. by dragging it on the ground quod mihi prodesset: impf. subj. potential, “which could be a proft to me” 129 The Elegaic Romulus Malo verrat humum quam sit tibi causa decoris, Quam tegat immundas res bene munda nates.” Id nimium minimoque minus ditaret egenum, Quod nimium minimo credis, avare, minus. avarus, -i: greedy person causa, -ae f.: a cause, reason credo (3): to believe decus, decoris n.: glory, honor dito (1): to enrich egenus, -i m.: a poor man humus, -i f.: ground, soil immundus, -a, -um: dirty, filthy malo, malle: to prefer minor, minus: less mundus, -a, -um: clean natis, natis f.: a rump nimium, -i n.: excess nimium: (adv.) very tego (3): to cover, hide verro (3): to swee verrat: pres. subj. in noun clause after malo, I prefer that it sweep” quam sit ... quam teget: pres. subj. in noun clause of comparison after malo, “than that it be ... than that a clean thing cover” id nimium ... avare, minus: these two lines are highly mannered. The following reordering of the words suggests one rendering: id nimium minimoque minus, quod credis, avare, (esse) minus nimium minimo, ditaret egenum, “that excess and by the least less, which you, avaricious one, believe (to be) less than the very least, could enrich a needy person” id nimium minimoque minus: “that excess and (amount) less than the least” a paradoxical statement. The ape claims that the piece of tail is both an excess (nimium) to the fox and also a very small thing. ditaret: impf. subj. potential, “that thing could enrich” avare: voc., “Oh greedy one” 130 Fable 57: De institore et asino The moral of this fable endorses seeking revenge; an ass wishes for death because he is treated so cruelly by his master. The fable, however, notes that pain might live on beyond death, because the ass’s hide might be used to make small drums, and therefore he will continue to be beaten. The moral then states that man cannot find rest in death, but instead in seeking revenge-- a very nonBiblical lesson. Dum fora festinus lucro petit, instat asello Institor et pressum pondere fuste premit. Ille necem sperat, nece promittente quietem, Sed nece completa, vivere poena potest: asellus, -i m.: a small ass, donkey asinus, -i m.: an ass, donkey compleo (2): to fill up, complete festinus, -a, -um: swift, quick forum, -i n.: a market fustis, fustis m.: a staff, club, stick institor, institoris m.: a shopkeeper insto (1): to pursue, threaten (+ dat.) lucrum, -i n.: profit nex, necis f.: death peto (3): to reach towards, make for poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment pondus, ponderis n.: a weight, burden premo (3) pressi, pressus: to press, strike promitto (3): to promise quies, quietis f.: rest, peace spero (1): to hope for vivo (3): to be alive, live festinus: nom., “he seeks in haste” lucro: dative of purpose, “seeks the market for a profit” pressus ... premit: “he pressed him pressed by his burden” fuste: abl. of means, “strikes him with a stick” nece promittente: abl. abs., “death promissing” nece completa: abl. abs., “but death having been complete” 131 The Elegaic Romulus Nam cribella facit et tympana pellis aselli, Haec lassatur et haec pulsa tonante manu. Cui sua vita nocet, caveat sibi rumpere vitam. Non nece, sed meriti jure quiescit homo. caveo (2): to beware cribellum, -i n.: a small sieve homo, hominis m.: a man jus, juris n.: justice lasso (1): to tire, weary meritum, meriti n.: merit, service noceo (2): to harm, hurt pellis, pellis f.: skin, hide pello (3) pepuli, pulsus: beat, drive out quiesco (3): to find rest rumpo (3): to break, destroy tono (1): to thunder tympanum, -i n.: a small drum vita, -ae f.: life tonante manu: abl. means, “struck with a thundering hand haec ... haec: nom. subj., “this is struck and that” i.e. the skin as sieve and drum, respectively sua vita: nom., “whose own life harms” caveat: pres. subj. jussive, “let him beware to break life i.e. commit suicide meriti jure: abl., “finds quiet from justice of service” i.e. by just service 132 Fable 58: De cervo The last three fables in the elegiac Romulus read much more like animal tales than the rest of the collection; even their moral lessons seem a bit forced, and it has been speculated that whoever the compiler and translator of the elegiac Romulus is must have added these three fables. In this first story, a stag is fleeing a hunter and finds himself in a barn. He convinces an ox to help him hide himself, and the ox is able to bury him in enough hay that he escapes the eye of the plowman. After this incident, the ox cautions that while the disguise worked one time, it will not work on the next stable hand-- who is so vigilant that the oxen compares him to Argus, the mythical giant with hundreds of eyes. Indeed, although the stag reburies himself, the next man easily spots him when he gives the oxen extra fodder, and rejoices that now he has found food for himself as well. The moral however only speaks of how the outcome of this fable is true to nature; a man living in exile is not his own and a powerful man is watchful; and for good measure the fable also adds that servants often snore and good men want help. Motus voce canum cervus fugit, avia silvae Deserit, arva tenet, claustra bovina subit. Bos ait: “Aut luci tenebras aut aequora campi Tutius intrares, hinc piger, inde levis. Huc veniet custosque boum stabulique magister: aequor, aequoris n.: level plain arvum, -i n.: cultivated land avium, -i n.: a pathless region, lonely places bos, bovis m./f.: an ox, bull bovinus, -a, -um: of cattle/oxen/cows campus, -i m.: a plane, level field canis, canis n.: a dog, hound cervus, -i m.: a stag,deer claustrum, -i n.: an enclosure custos, custodis m./f.: a guard desero (3): to leave, depart fugio (3): to flee, fly levis, -e: light lucus, luci m.: dark wood magister, -i m.: a master moveo (2) movi, motus: to move, provoke piger, -a, -um: slow silva, -ae f.: wood, forest stabulum, -i n.: a stall, stable, herd subeo (4): go into, approach tenebra, -ae f.: darkness teneo (2): to hold, keep tutus, -a, -um: safe, secure vox, vocis f.: a voice, tone voce: abl. of means, “having been provoked by the barking” intrares: imperf. subj. potential, “you could enter more safely” custosque boum stabulique: polysyndeton vel tantum ... alter: “both or even one” 133 The Elegaic Romulus Si duo vel tantum te videt alter, obis.” Cervus ait: “Mihi vestra necem clementia demat: Condite me latebris, dum juvet umbra fugam.” Hunc tumulat faenum. Praesepe revisit arator: Frondibus et faeno munit alitque boves. Hic redit ac cervus vitasse pericula gaudet, Bobus agit grates. E quibus unus ait: “Est leve vitare caecum. Si venerit Argus, Argum si poteris fallere, victor eris. ago (3): to thank (+ gratias) alo (3): to feed, nourish alter, -a, -um: one (of two) arator, aratoris m.: a plowman, farmer Argus, -i m.: Argus, mythical watchmen caecus, -i m.: a blind person clementia, -ae f.: mercy, clemency condo (3): to conceal, hide demo (3): to take away faenum, -i n.: hay fallo (3): to deceive frons, frondis f.: foliage, leaves fuga, -ae f.: a flight, fleeing gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice grates, gratis f.: thanks juvo (1): to help, assist latebra, -ae f.: a hiding place, retreat munio (4): to fortify, strengthen obeo, obire: to fall, die periculum, -i n.: danger, peril praesepe, -is n.: a manger redeo, redire: to return, go back reviso (3): to revisit, go back and see tumulo (1): to bury umbro (1): to cast a shadow on unus, -a, -um: one vester, -a, -um: your victor, victoris m.: a conqueror, victor video (2): to see, look at vito (1): to avoid, evade demat: pres. subj. jussive, “let your mercy take away!” latebris: abl. of place where, “conceal me in a hiding place” dum juvet: pres. subj. in general temporal clause, “until the shade helps flight” (whenever that may be) frondibus et faeno: abl. of means, “fortifies and feeds with foliage and hay” vitasse: perf. inf. (=vitavisse) complementing gaudet, “he rejoices to have avoided” bobus: dat, “gave thanks to the oxen” vitare: pres. inf. epexegetic after leve, “easy to avoid” si venerit: fut. perf. in fut. more vivid protasis, “if Argus shall come” Argus had 100 eyes and was sent by Hera to watch over Io 134 Aesop’s Fables Centum fert oculos; cui se debere fatentur Et domus et servi totaque jura loci. Res tua te reperit Argum, res altera caecum. Qui tibi dormitat scit vigilare sibi.” Hic silet. Argus init stabulum bobusque ministrat; Plus aequo tenues viderat esse boves. Dum munit presepe cibo, dum fulgurat ira, Ausa videre diem cornua longa videt. aequus, -a, -um: equal, reasonable audeo (2) ausus sum: to dare to (+ inf.) caecus, -a, -um: blind centum: 100 cibus, -i m.: food cornu, cornus n.: a horn debeo (2): to owe dies, diei m./f.: day, daylight domus, -i f.: a house, household dormito (1): to feel sleepy, drowsy fateor (2): to admit, confess fero, ferre: to bring, bear fulguro (1): to flash, shine brightly ineo, inire: to enter, go in ira, -ae f.: anger, ire locus, -i m.: a neighborhood, region longus, -a, -um: long, tall ministro (1): to attend (to), serve munio (4): to fortify oculus, -i m.: an eye plus: (adv.) more reperio (4): to discover, obtain, light on scio (3): to know, understand servus, -i m.: a slave, servant sileo (2): to be silent stabulum, -i n.: a stall, stable tenuis, tenue: thin, fine totus, -a, -um: whole, all vigilo (1): to remain awake fatentur: pers. use of ind. st., “to whom they are said to owe” tota jura: nom. pl., “all the authorities of the place” Argum ... caecum: acc. pred., “finds you an Argus ... blind” tenues: acc. pred., “to be more thin” aequo: abl. of comparision, “to be much thinner than reasonable” i.e. than normal ausa: perf. part. acc. agreeing with cornua, “he sees antlers which have dared to see the daylight” i.e. the stag has stuck his head out of the woods to see cornua longa: acc. pl., “long horns,” i.e. antlers 135 The Elegaic Romulus “Quid latet hic? Quid” ait “Video?” Sentitque latentem Et bona fortunae munera laetus habet. Exulis est non esse suum, vigilare potentis, Stertere servorum, velle juvare pii. bonus, -a, -um: good exul, exulis m./f.: exile fortuna, -ae f.: fate habeo (2): to have, hold laetus, -a, -um: happy lateo (2): to lie hidden, lurk munus, muneris n.: a gift pius, a, -um: upright, faithful potens, potentis (gen.): powerful, strong sentio (4): to perceive sterto (3): to snore vigilo (1): to remain awake, watch volo, velle: to wish, want esse ... vigilare ... stertere ... juvare: all infinitives used as subjects of est: “Not to be his own is ... to watch is ... etc” exulis ... potentis ... servorum ... pii: gen. pred., “is the exile’s ... is the powerful man’s ... etc.” i.e. is characteristic of the exile ... of the powerful man ... etc. 136 Fable 59: De Judaeo et pincerna There is no clear reason to cast the Jew in this fable, other than that he is a wealthy man, and this ethnic casting seems to fit medieval stereotypes. The wealthy Jew works to endear himself to the king by giving gifts, and asks to be guided to the king by the king’s butler. On the journey, however, the butler is overcome with greed and decides to kill the Jew. The Jew protests, noting that the partridge sitting in the nearby tree will tell of the deed, but the butler scoffs and kills him anyway. A year passes and the butler is serving partridge to the king, and after eating he begins to laugh uncontrollably. The king questions this, and eventually the butler spills the story of the Jew’s murder. The king is upset, and orders the butler crucified. The moral to this fable is related, but generic, warning that gold should not persuade you to slay anyone. Fert Judaeus opes, sed onus fert pectore majus: Intus adurit eum cura laborque foris. Ergo, metu damni, sibi munere regis amorem Firmat, ut accepto produce tutus eat. Regius hunc pincerna regit, cor cuius adurit Auri dira sitis, qui parat ense nefas. accipio (3) accepi, acceptus: to take, receive aduro (3): to scorch, burn amor, amoris m.: love, affection aurum, -i n.: gold cor, cordis n.: heart, mind cura, -ae f.: concern, worry damnum, -i n.: loss dirus, -a -um: awful, dire ensis, ensis m.: a sword fero, ferre: to bring, bear firmo (1): to strengthen, harden foris: on the outside intus: within, on the inside Judaeus, -i m.: a Jew labor, laboris m.: labor major, majus: larger, greater metus, metus m.: fear, anxiety nefas (indecl.): sin onus, oneris n.: a load, burden ops, opis f.: wealth paro (1): to prepare pectus, pectoris n.: breast, heart pincerna, -ae m.: a cupbearer, butler produx, -ducis m.: a guide regius, -a, -um: royal, of a king rego (3): to rule, guide rex, regis m.: a king sitis, sitis f.: a thirst for (+ gen.) pectore: abl. of place where, “carries in his heart” metu: abl. of cause, “because of fear he strengthens” munere: abl. of means, “strengthens with service” ut eat: pres. subj. purpose clause, “in order to go safely” 137 The Elegaic Romulus Silva patet, subeunt. Judaeus in ore sequentis Cor notat: “Ipse sequar,” inquit; at ille negat Et gladium nudans: “Nemo sciet,” inquit “Obito.” Ille refert: “Scelus hoc ista loquetur avis.” Prosilit a dumo perdix: hanc indice signat. Alter ait: “Scelus hoc ista loquetur avis?” Et rapit ense caput et opes metit et scrobe funus Celat. Agit celeres annus in orbe rotas. Perdices domini cenae pincerna ministrat, Ridet et a risu vix vacat ille suo. ago (3): to drive annus, -i m.: a year avis, avis f.: a bird caput, capitis n.: a head celer, celeris, -e: swift, quick celo (1): to conceal, hide cena, -ae f.: dinner, meal dominus, -i m.: a lord, master dumus, -i m.: a briar bush funus, funeris n.: a burial, corpse gladius, -i m.: a sword index, indicis m.: a hand loquor (3): to speak, report meto (3): to mow, reap ministro (1): to attend (to), serve nego (1): to deny noto (1): to observe, record nudo (1): to lay bare, strip obeo, obire: to die orbis, orbis m.: a circle os, oris n.: a mouth, face pateo (2): to stand open, be open perdix, perdicis m./f.: a partridge prosilio (4): to jump, leap up rapio (3): to seize, carry off refero, referre: to repeat, recall rideo (2): to laugh, ridicule risus, risus m.: laughter rota, -ae f.: a wheel scelus, sceleris n.: a crime, calamity scio (4): to know, understand scrobis, scrobis m./f.: a ditch, trench sequor (3): to follow signo (1): to mark, designate silva, -ae f.: wood, forest vaco (1): to be vacant, abstain from vix: hardly, scarcely accepto produce: “a guide having been received” i.e. from the king sequentis: pres. part., “on the face of the one following” obito: fut. imper. of obeo, “die!” hanc: the partridge indice: abl. of means, “designates with his hand” i.e. points to scrobe: abl. of place where, “hides in a ditch” rotas: “drives the swift wheels” i.e. the “rotations” of the seasons but also the “wheels” of the sun’s chariot cenae: dat. of purpose, “serves for the dinner of the master” ille: the butler 138 Aesop’s Fables Rex audire sitit; hic differet dicere causam. Fit locus, ambo sedent: hic petit, ille refert. Rex dolet et laeto mentitur gaudia vultu. Regis concilium consiliumque sedet: Pincernam crucis esse reum sententia prodit: Crux punit meritum jure favente cruci. Ut perimas quemquam nullum tibi suadeat aurum: Nam decus et vitam maesta ruina rapit. ambo, -ae, -o: both audio (4): to hear aurum, i n.: gold causa, -ae f.: a cause concilium, -i n.: a council consilium, -i n.: counsel, deliberation decus, decoris n.: honor, glory dico (3): to say, talk differo, differre: to postpone, delay (+ inf.) doleo (2): to hurt, grief faveo (2): to favor (+ dat.) fio, fiere: to become, happen gaudium, -i n.: joy jus, juris n.: justice laetus, -a, -um: happy, glad locus, -i m.: a place, opportunity maestus, -a, -um: sad mentior (4): to lie, pretend meritus, -a, -um: deserving perimo (3): to kill, destroy peto (3): to seek prodeo (4): to go out, advance punio (4): to punish refero, referre: to recount recall reus, -a, -um: guilty ruina, -ae f.: fall sedeo (2): to sit sententia, -ae f.: an opinion sitio (4): to be thirsty, desire to (+ inf.) suadeo (2): to urge, suggest vultus, vultus m.: a face laeto ... vultu: abl. of means, “pretends with a glad expression” concilium consiliumque: an example of zeugma, since the verb is strictly appropriate only to the first of these nouns, which are often exchanged for one another, “the counsel sits and deliberates” crucis: gen. after reum, “guilty of a cross,” i.e. guilty of a crime worthy of crucifixion prodit: introducing ind. st., “advances that the butler is” jure favente: abl. abs., “with justice favoring the cross” ut perimas: pres. subj. in noun clause after suadeat, “persuade you to kill” suadeat: pres. subj. jussive, “let no gold persuade!” 139 Fable 60: De cive et equite This tale is by far the longest of all the fables, and the narrative is significantly more complicated than any other. Two men serve a king, an old man and a knight. The knight grows jealous of the old man and accuses him of theft. He attempts to prove this by challenging him to a fight, hoping to kill him and gain the sole attention of the king. The old man gets his plowman to fight for him, and when the battle begins, the plowman acts as though he is weak for quite some time. Eventually, he shows his true strength, and hits the knight on the crown of his head. This brings the knight to the ground, and he is unable to get up. The plowman is declared victor by refusing to strike the knight until he rises, and forcing the knight to admit that he is not physically capable of rising. The moral, again, is rather vague, first it notes that justice overcomes power, which fits with the fable, but then goes on to say that love offers more than hatred, and trust more than treachery, both lessons which are less clear from the tale. Civis, eques sub rege vigent: hic proelia regis, Hic dispensat opes; hic vir et ille senex. Invidiae, perflata genis, innata doloris Flammis, fax juvenem torret honore senis. Regis in aure truces figit de cive susurros: “Est tibi non pastor, sed lupus ille senex. auris, auris f.: an ear civis, civis m./f.: a citizen, commoner dispenso (1): to manage, distribute dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish eques, equitis m.: a horseman, knight fax, facis f.: a torch, fire figo (3): to fasten, fix flamma, -ae f.: flame gena, -ae f.: cheeks honor, honoris m.: honor, respect innascor, innasci, innatus sum (3): to be born invidia, -ae f.: envy juvenis, juvenis m./f.: a youth, young man ops, opis f.: wealth pastor, pastoris m.: a shepherd, herdsman perflo (1): to blow through proelium, -i n.: a battle rex, regis m.: a king senex, senis m.: an old man susurrus, -i m.: a whisper torreo (2): to parch, roast trux, trucis (gen.): wild, savage vigeo (2): to thrive, flourish vir, -i m.: a man invidiae: gen. with fax, “the fire of envy” perflata ... innata: perf. part., “having been incited ... having been born from the flames of grief honore: abl. of cause, “burns because of honor” 140 Aesop’s Fables Ditant furta senem, crevit sua copia furtis, Est sua de censu gaza recisa tuo. Firmabo mea verba manu, sua furta fateri Hunc faciam: bello judice, verus ero.” Cum moveant objecta senem, plus debilis aetas Hunc movet ac senii crimine visus hebes. Parcunt jura seni si pro sene pugnet amicus, Cui nullius odor faenoris arma probat. Mendicat pugilem, sed abest qui pugnet amicus: Nam refugit, viso turbine, falsus amor; absum, abesse: be away, absent aetas, aetatis f.: lifetime, age amicus, -i m.: a friend amor, amoris m.: love, affection armum, -i n.: arms bellum, -i n.: a war, battle census, census m.: wealth, property copia, -ae f.: plenty, wealth cresco (3) crevi: to thrive, increase crimen, criminis n.: a crime, fault debilis, debile: weak, feeble dito (1): to enrich faenus, fenoris n.: interest, profit, gain falsus, -a, -um: false, deceiving, feigned fateor (2): to admit, confess (+ acc.) firmo (1): to support, prove furtum, -i n.: theft, trick gaza, -ae f.: treasure hebes, hebetis (gen.): sluggish, weak judex, judicis m.: a judge, juror manus, manus f.: a hand mendico (1): to beg for moveo (2): to move, stir, agitate objectum, -i n.: an accusation, charge odor, odoris m.: a hint, inkling, suggestion parco (3): to show consideration for (+ dat.) plus: (adv.) more probo (1): to demonstrate, prove pugil, pugilis m.: a boxer, champion pugno (1): to fight recido (3) recidi, recisus: to cut away refugio (3): to flee back, run away senium, -i n.: condition of old age turben, turbinis n.: a whirlwind, storm verbum, -i n.: a word verus, -a, -um: true visus, -us m.: power of sight recisa: perf. part. pred., “his treasure is cut away” manu: abl. of means, “support by my hand” i.e. by a physical challenge fateri: inf. after causative faciam, “I will make him to confess” bello judice: abl. abs., “with battle as a judge” i.e. by a trial of strength cum moveant: pres. subj. in concessive clause, “although the accusations move” crimine: abl. of means, “sluggish by the crime of old age” ironic seni: dat.after parcant, “shows consideration to the old man” si pugnet: pres. subj. in fut. less vivid protasis, “if a friend were to fight” cui: dat. of possession, “whose arms” qui pugnet: pres. subj. in rel. clause of characteristics, “a friend who would fight” viso turbine: abl. abs., “with a storm having been seen” 141 The Elegaic Romulus Dum fortuna tonat, fugitivos terret amicos, Et quis amet, quis non, sola procella docet. Cena trahit civem, differt nox una duellum; Sollicitat mentem justa querela senis: “Quos meritis emi, multos mihi fecit amicos Longa dies, cunctos abstulit hora brevis. De tot amicorum populo non restitit unus, Quamque dedi multis, nemo repensat opem. Rebar pace frui: mea paci congruit aetas, Sed mea turbavit gaudia livor edax. aetas, aetatis f.: lifetime, age amo (1): to love, like aufero, auferre, abstuli: to take away, withdraw brevis, breve,: short, brief, quick cena, -ae f.: dinner, supper congruo (3): to agree, be suited cunctus, -a, -um: altogether, all dies, diei m./f.: day differo, differre: postpone, delay, differ doceo (2): to teach, show, point out duellum, -i n.: a duel, battle edax, edacis (gen.): greedy, rapacious emo (3): to buy, gain fortuna, -ae f.: chance, luck, fate fruor (3): to enjoy, delight in (+ abl.) fugitivus, -a, -um: fugitive, fleeing gaudium, -i n.: joy, delight hora, -ae f.: an hour, time justus, -a, -um: just, fair livor, livoris m.: envy, spite meritum, -i n.: merit, service nemo, neminis m./f.: no one nox, noctis f.: night ops, opis f.: power, help pax, pacis f.: peace, harmony populus, -i m.: a multitude procella, -ae f.: a storm, gale querela, -ae f.: a complaint reor (2): to think, suppose repenso (1): to compensate resto (1): to stand firm, stay behind, be left sollicito (1): to disturb, worry solus, -a, -um: only, alone terreo (2): to frighten, scare tono (1): to thunder tot: so many, many traho (3): to draw, take turbo (1): to disturb unus, -a, -um: one fugitivos amicos: “fair-weather friends” quis amet: pres. subj. in ind. quest., “teaches who loves, who does not” una duellum: “one night delays the duel” a pun on the mean of duellum from duo meritis: abl. of means, “whom I bought with my services” longa dies: “a long day” i.e. a long time, by metonymy multis: dat. after dedi, “I gave to many” rebar: impf. in personal ind. st., “I was supposing to” + inf. i.e., I was expecting paci: dat. after congruit, “is suited to peace” 142 Aesop’s Fables Hosti multa meo palmam pepigere: tepesco, Ille calet; careo viribus, ille viget; Arma parum novi, se totum praebuit armis. Est mihi visus hebes, visus acutus ei. Nil mihi praebet opem nisi justae gratia causae; De fragili queritur preside causa potens. Corporis eclipsim timet alti copia cordis: Nam fragili peccat mens animosa manu. Si turpes nitide mendax infamia vitae Infigit maculas, quid nituisse juvat?” acutus, -a, -um :sharp, sharpened altus, -a, -um, lofty, noble animosus, -a, -um: bold, noble caleo (2): to be hot careo (2): to be without, lack, lose (+ abl.) cor, cordis n.: a heart corpus, corporis n.: a body, person eclipsis, eclipsis f.: an eclipse, failure fragilis, fragile: brittle, frail gratia, -ae f.: favor, kindness hostis, -is m/f.: a enemy infamia, -ae f.: infamy infigo (3): fasten (on), affix justus, -a, -um: just, fair juvo (1): to help, serve macula, -ae f.: a stain, dishonor mendax, mendacis (gen.): false, deceitful multum, -i n.: many things nil: nothing nisi: if not, except niteo (2) nitui: shine, look bright nitidus, -a, -um: shining, bright nosco (3) novi: to get to know, learn palma, -ae f.: a palm award, first place pango (3) pepigi: fix, settle, agree upon parum: too little, not enough pecco (1): to stumble, be faulty potens, potentis (gen.): powerful, strong praebeo (2): to offer praeses, praesidis m./f.: a protector, guard queror (3): to complain, protest tepesco (3): to become tepid/lukewarm timeo (2): to fear, dread totus, -a, -um: whole, all, total turpis, -e: ugly, nasty vigeo (2): to be strong vis, viris f.: strength vita, -ae f.: life hosti meo: dat. after pepigere, “fixed first place for my enemy” pepigere: perf. (=pepigerunt), “many things have fixed” viribus: abl. of separation after careo, “I lack strength” armis: dat. after praebuit, “gave himself to arms” i.e. devoted himself ot arms gratia: nom., “nothing offers help except the favor” fragili manu: abl. of manner, “stumbles with a weak hand” nitidae vitae: dat. after compound verb, “has fixed stains on a shining life” nituisse: perf. inf. after iuvat, “what good is it to have shined?” 143 The Elegaic Romulus Desperat lugetque senex; hunc lenit arator Qui senis arva novat, annua lucra ferens: “Me stimulat pietas pro te perferre duellum, Est mihi pro domino dextra parata meo.” Ecce dies oritur, locus est tempusque duello: Stant pugiles, inhiant mente manuque sibi. Est equiti foedum, quod stet, quod pugnet arator, Seque putat victum ni cito vincat eum. Nil de se retinet virtus oblita futuri: Dextera corporeas prodiga fundit opes; annuus, -a, -um: yearly, annual arator, aratoris m.: a plowman, farmer arva, -ae f.: arable land, plowed field cito: quickly, speedily corporeus, -a, -um: corporeal, bodily despero (1): to despair dextera, -ae f.: a right hand dextra, -ae f.: a right hand dominus, -i m.: a lord, master fero, ferre: to bring, bear foedus, -a, -um: vile, low fundo (3): to pour, cast futurus, -a, -um: about to be, future inhio (1): to gaze eagerly, be eager lenio (4): to ease, calm locus, -i m.: a place lucrum, -i n.: gain, profit lugeo (2): to mourn, lament mens, mentis f.: mind novo (1): to make new, renovate, refresh oblitus, -a, -um: forgetful (+ gen.) orior (4): to rise, begin paratus, -a, -um: prepared, ready perfero, perferre: carry through, perform pietas, pietatis f.: responsibility, loyalty prodigus, -a, -um: lavish, wasteful pugil, pugilis m.: a boxer, combatant pugno (1): to fight, dispute puto (1): to think, believe retineo (2): to hold back, restrain stimulo (1): to urge to (+ inf.) sto (1): to stand, stand firm tempus, temporis n.: time vinco (3) vici, victus: to conquer, defeat virtus, virtutis f.: strength, power mente manuque: abl. of manner, “are eager with mind and hand” quod stet, quod pugnet: pres. subj. in noun clauses that are the subject of est, “it is vile that the farmer would stand, that he would fight” victum (sc. esse): perf. inf. in ind. st., “thinks himself to have been conquered” ni cito vincat: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis, “if he does not conquer quickly” nil de se: “holds back nothing of itself” i.e. holds nothing in reserve prodiga: nom. adj. with dextera, “the lavish right hand pours” i.e pours lavishly 144 Aesop’s Fables Ictus ipse suos steriles expendit in usus Et feriens hostem se magis ipse ferit. Sed propriae virtutis opes abscondit arator Dum locus expensae detur et hora suae: Aut motu fallit aut armis temperat ictus Praedicitque minas frontis utrumque jubar; Dormitans vigilat et cessans cogitat ictus, Et metuens audet dextra notatque locum. Haec mora non artis ratio, sed culpa timoris Creditur; arte fruens, esse videtur iners. abscondo (3): to hide, conceal ars, artis f.: skill audeo (2): to be daring cesso (1): to be inactive, hold back cogito (1): to contemplate, consider credo (3): to believe culpa, -ae f.: fault, blame dormito (1): to feel sleepy, to be sluggish expendo (3): to pay, pay out, judge expensa, -ae f.: expenditure fallo (3): to deceive, beguile ferio (4): to hit, strike frons, frontis m./f.: a forehead, brow hora, -ae f.: hour, time ictus, ictus m.: a blow, stroke iners, inertis (gen.): helpless, unskillful jubar, jubaris n.: radiance, light locus, -i m.: a place, opportunity magis: more metuo (3): to fear, be afraid mina, -ae f.:: threat, menace mora, -ae f.: a delay, hindrance motus, motus m.: movement, motion noto (1): to observe, record praedico (3): to announce, telegraph proprius, -a, -um: his own ratio, rationis f.: an account, plan sterilis, sterile: barren, fruitless tempero (1): to combine, temper timor, timoris m.: fear, dread usus, usus m.: use vigilo (1): to remain awake, be vigilant virtus, virtutis f.: strength, power steriles ... in usus: “expends in futile uses” i.e. to no purpose dum ... detur: pres. subj. implying purpose, “until the place and hour are given” expensae ... suae: gen., “of his own disbursement” i.e. of his own counter blow motu: abl. of means, “deceives with his motion” utrumque jubar: nom. subject,“each light of his brow (i.e. each eye) anounces” dormitans ... cessans ... metuens: pres. part. concessive, “although sleeping ... yielding ...fearing” ratio ... culpa: nom. pred. after creditur, “believed to be not the plan, but the fault” fruens: pres. part. concessive, “although making use of skill” 145 The Elegaic Romulus Gaudet eques vicisse putans, spernitque bubulcum Sudoremque suum tergit ab ore suo. Ecce moram nescit, equitem speculata morantem In cubiti nodum rustica clava ferit. Huius plaga loci totius corporis aufert Robur: cedit eques ipse cadensque sedet. O nova simplicitas! sedet ipse vocatque sedentem Et, nisi surgat eques, surgere velle negat. “Surge,” bubulcus ait. Cui miles: “Surgere nolo.” Alter ait: “Sedeas, meque sedere licet.” aufero, auferre: take, snatch away, remove bubulcus, -i m.: a plowman, farm laborer cado (3): to fall, drop cedo (3): to withdraw, concede, submit clava, -ae f.: a club, cudgel cubitum, -i n.: an elbow, forearm gaudeo (2): to be glad, rejoice licet (2): to it is permitted (+ inf.) miles, militis m.: a soldier, knight moror (1): to delay nego (1): to deny, refuse (+ inf.) nescio (4): to not know nodus, -i m.: a knot, node nolo, nolle: be unwilling to (+ inf.) novus, -a, -um: new, unusual os, oris n.: a face plaga, -ae f.: a stroke, wound robur, roboris n.: strength, military strength rusticus, -a, -um: rustic sedeo (2): to sit, remain simplicitas, simplicitatis f.: simplicity speculor (1): to watch, observe sperno (3): to scorn, despise, spurn sudor, sudoris m.: sweat surgo (3): to arise tergo (3): to rub, wipe, wipe off voco (1): to call, summon volo, velle: to wish, want moram nescit: “he doesn’t know the delay” i.e. he doesn’t realize the strategy speculata: nom. agreeing with clava, “the club, having observed the knight” metonymy rustica clava: nom. subj., “a rustic club strikes” sedet ipse: “he himself sits” i.e. the plowman nisi surgat: pres. subj. in fut. less vivid protasis, “unless the knight were to rise” surgat ... eat: pres. subj. in ind. com., “orders him to rise or go having been defeated” sedeas: pres. subj. jussive serving as a protasis, “may you sit!” i.e. if you sit 146 Aesop’s Fables Turba stupet. Praefectus adest equitique moranti Imperat aut surgat aut superatus eat. Haeret eques. Praefectus ait: “Te vicit arator.” Pugna cadit. Regi panditur ordo rei. Rex ait: “Incisum noda, praefecte, duellum; Dedecus explanet ille vel ille suum.” Pugna redit milesque sedet velut ante sedebat. “Surge,” bubulcus ait: “Non volo,” reddit eques. Cultor ait: “Dum stare negas ego stare negabo. Surgere si temptas, surgere promptus ero.” adsum, adesse: to be near ante: before cultor, cultoris m.: a husbandman dedecus, dedecoris n.: disgrace, shame eo, ire: to go, walk explano (1): to make clear haereo (2): to stick, cling to, hesitate impero (1): to order, command (+ dat.) incisus, -a, -um: cut short, interrupted miles, militis m.: a soldier, knight nodo (1): to tie with a knot ordo, ordinis m.: order, series pando (3): to publish, make known praefectus, -i m.: a commander promptus, -a -um: ready, eager pugna, -ae f.: a battle, fight reddo (3): to return redeo, redire: to return res, rei f.: a thing stupeo (2): to be astounded supero (1): to overcome, conquer tempto (1): to try turba, -ae f.: a crowd, multitude velut: just as equitique moranti: dat. after imperat, “he orders the delaying knight” surgat ... eat: pres. subj. in ind. com., “orders him to rise ... to go having been defeated” regi: dat., “made known to the king” ordo rei: “the order of the matter” i.e. the narrative of the events” noda: imper., “tie up!” i.e. bring to a conclusion explanet: pres. subj. jussive, “let that one explain” ille vel ille: “either that one (the knight) or the other (the plowman)” pugna redit: “the battle resumes” surgere: inf. epexegetic with promptus, “will be ready to rise” 147 The Elegaic Romulus Ambo sedent, ridet populus, praesesque bubulco Intonat: “Aut pugnes aut fuge. Tempus abit.” Cultor ait: “Surgat! caderet, si surgere vellet.” “Percute,” praeses ait: “Percute, surget eques. Te decet aut illum victi sibi ponere nomen.” “Hoc mihi non ponam nomen,” arator ait. “Surgo, surge, miser! Nam turpe ferire sedentem Est mihi, sicque tibi turpe sedendo mori.” Sic ait et timidum mulcet; rogat ille furentem: “Parce precor; vincor, supplico, victor abi.” abeo, abire: to depart, go away, pass cultor, cultoris m.: a husbandman, planter decet (2): to it is fitting, right (+ acc. + inf.) fugio (3): to flee, fly furo (3): to rage intono (1): to thunder miser, -a, -um: poor, miserable morior (3): to die mulceo (2): to flatter, delight nomen, nominis n.: a name, title parco (3): to spare, show consideration percutio (3): to beat, strike pono (3): to put, place populus, -i m.: a people, nation praeses, praesidis m./f.: a chief, procurator precor (1): to beg, implore pugno (1): to fight rideo (2): to laugh, ridicule rogo (1): to ask, ask for supplico (1): to pray, beg timidus, -a, -um: timid, cowardly turpis, -e: ugly, shameful victor, victoris m.: a conqueror, victor pugnes: pres. subj. jussive, “may you fight!” surgat: pres. subj. jussive, “let him rise!” caderet, si ... vellet: impf. subj. in present contrafactual, “if he were willing, he would die” victi: perf. part. gen. of specification with nomen, “to place the name of ‘conquered’ to yourself ” ponere: pres. inf. after decet, “fitting that either you or that one place” ferire: inf. epex. after turpe, “it is foul to strike” 148 Aesop’s Fables Laeta novat fortuna senem; senis unicus haeres Scribitur et dignas intrat arator opes. Jus superat vires, sors aspera monstrat amicum. Plus confert odio gratia, fraude fides. Fine fruor versu gemino; quod cogitat omnis Fabula declarat datque quod intus habet. amicus, -i m.: a friend asper, -a, -um: cruel, rough cogito (1): to reflect on, intend confero, conferre: to bring together, confer declaro (1): to declare dignus, -a, -um: appropriate, worthy fabula, -ae f.: a fable fides, fidei f.: faith, loyalty finis, finis m./f.: an end fortuna, -ae f.: luck, fate fraus, fraudis f.: fraud, trickery fruor (3): to delight in (+ abl.) geminus, -a,-um: twin, double gratia, -ae f.: favor, goodwill, friendship habeo (2): to have heres, heredis m./f.: an heir intro (1): to enter, go into intus: within jus, juris n.: right, justice laetus, -a, -um: happy monstro (1): to show, reveal novo (1): to refresh, change odium, -i n.: hate, hatred omnis, omne: each, every ops, opis f.: power, might, wealth plus: (adv.) more scribo (3): to write, compose sors, sortis f.: lot, fate supero (1): to overcome unicus, -a, -um: only, sole, single versus, -us m.: a line, verse vis, viris f.: strength, power sedendo: gerund abl. instrumental, “to die by sitting” odio, fraude: abl. of comp. after plus, “more than hatred ... more than fraud” fine: abl. of place where, “at the end” i.e. the end of each poem quod cogitat: object of declarat, “that which each fable intends” declarat datque: “(the final couplet) declares and gives” quod intus habet: object of dat, “that which each fable has inside” 149 Glossary Aesop’s Fables credo (3): to believe, trust in cum: with (prep. + abl.); when, since, although (conj. + subj.) cur: why Aa a, ab, abs: from, by (+ abl.) abeo, abire: depart, go away, pass ac: and in addition, and also, and; (+ comparative) than ad: to, up to, towards (+ acc.) ait: he says ambo, ambae, ambo: both amicus, -a, -um: friendly amo (1): to love amor, amoris m.: love an: or (in questions); utrum ... an: whether ... or anguis, anguis m./f.: snake ante: before, in front of (adv. and prep. + acc.) arma, -orum n.: arms, weapons ars, artis f.: skill asellus, -i m.: small ass, donkey at: but, moreover, yet aut: or avis, avis f.: bird Dd de: down from, about, concerning (+ abl.) dens, dentis m.: tooth; tusk dies, diei m./f.: day; daylight diu: (for) a long time do, dare, dedi, datum: to give dolor, doloris m.: pain, anguish dum: while (+ indic.); until (+ subj.); provided that (+ subj.) Ee ecce: behold! ego, mei, mihi, me: I, me eo, ire, ivi/ii, itus: to go, walk equus, -i m.: horse; steed ergo: therefore et: and ex, e: out of, from (+ abl.) Ff facio, facere, feci, factum: to do, make ferio (4): to hit, strike fero, ferre, tuli, latus: to bear, carry fio, fiere: to become, happen fugio (3): to flee, avoid Bb bene: well, very bibo (3): to drink bonus, -a, -um: good, noble bos, bovis m./f.: ox, bull, cow Cc canis, canis m./f.: dog; hound careo (2): to be without; lack causa, -ae f.: cause; reason caveo (2): to beware, avoid cibus, -i m.: food cor, cordis n.: heart, mind corpus, corporis n.: body; person Hh habeo (2): to have hic, haec, hoc: this, these Ii idem, eadem, idem: the same ille, illa, illud: that 153 The Elegaic Romulus in: in, on (+ abl.); into, onto (+ acc.) inde: from there, from then inquiam, inquit: to say (used with direct Oo speech) ob: against, on account of (+ acc.) omnis, omne: every, all ops, opis f.: power, assistance, resources, ipse, ipsa, ipsum: himself, herself, itself iste, ista, istud: that, that of yours wealth Jj jam, jamque: now; already os, oris n.: a mouth, face ovis, ovis f.: a sheep Ll leo, leonis m.: a lion lupus, -i m.: a wolf Pp per: through (+ acc.) pereo (4): to be destroyed; go to waste pes, pedis m.: a foot peto (3): to seek, attack placeo (2): to please, satisfy plus: (adv.) more poena, -ae f.: a penalty, punishment possum, posse, potui, -: to be able, be Mm magnus, -a, -um: large, great malus, -a, -um: bad, evil manus, manus f.: a hand mater, matris f.: a mother mens, mentis f.: mind metus, -us m.: fear meus, -a, -um: my, mine moveo (2) movi, motus: to move, possible premo (3) pressi, pressus: to press, strike pro: for, on behalf of, in proportion to (+ abl.) prosum, prodesse: to be useful, benefit puto (1): to think, believe provoke multus, -a, -um: much, many munus, muneris n.: a duty, gift mus, muris m./f.: a mouse Qq quam: how?; (after comparative) than -que: (enclitic) and qui, quae, quod: who, which, what quis, quid: who? what? which? Nn nam, namque: for, indeed, really ne: lest, that not (+ subj.) nec: and not, nor; nec...nec: neither...nor nego (1): to deny nil: nothing nisi, ni: if not, unless noceo (2) nocui: harm, hurt non: not nos, nostrum/nostri, nobis, nos: we nullus, -a, -um: not any, no one nunc: now Rr rana, -ae f.: a frog rapio (3) rapui, raptus: to snatch, seize reddo (3): to return redeo, redire, redii, reditus: to return res, rei f.: a thing rex, regis m.: a king 154 Aesop’s Fables Ss saepe: often sed: but senex, senis (gen.): aged, old sequor (3), secutus sum: to follow seu: or if, whether si: if sic: in this manner, thus; sic ... ut: in the vita, -ae f.: life vivo (3), vixi, victus: to live vix: hardly, scarcely volo, velle, volui: to wish, want vulnus, vulneris n.: a wound vulpes, vulpis f.: a fox same way as sine: without solus, -a, -um: only, alone spes, spei f.: hope sto (1), steti, status: to stand sub: under, near (+ acc. and abl.) sui, sibi, se/sese: him/her/itself, themselves sum, esse, fui, futurus: to be, exist suus, sua, suum: his/her/its (own), (pl.) their (own) Tt tamen: nevertheless, still tantus, -a, -um: of such size; so great tempus, temporis n.: time timeo (2): to fear, dread, be afraid timor, timoris m.: fear; dread tu, tui, tibi, te: you (sing.) tutus, -a, -um: safe, secure Uu ubi: where, when unus, -a, -um: one ut, uti: as (+ indic.); so that, with the result that (+ subj.) Vv vel: or else, or; even; vel ... vel: either … or verbum, -i n.: a word video (2), vidi, visus: see vir, -i m.: man vis, viris f.: strength 155