edited by
Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
New Trends in Social Sciences
New Trends in Social Sciences
edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
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New Trends in Social Sciences
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New Trends in Social Sciences
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ISBN: 978-605-69047-8-3
Copyright © 2019 by HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA
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New Trends in Social Sciences /
edited by HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA
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New Trends in Social Sciences
edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Forecasting Deposit Interest Rate, Crude Oil and Gold Prices Using the Arch and
Box-Jenkins Models: An Application For Turkey ......................................................... 1
Cumhur ġAHĠN
CHAPTER 2
Reading the Changing Meaning of Nutrition Culture through Bourdieu: Changing
Nutrition Culture in Turkey ........................................................................................... 15
Ömür ALYAKUT & K. Mehmet ARSLANTEPE
CHAPTER 3
Forensic Accounting: Development and Practices Around the World ....................... 47
Mehmet Emin KARABAYIR
CHAPTER 4
Optimum Currency Area: An Assessment of the European Union and Turkey........ 63
Feyza ERġĠN META
CHAPTER 5
New Generation Banking Systems................................................................................. 79
Sultan Gözde ÖZTÜRK & Ömer ASAL
CHAPTER 6
An Analysis on the Accessibility of Family Health Centers in Kula City................... 93
Üzeyir YASAK
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New Trends in Social Sciences
edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
CHAPTER 7
Marketing of Organic Agricultural Products in a Green Marketing Perspective ... 105
HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU
CHAPTER 8
Understanding of Talent Management in Human Resources.................................... 115
Sinan ġEKEROĞLU & Kadir ÖZER
CHAPTER 9
Influencer Marketing and Taxation of Influencer in Turkey ................................... 125
Sinan ġEKEROĞLU & Sibel BĠLGĠN
CHAPTER 10
Activity Designed in Physical Geography Teaching: The Topic of Soil ................... 135
Cennet ġANLI & Selahattin AKġĠT
CHAPTER 11
Population Movements in the Susuz District (1940-2018) ......................................... 149
Nilgün ZAMAN & Halil KOCA
CHAPTER 12
Population Policies in Turkey ....................................................................................... 165
Ġbrahim GÖKBURUN
CHAPTER 13
Non-Bank Financial Institutions .................................................................................. 181
Cemil ġENEL
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New Trends in Social Sciences
edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
Foreword
Technology has influenced all the aspects of our lives by causing inevitable changes
and improvements in every field. Naturally, the world of science has greatly benefited
from this change and development. In consequence, the rapid circulation of
information and technology in the scientific world has increased the cooperation among
scientists.
Thus, this book contains New Trends in Social Sciences in parallel with the
improvements in the world of science. In this context, banking, economy, geography,
demography, finance, tourism, cultural research, other social sciences belong to the
disciplines studies are included. It took about one year to prepare and print the book. We
would like to express our deepest gratitude to our friends who contributed to this
process. We also thank SRA academic publishing staff.
Finally, very special thanks go to the authors who contributed to our book with their
researches. It is our greatest wish that this book will increase the cooperation among
scientists to make the world a better place.
Kind Regards.
Editors
HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA
08. 10. 2019
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New Trends in Social Sciences
edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA
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Population Policies in Turkey
İbrahim GÖKBURUN
CHAPTER 12
Population Policies in Turkey
İbrahim GÖKBURUN1
1. Introduction
In today‟s world, any kind of future planning made by countries are centered upon their total
population number and population‟s characteristics. The rules determined and applied by the
authorities in order to provide solutions to the problems encountered in the society play an
important role in determining the population policies. Population policies cover all the measures
taken by states to influence the size, age structure, increase, decrease status, distribution or quality
of the population (Eryurt et al., 2013: 138; May, 2012: 42; Serper, 1980; 9). Although different
definitions are made regarding population policy, all definitions are formed within the definition of
the United Nations‟ Population Fund (UNPF). Population policies include the coordinated actions
that national governments purposefully carry out to influence the three main demographic variables
which are birth, death and migration. The focus of population policy is based on the approaches
regarding fertility.
Population policies are planned and implemented in three different ways: pronatalist policies aiming
at increasing the population growth; policies aiming at stopping the population growth (antinatalist)
or policies aiming at improving only the quality of the population (BaĢol, 1995: 50; Doğan, 2011:
296). Until the middle of the 20th century, countries implemented policies focusing on increasing
the population growth rate. Today, the quality is as important as the quantity of the population.
From the past to the present, philosophers, intellectuals, state administrators have been interested in
the population matter. Aristotle and Plato took a management-oriented approach with the idea of
“the ideal population for the ideal state”. Ibn Khaldun, one of the important thinkers of the Islamic
world, emphasized that the more the population in a society was, the more prosperous the society
would be. New approaches emerged after the Industrial Revolution concerning population which
was dealt with in different times and places. In the process of industrialization, thinkers focused on
the relationship between population and economic resources or between population and production.
In the geographical literature, discussions about the population issue have become widespread with
Thomas Robert Malthus‟s Population Theory. Malthus emphasized that population growth would
proceed with geometric increase and food supply with arithmetic increase. He argued that
population growth should be restricted in order to eliminate this imbalance between food and
population growth rates (Malthus, 1979: 8; Tanoğlu, 1969: 39-40; Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017:
223; Kazgan, 2008: 87). Contrary to this idea, Karl Marx stated that population growth was not a
problem and that the main problem arose from the unequal distribution of resources. The Danish
agricultural economist Ester Boserup, on the other hand, argued against many aspects of Malthus‟
claims. Boserup is in favor of intensification in agriculture and he argues that the needs of the
growing population can be fulfilled by undertaking more work and making more intensive
agriculture (Boserup, 1981: 35; Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017: 225-226).
Assist. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Geography, Denizli,
Turkey, igokburun@pau.edu.tr.
1
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According to the Demographic Transformation Theory, which brings a different approach to the
topic, all societies move from a stage where the fertility and mortality rates are high to a stage
where both are low. The Demographic Transformation Theory put forward by American
demographer Warren Simpson Thompson in 1929 emphasizes that there is an inverse relationship
between industrialization and economic development and birth and death rates in general
(Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017: 220-222; HoĢgör and Tansel, 2010: 55-57; Kinsella and He, 2009:
20; YüceĢahin: 2009 2: Peters and Larkin, 2005: 85; Lee, 2003: 167). The Theory of Demographic
Transformation, which was extended by many scholars over time, including the American
demographer Frank W. Notestein was developed on the basis of historical observations of
demographic changes in the Western European countries.
This study explores the evaluation of population policies implemented in Turkey and they are
presented in three parts. The first part deals with the 1923-1963 pronatalist population policies and
the second part covers the period of 1964-2013, when antinatalist population policies were
implemented. As the third and final part, the pronatalist population policies which had been put into
practice since 2014 were examined. Regulations that shaped the population policies in Turkey
constituted our basic data source. In this study, the past, present and future of population policies
were interpreted in the light of legal regulations.
2. Population Policies for 1923-1963 Period
In the second half of the 20th century, population was regarded as a power paradigm both in Turkey
and over the globe. The magnitude of population was of great importance for countries in terms of
economic development and political balance as it constituted the necessary manpower for military
and production. Because of long-lasting wars, famine and diseases, population rate in Turkey fell to
20% below during the first years of the republic. The ratio of young population particularly men
decreased dramatically as compared to the overall population. Thus, pronatalist polices were
implemented by 1963. Thanks to these implementations, population of Turkey which was
13.648.270 in 1927 rose to 27.754.820 in 1960.
During the reestablishment process with the proclamation of the republic, population issue was one
of the fundamental concerns. In this era, economy mostly relied on agriculture and industrialization
attempts were not sufficient. Population growth in such countries was vital for development (Demir,
2916: 46). The increase of the population went beyond the quantitative enhancement of the society,
it was seen as military and political power. In fact, the population problem in Turkey was voiced for
the first time as a national policy on March 1, in 1923 by Gazi Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in the Grand
National Assembly during an opening speech: “The population issue is a country‟s most essential
commitment.” (Güriz, 1975: 4). Moreover, Gazi Mustafa Kemal‟s statement in his book Söylev ve
Demeçler (1997): “Our aim is to protect and enhance our population. I present this aim to the
attention of the Supreme Assembly and our people” shaped the state‟s population policies in the
early years of the republic. The authorities, scientists, writers and thinkers of that time bolstered the
pronatalist policies (Banguoglu, 1945: 2; Aydemir, 1932: 35; Nabi, 1939: 35). Yüceuluğ, 1944:154)
in his work SavaĢ Sonu Nufüs Meseleleri pointed out that the amount and quality of the population
should be increased.
As of 1926, rhetoric fostering the enhancement of the population started to be implemented
tangibly. Firstly, the Central Statistical Office was established in 1926. Subsequently, the first
census was carried out in 1927 in order to determine the existing population and the populationenhancing policies. In order to increase fertility, the first legal regulations were introduced.
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In the Turkish Penal Code No. 765 dated 1926, abortion by means of medicine and devices is
prohibited on the grounds of one‟s right to life and body integrity. Articles 468, 469, 470 and 471
and 472 of the Turkish Penal Code linked abortion to severe penal sanctions. “Abusive miscarriage
and intentional miscarriage” or abortion and other practices that would prevent childbearing are
considered within the scope of “crimes against persons”.
The relevant articles issued in 1926 in order to prevent abortion and protect the generation were
revised in 1936. The law of 1936 with No. 3038 was renamed as “Offenses Against the Integrity
and Health of Race”. The punishment of all kinds of activities and actions that would prevent
obstetric policies was aggravated. Giving all kinds of information to reduce fertility and deliberate
abortion was considered as a criminal offense. (Dogan, 2011: 298; Eryurt et al., 2013: 132). Another
legal regulation made in this process was to lower the age of marriage. Article 88 of the Turkish
Civil Code of 1926 with No. 4721 prohibited men from marrying unless they completed 18 years of
age. However, with the regulation within the scope of the Law of 1938 with No. 3453, it was
reduced to 17 for men and 15 for women (TÜGĠAD, 1993: 11; Eryurt et al., 2013: 132). Besides,
incentive and rewarding practices were introduced in order to implement legal regulations. With the
Chassis and Bridges Law of 1929 with No. 1525, families with more than 5 children were exempted
from road tax (Resmi Gazete; Date: 12.06.1929 Issue: 1214).
The first independent official document of the pronatalist population policies is the General
Hygiene Law of 1930 with No. 1593. Article 152 of this law prohibits the importation, distribution
and sale of all kinds of instruments and devices that would prevent pregnancy or cause miscarriage
(Resmi Gazete; Date: 06.05.1930 Issue: 1489). Law on Public Hygiene regarded family and
population as a public structure. This law has an important place in terms of population policies as it
encompasses prohibitions on abortion. Increase in the importance given to health services,
especially the interest in issues such as mother and child health, encouraging having many children
indicate the significance given to the population policies in the early years of the republic (Arı,
1992: 410). In 1930, families with 6 or more children were awarded with medals and money prizes
(Resmi Gazete; Date: 06.05.1930 Issue: 1489).
Within the scope of the Law of 1931 on the Adequate Disposal of Exchange and Distribution
Affairs, families with a high number of children were given priority in the distribution of the lands
belonging to the treasury. Similarly, in the preparation of Economic Depression Tax in 1931 and the
Equilibrium Tax of 1932, families with large number of children were exempted from tax (Murat et
al., 1997: 29).
In 1944, a regulation was made to provide child benefit to public employees. In 1949, income tax
exemption was introduced in proportion to the number of children. In 1949, the 90th article of the
Income Tax Law stipulated that those who did not marry until a certain age would pay excess tax.
The bachelor‟s tax was indirectly imposed under the name of “Singledom Tax” (Oktay, 2013, p. 39;
Kaya and Yalçınkaya, 2014: 176; Semiz 2010: 423-424). In addition, in order to protect maternal
and child health in 1930s, municipalities, especially local authorities were charged with the
establishment of hospitals, providing free health services and medicines to the poor. A work called
“What to do to avoid getting pregnant?”, which aims to raise awareness contrary to the fertility was
collected by the authorities (Basbakanlık Cumhuriyet ArĢivi, Number: 4879 File: 86-83 cited in
Çakmak, 2007: 40).
Numerous legal regulations were made during the 1923-1963 period encouraging population
growth directly or indirectly. In the course of 40 years, advertising, importation and sale of
contraceptive methods were prevented. All kinds of attitudes and behaviors that reduced the
population and decrease the birth rates such as family planning and abortion were prohibited.
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Population and family policies implemented in Turkey have accelerated population growth. Policies
to increase the total population in this epoch also sought for enhancing the quality of the population.
The Republican People‟s Party and the Democratic Party, especially the Progressive Republican
Party, the National Development Party and the Nation Party, which were active between 1923 and
1960, included policies to boost population in their party programs (Murat, 2006; 73).
Discussions within the scope of population policy and population growth in 1955 were heated in the
1960s. With 1960 the military intervention, government was seized. With the establishment of the
State Planning Organization (SPO) in 1960, antinatalist policies were brought to the agenda. The
SPO officials and the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance officials took decisions to change
the population policy and reduce fertility. Indeed, as of 1964 a different process began for
population policies in Turkey (BaĢol, 1995: 50; Doğan, 2011: 300).
3. Population Policies for 1964-2013 Period
Towards 1960s a transformation took place in terms of economic, social and political sense. Due to
the import-substitution industrialization policy of the era, more labor force was needed in the
industrial sector. Mechanization in agriculture created a mass of unemployed population in the
countryside. This situation caused people to migrate from rural to urban areas. These irregular
internal migrations were not managed properly. In cities, education, health, employment and
security problems accumulated (Oktay, 2013: 40; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134).
With the military coup of May 27, 1960, an extraordinary administrative process started in the
country. A series of economic and administrative regulations were introduced. In the 1961
Constitution, which constituted the basis of these regulations, it was decided to prepare
development plans under the title of „Social and Economic Provisions‟. Planning for the execution
of public services became a constitutional obligation. Thus, the State Planning Organization (SPO)
affiliated to the Prime Ministry was established on 30 September in 1960 (Eryılmaz and Tuncer,
2013: 172; Resmi Gazete: Date: 05.10.1960 Issue: 1062). The foundation of SPO is linked to
Turkey‟s EU membership process. Turkey which started application process with the European
Economic Community in 1959 with the Ankara Treaty signed in 1963, took the first step towards
EU (Uysal, 2001: 141). However, one of the main conditions of the European Community was the
initiation of the planned development process. Among those who wanted to switch to a systematic
and periodic planning were also international organizations providing credit to Turkey (Kepenek,
2012: 139). In 1964, the First Five-Year Development Plan was prepared. The plan states that
Turkey‟s rate of growth remained well behind the European countries. Furthermore, it was
articulated that development process in Turkey could not be kept independent of Europe (DPT,
1963: 28).
Since 1964 onwards which was regarded as “Planned Era” 11 Five-Year Development Plans were
prepared and implemented. With the establishment of the Ministry of Development in 2011, the
function of the State Planning Organization was changed in administrative terms. Nonetheless, the
implementation of the Five-Year Development Plans continued. Finally, XI. Five-Year
Development Plan was prepared and issued by the Presidential Strategy and Budget Department of
the Republic of Turkey (XI. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2019).
4. Transition to Antinatalist Policies (1964-1982)
Population was among the priority issues in the development plans implemented by the SPO. The
size and structure of the population was one of the basic elements shaping development plans. In
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this era, legal regulations were made for the first time in order to reduce fertility. Population
planning and family planning concepts entered Turkey‟s agenda.
I. Five-Year Development Plan (1963-1967)
In the First Five-Year Development Plan, where the concepts of development and population
planning were integrated; population growth rate was considered as a problem for the first time
(DPT, 1963: 35; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134). In the “population issue” section of the plan, measures in
the implementation process of the new population policy were articulated. The relationship between
economic development and the population was highlighted. It was emphasized that the population
growth rate in Turkey would impede economic development. It was aimed to reduce the population
growth rate which was defined as a problem (DPT, 1963: 35). In this context, legal regulation were
prepared. The law of 1956 with No. 557 on Population Planning was a turning point in Turkey‟s
population policy. This law abolished the relevant provisions of the 1936 Law on Public Hygiene,
which prohibited the importation, sale and use of contraceptive methods. The dissemination of
contraceptive information and the importation and sale of contraceptive devices and drugs were no
longer a criminal offense (Resmi Gazete, Date: 10.4.1965, Issue: 11976; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134). In
this period, abortion and tube connection operations were not legal yet. An institutional
infrastructure was established in order to bring the antinatalist population policies to life. Firstly,
General Directorate of Population Planning was established in 1965 within the Ministry of Health.
In this period, the age of marriage was raised to a minimum of 18 for both men and women. Family
planning policies were carried out under the auspices of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.
In 1967, the Population Planning Implementation Cooperation Committee was established (DPT:
1983: 333). In order to reduce fertility, institutional activities were intensified.
II. Five-Year Development Plan (1968-1972)
In this era, instead of the concept of “population planning”, “family planning” discourse was
introduced. Population policies were brought up more clearly (DPT, 1968: 226; Güriz, 1975: 116).
It was asserted that family planning would continue in order to safeguard mother-child health,
improve the structure of the population and reduce the pressure of population growth rate on
economic and development. It was decided to provide information and drug assistance for those
who did not want to have more children due to the financial conditions, or for those who could not
afford it due to illiteracy or inaccessibility. While the first Five-Year Development Plan focused
only on the quantitative aspect, this plan drew attention to enhance the quality of the population
(DPT, 1968: 47).
Despite the increase in national income, it was stated that per capita income did not reach the
desired level. The reason for this situation was shown as a result of over-births, and the
development of consumer population against the economically active population. The reason for
saving in order to make living for economic development was attributed to the fact that the family
had more children than they could afford. In particular, family planning, which reduced the rate of
population growth and made it possible for families to have children at any time and in number,
became hot topic (DPT, 1963: 226). During this period, the population growth rate began to decline.
III. Five-Year Development Plan (1973-1977)
In the III. Five-year Development Plan, the importance of family planning and health services were
emphasized as a whole. The plan stated that family planning was integrated with health services.
Mother-child health and family planning services were combined to ensure the concrete
implementation of antinatalist policies.
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IV. Five Year Development Plan (1978-1983)
Emerging political and social turmoil during this period pushed the population issue to the
background. The plan was designed to enhance the quality of the population. In the population
planning, the responsibilities of the state were reduced and it was declared that population policies
should be implemented in line with social and economic indicators (Kaya and Yalçınkaya, 2014:
177). However, due to the 12 September 1980 military coup, implementation of the IV. Five-Year
Development Plan was interrupted.
“Two Children Enough” discourse supported by Kenan Evren, who was the head of the coup d‟état
in 1982, expanded the antinatalist policies (DanıĢma Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi, Issue 572;
21.12.1982: Issue 572). Likewise, the Ministry of Health started to mention the number of children
and highlighted that the ideal number of children would be two (Doğan, 2011: 302). Legal
regulation were made for tangible implementation of the rhetoric of the authorities on population
planning.
The population growth rate started to decrease in 1964-1982 period. However, the targeted result
could not be achieved. Men and women who are under a certain level of culture cannot be expected
to benefit from the laws enacted due to planning (Doğanay, 1997: 209). Following the 1980 coup,
new regulations were made on the grounds that it did not reach the target level in population
planning. As of 1983, the target and scope of population policies were reshaped.
5. Dissemination Process of Antinatalist Policies (1983-2013)
Many important events took place in 1980s in the social and economic sense. The concept of
antinatalist policies and family planning was included in the Constitution for the first time. In the
1982 Constitution, it was emphasized that the education and implementation of family planning
were among the duties of the state. The second paragraph of Article 41 of the 1982 Constitution,
which includes measures to reduce fertility, states that: “The State shall take the necessary measures
to ensure the peace and welfare of the family, especially the protection of the mother and children
and the education and implementation of family planning, and establishes the organization (1982
Anayasası: 2018). Shortly after the adoption of the Constitution, the Law of 1983 with No. 2827 on
Population Planning was enacted. With this law, the “Population Planning Law of 1965 with No.
557 was revised on the grounds that it could not meet the needs of antinatalist policies (Koç et al.,
2010: 55; ErbaĢ, 2015: 103).
With the 510 numbered Regulation on the Execution and Supervision of Uterine and Sterilization
Services and Regulation on the Execution of Population Planning Services, abortion was no longer
a crime. Thus, the import, sale, advertisement and use of all contraceptive methods were made
legal. Article 5 of the law stipulates that if there is no medical problem for the health of the mother
until the tenth week of pregnancy, the uterus is released upon request”. Thus, it paved the way for
legal termination of pregnancy (Resmi Gazete, Date: 18/12/1983, Number: 18 255; Çokar 2008:
215). Nevertheless, termination of pregnancy is subject to certain conditions. Although the state
aims to reduce fertility in general, there are no legal restrictions on the number of children as in
China. The right of those who desire to have as many children as they wish is protected.
During the implementation of population planning in Turkey, some of the non-governmental
organizations‟ activities were noteworthy. Population Planning known as Neo-Malthusian in the
geographical literature was implemented including in Turkey and in other developing countries and
least developed countries through national bourgeoisie. Founded in 1985, Family Planning and
Health Foundation (TAPV) pioneered efforts to reduce fertility. Furthermore, the Turkish Society of
Gynecology, Family Planning Association of Turkey, the Human Resource Development Fund
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Population Policies in Turkey
İbrahim GÖKBURUN
(HRDF), some non-governmental organizations such as the Turkish Women‟s Empowerment
Foundation were among the forerunners. Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey
(TOBB), Turkish Industrialists and Businessmen‟s Association (TUSIAD), Turkish Engineers and
Architects Association (TMMOB) and the Turkish Medical Association (TTB), some professional
organizations such as the Turkish Pharmacists‟ Association were involved in the population policy.
Many individuals took action for the reduction of fertility with guidance and support from some
organizations by means of advertisements in newspapers and on television programs.
Since the 1960s, some international organizations and developed countries have been active in
establishing global population policies and importing them into other countries. United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA), the World Bank, some international organizations such as the European
Union financed antinatalist policies carried out in Turkey. In addition, the Willows Foundation, the
US Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Planned Parenthood
Federation, and the Population Council carried out activities to reduce fertility. These organizations
have pioneered in establishing global population policies and importing them to less developed
countries (Tomruk, 2009; Eryurt et al., 2013; AteĢ and BeĢtaĢ, 2013;).
V. Five-Year Development Plan (1985-1989)
The V. Five-Year Development Plan covering the period 1985-1989 was prepared with a new
insight and approach. A new development plan was prepared by a government that came to power
with democratic elections and ended the September 12 coup period. Regarding population policy,
the idea of family health, measures to increase and strengthen the idea continued. In particular,
enhancing the quality of the population was emphasized.
VI. Five-Year Development Plan (1990-1994) VI.
In the Five-Year Development Plan, the issue of population has become hot topic again. It is
asserted in the plan that population growth adversely affects social development. The policies and
programs aimed at reducing the population growth rate are aimed to be more effectively
implemented. It was decided to support the studies on population policies. Reducing infant
mortality became a priority. Births started to be registered throughout the country in order to follow
the changes in the population structure (Doğan, 2011: 302).
VII. Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000)
Five of the 20 structural reform projects in the VII. Five-Year Development Plan are directly related
to the population issue. These include human resources, education, health reform, family planning
and employment. In the plan, it was affirmed that population growth constituted a problem and
therefore, expansion of family planning services and increasing the efficiency in service provision
were to be strengthened (DPT, 1995: 34). In addition, the target of sustainable development with
qualified population was prioritized.
With the regulations prepared in this era, the concept of “reproductive health‟ came into prominence
instead of „family planning„. In order to slow down the population growth rate, many regulations
supporting the targets in the plan have been issued. In this context, Maternal and Child Health and
Family Planning (MCHFP) Center was established in 1997 (Resmi Gazete, Date: 06.02.1997, issue:
22900). The framework of “reproductive health” was extended. It was aimed to expand family
planning services, diversify methods to reduce fertility and improve service quality. Family
planning clinics were opened in hospitals. It was planned to terminate pregnancy voluntarily in
maternity hospitals and general hospitals providing birth services and to increase birth control
practices after births (DPT, 1997: 29). In 1998, Women‟s Health and Family Planning National
Activity Plan was prepared and put into practice (DPT, 1998: 33).
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Population Policies in Turkey
İbrahim GÖKBURUN
Education level of women directly affects the fertility rate in a society. The duration of compulsory
basic education varies between 9-12 years in European Union countries. The plan mentioned the
duration of compulsory education to be extended to eight years in Turkey (DPT, 1995: 25). In 1997,
eight years of compulsory education was introduced.
VIII. Five-Year Development Plan (2001-2005)
Population growth rate was revealed among the basic problems of Turkey. It was emphasized that
the implementations targeted in the Five-Year Development Plan should be continued in the same
line. For balanced and sustainable development, attention was paid to the quality of the population
rather than the quantity. Efforts were made to reduce fertility within the scope of the National
Strategic Action Plan for Women‟s Health and Family Planning which was prepared in 1998.
In the VIII. Five-Year Development Plan covering the 2001-2005 period, decisions were taken to
reduce fertility. However, the political thought that came to power in 2002 showed a different
attitude towards population planning. The first step was taken in 2005 with this regard. Neutering
was regulated as another crime act in the Turkish Penal Code with the Law of 2005 with No. 5237.
This offense was legislated as crimes against persons in Article 101 of the Second Part of the Law
on “Abortion or Neutering” (ErbaĢ, 2015: 105). Thus, a regulation was made for the first time
against antinatalist policies after 1963 in Turkey.
IX. Five-Year Development Plan (2007-2013)
In 2002, discussions on abortion were deepened in Turkey. However, in the IX. Five-Year
Development Plan, policies to decrease the rate of population growth continued. As in the previous
plan, improvement of the quality of life was determined as the main objective in the Five-Year
Development Plan. The understanding that “population growth creates a negative situation,
especially for the economy” was sustained. Indeed, as expressed in the article 219 of the IX. FiveYear Development Plan, “despite the negative effects caused by rapid population growth throughout
the country” ... that the idea of reducing fertility is maintained (DPT, 2007: 37).
Antinatalist population policies were implemented in 1965-2013 period. Fertility namely the
number of children per woman fell to 2.1. As of 2008, the sharp decline in fertility rate and the
increasing problem of the elderly population and the family structure have been revived. A number
of regulations were made regarding the issue. For example, the Ministry of State for Women and
Family was closed in 2011 and Ministry of Family and Social Policies was established instead
(Resmi Gazete, Date: 06.04.2011, issue: 6223). The concept of family was highlighted. This change
in the demographic structure of the country began to be questioned and antinatalist policies began to
be criticized (Demir, 2016: 48). Discourses criticizing antinatalist policies were expressed by the
competent authorities. However, antinatalist policies ended and the legal implementation of
pronatalist policies started in 2014.
6. Population Policies in the Post-2014 Period
The United Nations, which provides comprehensive definitions of population policies, emphasized
that the discourse of the officials who dominates the political power aiming to guide the
demographic structure should be considered as population policy as well. Kenan Evren‟s “Two
Children Enough” discourse in the 1980s is regarded as antinatalist population policy. Similarly, as
of 2008, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan‟s “At least 3 Children” discourse can be considered
as a pronatalist population policy (Eryurt et al., 2013: 139; Çetik, Gültekin, and KuĢdemir, 2008).
Yet, in the 1980s, the discourse of “Two Children Enough” discourse was put into practice by law.
In the Five-Year Development Plan covering the period 2007-2013, the policy to reduce fertility and
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population rate remained. Legal regulations, incentives and tangible practices regarding population
policies for the discourse of “At least Three Children were put into practice in 2014-2008 period in
the X. Five-Year Plan (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı , 2013: 50). For this reason, 2014 is accepted as the
beginning of return to the pronatalist policies.
X. Five-Year Development Plan (2014-2018)
As of 2014, the “At least 3 Children” discourse, which was put forward as of 2008, was put into
practice on the legal grounds. In the X. Development Plan covering the years 2014-2018, it was
aimed to gradually increase the total fertility rate with policies to be implemented in the population
area (X. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2013: 50). Thus, the antinatalist policies covering the period of
1964-2013 were officially ended. The decisive factor in the demographic cycle is the level of
development of countries. All societies will experience a transition from a stage where fertility and
mortality rates are high to a stage where both elements are low (Cilov, 1974: 8; Sertkaya Doğan,
2018: 51).
In this period, it was planned to increase the characteristics of the population along with the fertility
rate. It was aimed to make maximum use of the demographic opportunity window created by the
young population and to improve the quality of life of the population by preserving the productive
and dynamic population structure. It was emphasized that increasing the fertility rate was one of the
basic needs of the country (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2013: 50). As a matter of fact, Action Plan for the
Protection of the Family and Dynamic Population Structure Program was announced on 8 January
2015 (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2015). This program aimed at increasing fertility contrary to the
“National Action Plan for Women‟s Health and Family Planning prepared in 1998.
The downward trend in fertility continued. New regulations were made to keep the fertility rate at
the level of revival of the population. In this context, The X. Five-Year Development Plan aimed to
implement and disseminate practices that would increase fertility. A series of measures were taken
for employees with practices that harmonize work and family life for women. In order to encourage
births, temporary incapacity allowance, breastfeeding allowance, maternity insurance, family
allowance, child allowance were provided and implementations such as expanding child care
centers were realized (X. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2013: 41).
The “Birth Aid Regulation which aimed to increase fertility was put into effect (Resmi Gazete,
Date: 23.05.2015, issue: 29364). One-off benefits were initiated for each child to increase
depending on the number of children. The family with children was provided with 200 TL for the
first child, 400 TL for the second child, 600 TL for 3 children and more. Following the 16 weeks
maternity leave, the right to part-time work was granted with increasing time depending on the
number of children. Part-time work was initiated for working mothers for 2 months for the first
child, 4 months for the second child and 6 months for the third and more child. Within the scope of
the program, it was aimed to increase fertility on a family basis by increasing the maternity leave
for fathers from 3 days to 5 days. A dowry account was initiated to support marriages before the age
of 27 (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2015). Thus, it was attempted to reduce the age of marriage to earlier
ages. Increasing the total fertility rate above the regeneration level was one of the four main
objectives of the program.
XI. Five-Year Development (2019-2023)
Population issue are directly addressed under five different headings in XI. the Five-Year
Development Plan, as „empowerment of the family‟, „women‟,„ children‟ and „youth‟, „population
and aging ‟. The total fertility rate, which was 1.99 in 2018, that is, the number of children per
woman was targeted to be increased to 2.15 by 2023 (XI. Bes Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2019; 167173
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168). Increasing the fertility rate above the regeneration rate of the population was one of the main
objectives of the XI. Five-Year Development Plan. Young and dynamic population structure was
planned to be protected for the utmost benefit from Turkey‟s demographic window of opportunity.
Policies to harmonize work and family life were revised to keep the fertility rate above the level of
population renewal. It was decided to make necessary changes or take additional measures in this
regard. In addition, the needs of an aging population in Turkey were taken into account. In order to
improve the quality of life of the elderly, it was emphasized that they would be able to participate in
economic and social life effectively, to live active and independent lives, to benefit from high
quality long-term care, health and other services and to create active aging environments.
Turkey has a young and dynamic population at the moment. The proportion of the elderly
population is still low and the increase in the working age population offers an opportunity.
However, the proportion of the young population in the total population is gradually decreasing.
The population over 65 is constantly increasing. Demographic change is obliged to change the basic
assumptions of economic and social planning in Turkey (Arslan, 2017: 8) The falling fertility rate,
aging population creates pressure. Aging of the population causes social and economic problems in
the society, especially in social security systems (Çavlin and Others, 2015: 15). Population is the
fundamental factor determining the labor supply of countries. Assuming that other factors of
production are equal, the labor supply will be higher and the country‟s production capacity, national
income and economic power will be superior in countries which have high population number
(Zaim, 1997: 107-108). In the XI. Five-Year Development Plan, the needs of the elderly population
were discussed for the first time in a comprehensive manner. This situation shows the aging of the
population in Turkey. Therefore, it is necessary to take further measures to increase fertility in
Turkey.
7. Result
Population policies are one of the main factors that determine the future of countries. Turkey‟s
population is divided into three different periods in terms of policy implementation principles. The
first is the process of pronatalist population policies covering the period 1923-1963. The second
phase covers the period of 1964-2014, when antinatalist population policies were implemented. The
third phase is the pronatalist population policies process which was put into practice as of 2014.
When the laws are analyzed in 1923-1963 period, it can be seen that there is an understanding
aiming at population growth. However, there is no specific population policy in this process.
Because the laws put forward only aim to prevent activities that will reduce fertility. In particular,
no assessment was made of the outcomes and possible impacts of population-enhancing policies.
In the 1964-2013 period, antinatalist population policies were adopted. Population problem in this
process stated as “Planned Period” is commonly referred to as among the priority issues. The
population growth rate started to decrease in 1964-1982 period. However, the targeted result could
not be achieved. Therefore, new regulations were made in the process following the 1980 coup. As
of 1983, antinatalist policies became widespread.
The concepts used in the implementation process of antinatalist population policies were constantly
updated. With the beginning of the planned period, the concept of “population planning” was used
for the first time. Later, “population planning” which was not welcome in the society was replaced
with “family planning”. After a while, instead of “family planning, the concept of “reproductive
health” was introduced. Population Planning, known as Neo-Malthusianism was enforced in Turkey
by the national bourgeoisie. The activities of some non-governmental organizations, professional
chambers and international organizations are worth mentioning. These organizations operate under
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different names in line with Neo-Malthusianism and carry out activities such as „safe motherhood
project‟, „women‟s health education program‟, „reproductive rights awareness and advocacy
project‟.
Population policy implemented after 1964 and changing lifestyle, reduced the fertility rate in
Turkey. Social status, educational level and expectations of women, income level, marriage age,
customs, beliefs, medical developments are the factors that affect fertility rate. However, the main
factor that determines the level of fertility in a country is the population policy. The data related to
birth began to be recorded as of 1975 nationwide. While the population was 40.347.00 in 1975, the
number of children born was 1,251,000. In 2018, when our population reached 82,003,882, the
number of children born reached 1,248,847. Although the general population reached 82 million
from 40 million, the number of children born remained approximately the same. The decline in the
birth rate is a strong predictor of possible future dangers about Turkish population.
While the number of children per woman was 5 in the 1920s, it increased to 6.6 in the 1930-1940
period. During the 1940-1950, it rose to 7. The number of children per woman decreased to 6.6 in
the 1950-1960 period. During the 1965-1975, it fell to 5.7 children. The number of children per
woman fell to 4.1 in 1980-1990 at a time when the studies on birth control and fertility reduction
became widespread. While the number of children per woman decreased to 3 in 1980-1990, it
decreased to 2.5 during 1990-2000 period. This decrease in fertility rate is well above the
expectations. The number of children per woman decreased to 2.1 in the 2000-2010, it dropped to 2
in the period of 2010-2018, which is below the critical threshold. Turkey has now fallen below the
population regeneration level. As of 2008, rhetoric criticizing antinatalist policies has been
expressed by the authorities. As a matter of fact, antinatalist policies were terminated in 2014 and
pronatalist policies were legally initiated.
In Turkey, the total fertility rate in 2018 fell below the regeneration rate of the population.
Population growth slowed at a rate beyond expectations. Turkey is heading into the category of
countries with rapidly aging populations. As population projections reveal, if pronatalist policies
cannot continue in a stable manner, Turkey will face economic and social problems in the future.
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180