Vernacular names of plants between diversity and potential risks of confusion: Case of toxic plants used in medication in the central Middle Atlas, Morocco

© 2021 Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research, 9 (2), 222-250, 2021 ISSN 0719-4250 http://jppres.com/jppres Original Article Vernacular names of plants between diversity and potential risks of confusion: Case of toxic plants used in medication in the central Middle Atlas, Morocco [Nombres vernáculos de las plantas entre la diversidad y los posibles riesgos de confusión: caso de las plantas tóxicas utilizadas en la medicación en el Atlas Medio central, Marruecos] Mariame Najem*, Laila Nassiri, Jamal Ibijbijen Environment and Valorisation of Microbial and Plant Resources Unit, Faculty of Sciences, Moulay Ismail University of Meknes, B.P: 11201 Meknes, Morocco. *E-mail: m.najem@edu.umi.ac.ma, mariamenajem@gmail.com Abstract Resumen Context: Knowledge of medicinal plants is the first step in preserving traditional use and preventing intoxication. Contexto: El conocimiento de las plantas medicinales es el primer paso para preservar el uso tradicional y prevenir la intoxicación. Aims: To highlight the risks of intoxication related to the similarities of vernacular names between medicinal plants and to confusion during harvesting. Objetivos: Destacar los riesgos de intoxicación relacionados con las similitudes de los nombres vernáculos de las plantas medicinales y con la confusión durante la cosecha. Methods: Indigenous knowledge on the traditional use of toxic plants for medicinal purposes was gathered through direct interviews with practitioners of herbal medicine and field surveys in the Central Middle Atlas. The vernacular names were collected from the respondents and through various bibliographical sources relating to the flora and the traditional Moroccan Pharmacopoeia. Métodos: Los conocimientos indígenas sobre el uso tradicional de las plantas tóxicas con fines medicinales se reunieron mediante entrevistas directas con profesionales de la medicina herbaria y estudios de campo en el Atlas Medio central. Los nombres vernáculos se recogieron de los encuestados y a través de diversas fuentes bibliográficas relacionadas con la flora y la farmacopea tradicional marroquí. Results: Giving The results identified 83 toxic species, divided into 39 families and 75 genera. These plants have different vernacular names in Arabic or Berber dialects. 60 species out of the 83 plants inventoried have at least 3 vernacular names. The study also revealed that a vernacular name could correspond to several species of the same genus or even of different genera and families; only 27 species of the 83 inventoried have their own vernaculars that they do not share with any other species throughout the country. Because of this similarity of vernacular names, medicinal plants could be confused, which would be the cause of the ineffectiveness of related treatments or even others' toxicity. The risk of intoxication is aggravated by confusion during the harvesting. Resultados: Los resultados identificaron 83 especies tóxicas, divididas en 39 familias y 75 géneros. Estas plantas tienen diferentes nombres vernáculos en árabe y/o dialecto bereber. 60 especies de las 83 plantas inventariadas tienen al menos 3 nombres vernáculos. El estudio también reveló que un nombre vernáculo podría corresponder a varias especies del mismo género, o incluso de diferentes géneros y familias; sólo 27 especies de las 83 inventariadas tienen sus propias lenguas vernáculas que no comparten con ninguna otra especie en todo el país. Debido a esta similitud de los nombres vernáculos, las plantas medicinales podrían confundirse, lo que sería la causa de la ineficacia de los tratamientos relacionados, o incluso de la toxicidad de otros. El riesgo de intoxicación se ve agravado por la confusión durante la recolección. Conclusions: The identification of plants based on affirmed taxonomic criteria and a charter regulating the collection and use of plants is imperative to avoid any risk of intoxication. Conclusiones: La identificación de las plantas sobre la base de criterios taxonómicos afirmados, así como una carta que regule la recolección y el uso de las plantas son imperativos para evitar cualquier riesgo de intoxicación. Keywords: confusion; diversity; ethnobotany; Moroccan Central Middle Atlas; intoxication risks; vernacular names. Palabras Clave: confusión; diversidad; etnobotánica; Atlas Central Marroquí; riesgos de intoxicación; nombres vernáculos. ARTICLE INFO Received: September 30, 2020. Received in revised form: November 7, 2020. Accepted: November 7, 2020. Available Online: December 4, 2020. _____________________________________ Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks INTRODUCTION The risks incurred by the multitude or the disparity of vernacular names are aggravated by confusion during the harvest due to the morphological resemblance between certain plants and others' ecological convergence. Thus, in the Middle Atlas region, Rhamnus alaternus L., from the Anacardiaceae family, is often confused with Phyllerea latifolia L. belonging to the Oleaceae family (Bouiamrine et al., 2017) although their vernacular names are different, respectively "amlires" and "imtutel". These confusions are amplified, even difficult to notice when the plants are offered in a dried state (Bouiamrine et al., 2017). In some cases, plants are very similar in their vegetative state and are confused when they are picked before flowering; for example, in Europe, Allium ursinum L., which belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family and has medicinal properties, is often confused with the highly toxic Colchicum autumnale L. from the Colchicaceae family (Pilegaard, 2012). In addition, if medicinal plants are herbaceous, they are often sold in their entirety and are easy to identify; but, with trees and shrubs, only branches, bark, or leaves are sold, which makes plant identification difficult and increases the risk of confusion (Bouiamrine et al., 2017). In the Middle Atlas Mountains, herbal medicines are omnipresent in view of the general ecology, offering a rich and diversified flora and making activities in contact with nature such as pastoralism and agriculture, the main sources of income for the population. Herbalism is also very frequent in the permanent markets as well as in the weekly markets’ "souks" where freshly picked or dried plants are sold on display (Najem et al., 2020a). According to Trabut (1935), the naming of plants has always been practiced with fairly great precision by the indigenous populations of North Africa; the use of these popular names are so common that it is even preferred to the Latin nomenclature of botanists. Thus, many names are derived from the plant properties and characters such as color, smell, appearance, special secretion, and habitat, among others. Also, in several cases, analogies with animal organs, ears, tails and legs are at the origin of some plant’s popular names. However, despite the fact that many people have accumulated herbal therapeutic knowledge by diagnosing and recommending remedies and medicinal recipes, the risks in this field are not negligible. These can be divided into two categories; the first one is due to the confusion between plants because of their nomenclature (Najem et al., 2019). In general, the native takes into account only one dominant character; that is why he calls zatter both fragrant thyme, oregano, and all Labiatae with thymol (Trabut, 1935). Similarly, some common or vernacular names are often imprecise and refer under the same name to several species or even to different genera; for example, ghassoul "taghassoult" covers two genera and at least three species: Aizoon canariense L., Aizoon hispanicum L. and Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L. (Fennane and Rejdali, 2016). Ethnobotanical investigations carried out by Bachiri et al. (2015) revealed that in addition to the attribution of vernacular names to different species, the same species could have several local names. http://jppres.com/jppres The second category of risks is due to the confusion between parts of plants to be used, their mode of preparation, administration or conservation (Najem, 2020b). Indeed, it has been noticed in the Middle Atlas region that the growing interest in medicinal plants has led some people without knowledge in phytotherapy, to become roadside plant vendors or herbalists; that results in several errors in plant identification and therapeutic use (Bouiamrine et al., 2017). Thus, the present work is a part of a series of ethnobotanical investigations carried out by our research team in the central Middle Atlas; first, an inventory of the main medicinal plants commonly used in the region has been done and the plants declared toxic have been listed. Then, the origin, the diversity and the significance of the vernacular J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 223 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks names attributed to these inventoried plants were investigated. So, this study focuses on the similarity of vernacular names between species and the inherent risks of confusion. Also, the confusion encountered during plant harvesting is considered. habitants. Also, as the Middle Atlas is a very large region, six main cities were chosen to conduct this study; these are the city of EL Hajeb (province of El Hajeb), the cities of Azrou, Ifrane and Timahdite (province of Ifrane), the cities of Khenifra and M'rirt (province of Khenifra) (Fig. 1). MATERIAL AND METHODS Research strategy Study area The Middle Atlas is a mountainous massif that extends over about 450 km and covers an area of 27 550 km2 (El Jihad, 2016). Its population was estimated at 268 098 inhabitants according to the 2014 national census report (HCP, 2018). The human component is made up of different tribes, typically Berber of Amazigh culture; sylvopastoralism and agriculture in the plains constitute the essential part of the socio-economy of the in- The present work is based on the results of ethnobotanical investigations previously carried out by our research team in the central Middle Atlas region; these have made it possible to inventory the main medicinal plants administered or recommended by the phytotherapists interviewed in the study area, as well as those of them that have been declared toxic by these practitioners of traditional medicine. In addition, the vernacular names of these plants were collected both from the interviewees and through an extensive literature search. Beni Mtir, Guerouane south Beni M’tir from the south; Ait Serghouchen from Immouzzer Irklaouen (Beni Mguild fraction), Ait Meghouel & Ait Mouli fromAzrou (Ait Abdi fraction) Ait Arfa from Guigou (Beni Mguild fraction) Ait Sgougou fraction) (Zayane Zayane Figure 1. Study area and main tribes occupying the region. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 224 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks General methodological information traditional medicine practitioners or who are not from the study area. In order to collect information about toxic plants used in phytotherapy in the central Middle Atlas, interviews were conducted over 7 months with traditional medicine practitioners in the study area. The fieldwork was spread over 12 months to be able to harvest each plant used by the informants in its appropriate season. During each field visit, we were accompanied by several traditional medicine practitioners to be able to locate in the field the plants used in medicinal recipes. Botanical information For each plant inventoried, samples were collected during several field visits in the different regions of the study area. Each collected plant material was dried, numbered, and preserved. Taxonomic identification was carried out in the botany laboratory at the Sciences Faculty of Meknes, referring to manuals of the vascular plant’s determination "Practical flora of Morocco" (Fennane et al., 1999; 2007; 2014). All specimens were deposited in the herbarium of Environment and Valorisation of Microbial and Plant Resources Unit, Faculty of Sciences, Moulay Ismail University of Meknes. All scientific names and families have been revised according to The Plant List (2020) http://www.theplantlist.org/. Anthropological information Sample size and inclusion and exclusion criteria To determine the sample size (N), we compiled a list of 290 traditional medicine practitioners in the study area, which corresponds to the parent population (P). To obtain a representative sample (N), the ratio (N/P) must be between 15% and 20% (Nacoulma et al., 2006). So, in our case, we retained a ratio equal to 20%, and the sample size (N) was equal to 58 phytotherapists. The inclusion criteria were people from the study area, knowledgeable about the practice of phytotherapy or the trade of aromatic and medicinal plants; they are therefore likely to provide correct and original information on the use of medicinal plants. While the exclusion criteria were informants who are not http://jppres.com/jppres Ethics statement and consent The approval of this study was granted by the Scientific Research Commission of the Sciences Faculty of Meknes, the Ethical Research Committee of the aromatic and medicinal plants pole of Moulay Ismail University of Meknes, and the Directorate of Water and Forestry and the Fight against Desertification. At the beginning of each interview, we obtained oral consent and agreement from each interviewee to participate in the survey. All respondents were informed that the purpose of the research is purely academic and not commercial. Also, they were informed that their answers will be published anonymously and that they have the right to withdraw their information at any time during the survey. Survey and data collection Using questionnaire cards (Appendix 1), an ethnobotanical survey was conducted with different actors of traditional medicine: traditional healers, herbalists and druggists. Using the "Free listing" technique, participants were asked to answer closed, and semi-closed questions considered more efficient for data collection. Each respondent delivered an average of 18 plants; this made it possible to complete 1042 questionnaire forms. After obtaining the consent of the traditional medicine practitioners surveyed, they were interviewed in Amazigh or Arabic dialects depending on the language spoken by each informant. The surveys were rarely completed in a single visit because the informants did not provide all the information in one session. So, we sometimes had to return several times to an informant and show patience and availability in order to collect and document the maximum of indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants. Background review of the literature The second step consisted of researching the vernacular names of the listed plants to see if they J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 225 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks are shared with other species in the study area or elsewhere in Morocco. The main literature consulted was: species belong to 75 genera from 39 families. The data reported in Table 1 shows that among these 83 plants, 60 (72%) have at least three vernaculars. The species Ferula communis L. has at least 15 different popular names. Only 7 species have a single vernacular throughout Morocco; these are: Angelica archangelica L., Carum carvi L., Pimpinella anisum L., Buxus balaerica Lam., Astragalus gummifer Labill., Astragalus lusitanicus Lam., and Peganum harmala L. The other 16 species (Table 1) have two vernaculars, often one in Arabic and the other in Berber; they are: Acanthus mollis L., Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Coriandrum sativum L, Atractylis cancellata L., Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh., Brassica napus L. subsp. rapifera Metzg., Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb., Clinopodium nepeta subsp. glandulosum (Req.) Govaerts, Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Mentha pulegium L., Ocimum basilicum L., Origanum majorana L., Salvia verbenaca L., Arundo donax L., Delphinium staphisagria L. and Agrimonia eupatoria L. • The three volumes of the practical flora of Morocco (Fennane et al., 1999; 2007; 2014), • The traditional Moroccan Pharmacopoeia, ancient Arab medicine and popular knowledge (Bellakhdar, 1997), • Aromatic and Medicinal Plants of Morocco: Wealth, Diversity and Threats (Fennane and Rejdali, 2016), • Toxic effects of some medicinal plants used in Moroccan traditional medicine (Bnouham et al., 2006), • Inventory of medicinal plants of the commune of Aguelmouss - Province of KhenifraMorocco (Daoudi et al., 2013), • Profile on medicinal plants used by the people of North Eastern Morocco: Toxicity concerns (Kharchoufa et al., 2018), • Practice of phytotherapy in the south-east of Morocco (Tafilalet) (El Rhaffari and Zaid, 2002), • Contribution to the elaboration of an ethnobotanical catalog of the rural commune of Aguelmous (Province of Khenifra, Morocco) (Nassiri et al., 2016), • Flora of North Africa: repertory of native names of spontaneous, cultivated and used plants in North Africa (Trabut, 1935), • Toxic plants for medicinal use around the Mediterranean (Hammiche et al., 2013), • Tuhfat Al-Ahbab: Glossary of Moroccan Medical Matters. Anonymous, translated from Arabic by Renaud HPJ and Collins G (Anonymous, 1934). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Among the inventoried medicinal plants in the study area, 83 species were declared to be toxic by the practitioners of traditional medicine. These http://jppres.com/jppres Similarity of vernacular names The comparison of Tables 1 and 2 reveals that only 27 species from the 83 inventoried (33%) have their own vernacular that they do not share with other species throughout the country; for the remaining 56 species, a given vernacular name is used to designate more than one species belonging to the same genus or to different genera and even to different families (Table 2). This similarity of names may be due to the similarity of certain plants' uses, the resemblance, or the polymorphism of certain others (El Rhaffari and Zaid, 2002). This can also be observed when changing regions or even within the same region, for the same language, or for different languages (Adam, 1970). It should also be pointed out that the 7 species with only one vernacular previously mentioned may share their names with other plants. It is the case of both Buxus balaerica Lam., and Astragalus lusitanicus Lam.; the vernacular is shared with one species of the same genus for the first plant and with species of the same genus and different genera but of the same family for the second. On the other hand, some species, even though they have a J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 226 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 1. List of toxic plants used in traditional medicine in the Central Middle Atlas. Family Scientific name English common name Acanthaceae Acanthus mollis L. bear's breeches sabounia, sebbana Adoxaceae Sambucus nigra L. elderberry sembuqa, bourwabez, khaman, waruri Amaranthaceae Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Mexican-tea mkhinza, touijante Anacardiaceae Pistacia lentiscus L. lentisk drou, trou, darw, tidekt, titekt, imitek, fadis, ifavisen, afavis Pistacia atlantica Desf. Atlas mastic tree lebtem, ijj, igg, tasmalt, qwawache, atnû, tatnut (fruit), smagh lebtem (gum), zerriat lebtem, habba khadra (green seed) Ammi majus L. greater ammi ich omlal, âthrilâl, thrilan, thlilan, tlaylân, tirilal, kryu, tribal, blala Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. toothpick-plant khela, bou okmam bechnikha, tabeshnikht, kessiba, jazar barri Anethum graveolens L. dill chibt, lkarwiya el-amiya, aslouj, kamoun el habchi Angelica archangelica L. garden angelica hachichat malaeka Carum carvi L. caraway karwiya Coriandrum sativum L. coriander kesbour, bakhur ej-jnun Ferula communis L. giant fennel boubal, aboubal (unopened inflorescence) fassoukh (for gum-resin), awli, anli, kelkha (dry stem), elkelkh, lkelikha, uffal, tûffalt, taggult, takoult, al mubatil (gum resin), tebtil, anbi, anslal Foeniculum vulgare Mill. fennel besbas, lbesbas, amsa, wamsa, chamar, nafaa (for the fruit) Pimpinella anisum L. anise habat hlawa Apocinaceae Nerium oleander L. oleander ddefla (defla)/alili, anini, ariri, aligi, arili Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel long aristolochia berreztem, buruchtam, ajrarkhi, qa’qa riba, qitta'lehmir l- berri, aarifi, arifis Asparagaceae Urginea maritima (L.) Baker squill aansal, ikfil, ichkkil, bsal ed-dib, azalim- u-wuchchen, bçal el-far, bsel el-khanzir, bessila, bsel l-fer ‘awn, fer’una, lbruwaj idan, ibuel ivan Berberidaceae Berberis hispanica Boiss. & Reut. barberry arghis, ighris, argis, busman, barbaris, ambarbaris, azaghnat, izirki, Boraginaceae Borago officinalis L. borage, starflower harcha, harriecha (horraycha), thamen, bouchenaf, bou-assal, ils-uuzger, ils-uaghwi, lisan attur, lisan l-bger, iles ufunas, uzgar, bou-hamdoune, benni-hamduna Heliotropium europaeum L. european heliotrope khuniza, khuniza ratba, hebbaliya, sikran, akerir Brassica napus L. subsp. Rapifera Metzg. rutabaga, swede lifiti, left fajli Brassica nigra (L.)K.koch black mustard ashnab, achnaf, khardal, khardal aswad, bu-hamu, kerkaz, zeriit shan, hebb l-mchebek (seeds) Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. wall rocket asheryad (cheryat), l-kerkaz, l-harra, waifs, bu-hammu Lepidium sativum L. cress habb- er-rchad, lharf (heurf) Apiaceae Brassicaceae http://jppres.com/jppres Moroccan vernacular J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 227 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 1. List of toxic plants used in traditional medicine in the Central Middle Atlas (continued…) Family Scientific name English common name Buxaceae Buxus balearica Lam. buis des Baléares baqs Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert cow soapwort tighighest, tighighecht, hamrat er-ras, sabun el-fqar, tuf essabun Cistaceae Cistus ladanifer L. gum rockrose touzzalt (touzzal), targla, ftah, ftakh, bû-zegzaw, ladan, ladan’aanbari (for aromatic resin) Compositae Achillea millefolium L. common yarrow alkhala (khela), shwihiya, qort Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. spanish chamomile tigentast (igentus, igentas, gentus, tagendest), hallala, arq-echlouh, oud al aattass, aqir qarha Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. english or roman chamomile babunaj rumi, babounj, babunaj, ghegwan Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L. tree wormwood chiba (shibat al ajuz), chajarat Meryem, chih er-roumi Artemisia herba-alba Asso white wormwood chih, ifsi, chih abiad, izri, chih dwida (chih for worms), chih khorassani Atractylis cancellata L. common Atractylis asnnan wado, najma Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L. bird-lime addad, aghfyoun akhfyun, ishkhis Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. feverfew uqhuwan, l-gahwan Echinops spinosus L. thorny-headed globe thistle taskra asekra, chouk lehmar, timat, chouk ajjmal, lkherchuf Launaea arborescens (Batt.) Murb. arborescent launaea intrim, îfreskel, iferskil, mmu-lbeyna (moulbina), bu chlaba Santolina rosmarinifolia L. holy flax ayrar, ouazwaza, tayrart Senecio vulgaris L. groundsel achbat salma, lachba salma, chiba salma, taanana, hiyara Cyperaceae Cyperus longus L. galingale arouk esaad, as-sa'd,tara (tagha), sokait Ericaceae Arbutus unedo L. strawberry tree bakhannou, sasnu, el-lenj, katil abih, metrun, jina, ‘unnich (the fruit) Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia helioscopia L. sun spurge halib assou, mmughî, oum-lbina, tafura, tanougha, el-hlibiya, reda'at lebger Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg resin spurge luban al maghribi, zgoum (zaggum, zaqqum), tikiût, ddeghmus, banan el-ard, chajart el ferbyun, ferbyun (for the resin) http://jppres.com/jppres Moroccan vernacular J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 228 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 1. List of toxic plants used in traditional medicine in the Central Middle Atlas (continued…) Family Scientific name English common name Lamiaceae Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. bugleweed chandgoura, tûf tolba Clinopodium nepeta subsp. glandulosum (Req.) Govaerts lesser calamint menta (mentha), nebeta (nâbta) Hyssopus officinalis L. hyssop azoufa yabsa, zoufa, souf el-yabes, tefrourd Lavandula pedunculata subsp. atlantica (Braun-Blanq.) Romo french lavender halhal, izri, amezzir, timerza, khzama, muqef rwah, chelchel Marrubium vulgare L. white horehound merriwa, merriwut, mariouta, merrou, imourine, ifzi, iffegh Mentha pulegium L. pennyroyal fliyou dyal lma, fliyou, afilgou Ocimum basilicum L. basil lahbak, hbak el-aynin Origanum majorana L. marjoram merdadouch, merdaquch Origanum vulgare L. oregano zaatar (sahatar, zateur), izoukenni, zer azoui, azekount, ouaz’ouy, zouchenchen Rosmarinus officinalis L. rosemary yazir (azir), klil, iklil al-jabal, aklel, ozbi, tamezzerya, barkkela, hachicht lerneb. Salvia officinalis L. common sage salmiya, (salma, es-salima), al mufassiha (salma al mufassiha), tamejjut Salvia verbenaca L. wild clary khiyata (kheyata), keff ejjmel Teucrium polium L. felty germander jaada, jaydiya chendgura, ayrar, tayrart, ayn al-hejla Lauraceae Laurus nobilis L. bay laurel chajrat sidna-Moussa (wrak Moussa, aassa Moussa), er-rand, el-ghar, chjrate el-ghar, habbet el ghar (for the bay) Leguminosae Astragalus lusitanicus Lam. iberian milk-vetch fouila (fwila) Astragalus gummifer Labill. gum tragacanth milkvetch ktîrâ Trigonella foenum-graecum L. fenugreek l-helba, tifidas Molluginaceae Corrigiola telephiifolia Pourr. strapwort sarghina, tasserghint, tawsargine Nitrariaceae Peganum harmala L. wild rue harmel Pinaceae Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Manetti ex Carière Atlas cedar l-arz, larz, iddil, lblez, berda (for wood), qitran-er-raquiq (le goudron) Plantaginaceae Digitalis mauretanica (Humbert & Maire ex Emb. & Maire) Ivaina common foxglove addabi, zhar el-kchatbin, kamiya Poaceae Arundo donax L. giant cane kseb (l-gçeb), aghanim Agropyron repens (L.) P.BeauV. couch grass njem (nedjem, en-najam), en-njil, afar, agesmir http://jppres.com/jppres Moroccan vernacular J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 229 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 1. List of toxic plants used in traditional medicine in the Central Middle Atlas (continued...) Family Scientific name English common name Poeoniaceae Paeonia coriacea Boiss. corsican peony habersis, fawaniya,ward al-hamir, ward ez-zwani Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. common purslane rejla (rjila) baqla el-hamqa, baqla- elmubarilca, farfah, agertim, tazelluzt Ranunculaceae Delphinium staphisagria L. stavesacre habb r-ras, zbib ejjbel Rhamnaceae Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam. jujube sedra, nbeg (for fruits: jujubes), azar, azuggwar, tazuggwart, bazeggur, amezmem Rosaceae Agrimonia eupatoria L. common agrimony kabba, gaiit Crataegus monogyna Jacq. common hawthorn admam, buzorulu, bousorolo, mesnaghten Rubiaceae Rubia peregrina L. wild madder fuwa, tarubia, lhamri, tigmit Rutaceae Ruta montana (L.) L. wild rue l-figel, awermi, iwurmi, awerma, sadab, sudab Scrophulariaceae Verbascum sinuatum L. scallop-leaved mullein meslah ndar, aberdudn-izem; thit yezm, bussir Solanaceae Atropa belladonna L. belladonna zbib lidur, aadil- wuchchen, balaydur, al laydur, zbib elkhidus, bûqunini, bûqnina, tiddilla Hyoscyamus albus L. white henbane sikran, shikran, gengit, benj, bu narjuf, bu ranjuf, betina (lebtina), afelehleh, afelezlez, barbar Solanum sodomeum L. apple of Sodom hadja (lhdej, hdej, hdija), lim en nçara, mathesha del-hmir, taffah el-ghoul Taxaceae Taxus baccata L. common yew igen (igni), imerwil, adgham, eddahek, dakhch, takhche Thymelaeaceae Daphne gnidium L. flax-leaved daphne lezzaz (alezzaz), elzaz, methnane, inif Daphne laureola L. spurge-laurel walidrar, lili w-adrar, alili w-adrar, addufayla, talidrar Urticaceae Urtica urens L. burning nettle harriga (l-hurrga), thissarkmaz, leariga, tikzinin, tizmekt, imezri, timezrit, tazelekta, tayizint, buqsas, tikzinin u-uccen Xanthorrhoeaceae Asphodelus microcarpus common Asphodel l-berwag, inghri, ighri, tigri, imeghri, ingri, bliluz, abliluz (floral scape), agellus (for the scape), haydeli, khuntha, taziwt Salzm. & Viv. Moroccan vernacular Pink background: one vernacular; Blue background: two vernaculars; Yellow highlighting: specific vernaculars; Bold: shared vernaculars. The scientific names were proposed according to The Plant List (2020) (http://www.theplantlist.org/) http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 230 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco. Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Atropa belladonna L. Atropa aadil wuchchen aansal ichkkil/bsal eddib Atropa baetica Willk. Solanaceae Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum Urginea maritima (L.) Baker Urginea Drimia noctiflora (Batt. & Trab.) Stearn =Urginea noctifora Batt. & Trab. E G Asparagaceae G Crataegus Rosaceae E Rhamnus Rhamnaceae F Senecio Compositae E Poaceae G Cyperaceae E Apiaceae G Compositae E Drimia Crataegus monogyna Jacq. admam/buzorulu admam Crataegus laciniata Steven ex besser Rhamnus lycioides L. Senecio vulgaris L. achbat salma Senecio leucanthemifolius Poir. Senecio massaicus (Maire) Maire agesmir Agropyron repens (L.) P.BeauV. Agropyron Festuca sp. Festuca Cyperus longus L. as-sa'd/tarra (tagha) Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperus Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. Ammi majus L. Ammi Carum ammoides (L.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Arcang. Carum athrilal Santolina rosmarinifolia L. Santolina africana Jord. & Fourr. Santolina Santolina pectinata Cav. ayrar/tayrart Teucrium polium L. Teucrium campanulatum L. Teucrium Lamiaceae E Teucrium fruticans L. Nepeta atlantica Ball. Nepeta G Origanum E Origanum vulgare L. Origanum compactum Benth. Origanum elongatum (Bonnet) Emb. & Maire azoui Lamiaceae Thymus satureioides L. Thymus G Thymus munbyanus Boiss. & Reut. Asparagus albus L. Asparagus Asparagaceae E Asparagus acutifolius L. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 231 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Origanum vulgare L. Origanum Family Level of difference Lamiaceae G Thymus saturejoides Coss. azoukni Thymus munbyanus Boiss. & Reut. Thymus Thymus zygis L. Thymus leptostachys Ehrh. Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. Chamaemelum E Chamaemelum fuscatum (Brot.) Vasc. babounj/babunaj rumi Matricaria chamomilla L. Matricaria Ormenis praecox (Link) Briq. & Cavill Ormenis Cotula coronopifolia L. Cotula Compositae G Matricaria pubescens (Desf.) Sch. Bip. Matricaria chamomilla L. Matricaria Matricaria aurea Loefl.) Sch.Bip. Buxus balearica Lam. baqs Buxus Buxaceae E Conium Apiaceae F Hyoscyamus Solanaceae E Aristolochia Aristolochiaceae E Hyoscyamus Solanaceae E Buxus sempervirens L. Conium maculatum L. benj Hyoscyamus albus L. Hyoscyamus niger L. Aristolochia paucinervis Pomel bereztam/ajrarkh Aristolochia baetica L. Hyoscyamus albus L. betina/lebtina Hyoscyamus muticulis Rech.f. & Edelb Borago officinalis L. Borago bouchenaf Boraginaceae Borago trabutii Maire Echium plantagineum L. Echium Borago officinalis L. Borago Cynoglossum officinale L. Cynoglossum bou-hamdoune E G Boraginaceae G Brassica nigra (L.) k.koch Brassica E Brassica sp. Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. bû-hammû Diplotaxis Brassicaceae Diplotaxis spp. G bûqnina Sinapis sp. Sinapis Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Eruca Atropa belladonna L. Atropa Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum Solanaceae http://jppres.com/jppres G J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 232 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Hyoscyamus Solanaceae E Lamiaceae G Euphorbiaceae E Hyoscyamus albus L. bunarjuf Hyoscyamus niger L. Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. Ajuga Teucrium polium L. Teucrium chandgoura Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg chajart el ferbyûn Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt Euphorbia Euphorbia officinarum var. beaumieriana (Hook.f. & Coss.) Maire Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L. Artemisia chajart Meryem Artemisia absinthium L. Compositae Matricaria chamomilla L. Matricaria Anacyclus radiatus Loisel. Anacyclus Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. E G Diplotaxis E Diplotaxis sp. cheryat Farsetia aegyptia Turra Farsetia Hirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagr.-Foss. Hirschfeldia Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Eruca Brassicaceae G Senecio vulgaris L. chiba salma Senecio leucanthemifolius Poir. Senecio Compositae E Apiaceae G Artemisia Compositae E Artemisia Compositae E Artemisia Compositae E Compositae G Senecio massaicus (Maire) Maire Anethum graveolens L. Anethum Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris Ridolfia chibt Artemisia herba-alba Asso Artemisia mesatlantica Maire Artemisia ifranensis J.Didier chih/ifsi, ifssi Artemisia flahaultii Emb. & Maire Artemisia negrei Ouyahya Artemisia atlantica Coss. & Dur. var. maroccana (Coss.) Artemisia herba-alba Asso chih khorassani Artemisia cina Berg ex Poljakov chiba/chibat al ajuz) chouk lehmar Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.)L. Artemisia absinthium L. Echinops spinosus L. Echinops Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Silybum http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 233 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Echinops spinosus L. Echinops E Echinops sphaerocephalus L. chouk ajjmal Silybum sp. Silybum Carduus sp. Carduus Onopordon sp. Onopordon Compositae G Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg ddeghmous fawaniya/ward al-hamir Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae E Caralluma europaea (Guss.) N.E.Br. Caralluma Apocynaceae F Paeonia Paeoniaceae E Paeonia coriacea Boiss. Paeonia officinalis L. Ruta montana L. Ruta chalepensis L. E Ruta figel, awermi Ruta tuberculata Forssk. Rutaceae Ruta graveolens L. fliyou Haplophyllum vermiculare Hand.-Mazz. Haplophyllum Mentha pulegium L. Mentha Ziziphora hispanica L. Ziziphora Satureja granatensis (Boiss. & Reut.) Sennen & Mauricio = Clinopodium alpinum (L.) Kuntze. Clinopodium G Lamiaceae G Rubiaceae E Rubia peregrina L. fuwa/tarûbia Rubia Rubia tinctorum L. Astragalus lusitanicus Lam. Astragalus E Astragalus gombo gombo Bunge Leguminosae fwila Crotalaria saharae Coss. Crotalaria G Crotalaria vialettei Batt. Hyoscyamus albus L. gengit Hyoscyamus muticus L. Hyoscyamus Solanaceae E Hyoscyamus niger L. Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. ghegwan Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. (l-gahwan) Chrysanthemum coronarium L. G Chamaemelum Compositae Chrysanthemum E Chrysanthemum segetum L. Delphinium staphisagria L. Delphinium habb r-ras Ranunculaceae E Delphinium pubescence DC. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 234 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name hadja/lhdej Level of difference Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Solanum sodomeum L. Solanum Solanaceae Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Citrullus Cucurbitaceae Lavandula Lamiaceae E Compositae G F Lavandula pedunculata subsp. atlantica (BraunBlanq.) Romo halhal Lavandula dentata L. Lavandula stoechas L. hallala Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. Anacyclus Glebionis coronaria (L.) Cass. ex Spach Glebionis Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Oberpr. & Vogt Cladanthus Bellis sylvestris Cirillo Bellis Bellis annua L. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert Vaccaria Caryophyllaceae Calendula sp. Calendula Compositae Perralderia coronopifolia Coss. Perralderia Compositae Cuscuta sp. Cuscuta Cuscutaceae hamrat erras F Borago officinalis L. Borago E Borago trabutii Maire Echium italicum L. harcha (al horraycha) Boraginaceae Echium angustifolium Mill. Echium Echium humile Desf. G Echium horridum Batt. Anchusa azurea Mill. Anchusa Urtica urens L. Urtica pilulifera L. harriga Urtica Urticaceae E Heliotropium Boraginaceae E Lotus Leguminosae F Urtica membranacea Poir. ex Savigny Urtica dioica L. Heliotropium europaeum L. Heliotropium supinum L. Heliotropium crispum Desf. hebbaliya Heliotropium crispum Desf. Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk. Lotus jolyi Batt. Lotus glinoides Delile http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 235 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name igentus Species with the same vernacular name Genus Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. Anacyclus Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Chrysanthemum Family Level of difference Compositae G Teucrium polium L. Teucrium E Teucrium decipiens Coss. & Balansa Lamiaceae jaâda Lavandula dentata L. Lavandula Ballota deserti (Noë) Jury, Rejdali & A.J.K.Griffiths Ballota Daucus carota subsp. Sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang. Daucus Apiaceae Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agrimonia Rosaceae Andrachne telephioides L. Andrachne Euphorbiaceae Anethum graveolens L. Anethum Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Carum Ptychotis verticillata Duby Ptychotis G kabba kamoun el-habchi F F Apiaceae G Lamiaceae E Brassicaceae G Salvia verbenaca L. keff ejjmel Salvia Salvia aegyptiaca L. kerkaz khela Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. Diplotaxis Sinapis sp. Sinapis Brassica nigra (L.) K.koch Brassica Eruca sp. Eruca Raphamus sp. Raphamus Erucastum sp. Erucastrum Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. Ammi Apiaceae Achillea millefolium L. Achillea Compositae Lavandula Lamiaceae E Heliotropium Boraginaceae E Poaceae G F Lavandula pedunculata subsp. Atlántica (BraunBlanq.) Romo khzama Lavandula stoechas L. Lavandula angustifolia subsp. pyrenaica (DC.) Guinea Heliotropium europaeum L. Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk. khuniza Heliotropium supinum L. Heliotropium crispum Desf. Heliotropium crispum Desf. kseb/l-gseb/ aghanim Arundo donax L. Arundo Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Phragmites http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 236 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Ocimum Lamiaceae E Asphodelus Xanthorrhoeaceae E Pistacia Anacardiaceae E Thymeleaceae G Ocimum basilicum L. lahbak Ocimum sp. Ocimum minimum L. Asphodelus microcarpus Salzm. & Viv. l-berwag/inghri Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Asphodelus fistulosus L Pistacia atlantica Dsf. lebtem/iij/igg Pistacia therebinthus Scop. Daphne gnidium L. Daphne Thymelaea microphylla Meisn. Thymelaea lezzaz Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss. Diplotaxis acris (Forssk.) Boiss. Diplotaxis E Diplotaxis duveyrierana Coss. l-harra Brassicaceae Diplotaxis pendula (Desf.) DC. Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Lepidium lepidioides (Coss. & Durieu) Al-Shehbaz Eruca G Lepidium Lepidium coronopus (L.) Al-Shehbaz Ferula communis L. Ferula Cachrys libanotis L. Cachrys Borago officinalis L. Borago Echium sp. Echium Anchusa sp. Anchusa lkelikha lissan attur/lisan l-bger Apiaceae G Boraginaceae G Marrubium Lamiaceae E Clinopodium Lamiaceae E Verbascum Scrophulariaceae E Marrubium vulgare L. Marrubium echinatum Ball mariouta (merriwût) Marrubium ayardii Maire Marrubium alysson L. Marrubium supinum L. Clinopodium nepeta subsp. glandulosum (Req.) Govaerts menta Clinopodium grandiflorum subsp. baborense (Batt.) Govaerts Verbascum sinuatum L. meslah ndar Verbascum dentifolium Delile Verbascum thapsum St.-Lag. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 237 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name methnane mkhinza Species with the same vernacular name Genus Daphne gnidium L. Daphne Thymelaea sp Thymelia Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodium Amaranthus blitoides S. Watson Amaranthus Cleome arabica L. (in the Saharan region of Draa, Morocco) Cleome Launaea arborescens (Batt.) Murb. Launaea Lactuca virosa Habl. Lactusa moulbina Family Level of difference Thymeliaceae G Amaranthaceae G Cleomaceae (Capparaceae) F Compositae G Apiaceae E Foeniculum vulgare Mill. nafaâ Foeniculum Foeniculum dulce DC. Agropyron repens (L.) P.Beauv. Agropyrum njem/en-njîl/afar Poaceae Agropyron occidentale (Scribn.) Scribn. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Cynodon E G Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbia falcata L. Euphorbia retusa Forssk. oum-lbina Euphorbia calyptrata Coss. & Kralik Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae E Compositae G Euphorbia guyoniana Boiss. & Reut. Euphorbia granulata Forssk. Euphorbia nicaeensis All. ouazwaza sikran Santolina rosmarinifolia L. Santolina Cotula anthemoides Lour. Cotula Aaronsohnia pubescens (Desf.) K.Bremer & Humphries Aaronsohnia Conium maculatum L. Conium Apiaceae Heliotropium europaeum L Heliotropium Borraginaceae Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Withania F G Hyoscyamus albus L. Solanaceae Hyoscyamus niger L. Hyoscyamus E Hyoscyamus muticus L. Atropa belladonna L. Atropa Datura stramonium L. Datura Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert Vaccaria Saponaria glutinosa M.Bieb. Saponaria Silene sp. Silene tiddilla tighighest http://jppres.com/jppres Solanaceae G Caryophyllaceae G J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 238 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae E Lavandula Lamiaceae E Cistus Cistaceae E Compositae G Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg. tikiout (tikiut) Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt Lavandula pedunculata subsp. atlantica (Braun-Blanq.) Romo timerza Lavandula coronopifolia Poir. Cistus ladanifer L. Cistus albidus L. touzzalt Cistus salviifolius L. Cistus monspeliensis L. uqhuwan ward ezzwani Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. = Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. Chrysanthemum Glebionis coronaria (L.) Cass. ex Spach = Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Glebionis Endopappus macrocarpus (Coss. & Kralik ex Batt. & Trabut) Sch. Bip. Endopappus Matricaria chamomilla L. = Matricaria recutita L. Matricaria Anacyclus radiatus Loisel. Anacyclus Alcea rosea L. Alcea Malvaceae F Paeonia Paeoniaceae E Laurus Lauraceae E Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. Paeonia officinalis L. wrak Moussa, errand/el-ghar Laurus nobilis L. Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco Origanum vulgare L. Origanum compactum Benth. E Origanum Origanum elongatum (Bonnet) Emb. & Maire zaatar Lamiaceae Origanum grosii Pau & Font Quer Thymus pallescens Noë Thymus lanceolatus Desf. G Thymus Thymus capitatus. (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg. Euphorbia beaumieriana Hook.f. & Coss. Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae E Balanites Zygophyllaceae F zaggûm (zgoum) Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 239 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 2. The similarity of vernacular names between the plants identified in the present study and other aromatic and medicinal plants in Morocco (continued...) Vernacular name Species with the same vernacular name Genus Family Level of difference Digitalis Scrophulariaceae E Atropa Solanaceae E Hyssopus Lamiaceae E Digitalis mauretanica (Humbert & Maire ex Emb. & Maire) Ivaina zhar el-kchatbin Digitalis atlantica Pomel Digitalis obscura L. Atropa belladonna L. zbib lidur Atropa baetica Willk. Hyssopus officinalis L. zoufa Hyssopus aristatus (Godr.) Nyman E: The vernacular names are common between species of the same genus and therefore of the same family. G: The vernacular names are common between species of different genera but belonging to the same family. E & G: The vernacular names are common between species of the same genus and others of different genera but in all cases the family is the same. E & F: The vernacular names are common between species of the same genus, and to species of different families and therefore the genera are different. F: The vernacular names are common between species of different families and therefore the genera are different. E/G/F: Vernacular names are common between species of the same genus, of different genera but belonging to the same family and species of different families. G/F: Vernacular names are common between species of different genera but belonging to the same family and species of different genera and families. The scientific names were proposed according to The Plant List (2020) (http://www.theplantlist.org/ ) multitude of vernaculars, do not share them with other plants; there are many examples such as Pistacia lentiscus L., Arbutus unedo L., and Rosmarinus officinalis L. Moreover, the French vernaculars, often generic, include many species, except for monospecific genera (case in Morocco of the genera Cedrus, Taxus, Argania, and others). For example, in Morocco, the oregano "zaatar" designates Origanum vulgare L., Origanum compactum Benth (zaatar tadlawi: Tadla Origanum); Origanum elongatum (Bonnet) Emb. & Maire (zaatar rifi: Rif Oregano) and Origanum grosii Pau & Font Quer. Similarly, "calamint" designates a dozen species of perennial plants from the Lamiaceae family; this vernacular is from the Latin Calamintha, itself derived from the Greek kaláminthos, and it refers to a kind of mint. However, taxonomic investigation revealed that the calamints belong to the genera Acinos and Calamintha, which have been then grouped in the genus Clinopodium. Thus, we can distinguich the calamint of the Alps - Acinos alpinus (L.) Moench or Clinopodium alpinum (L.) Kuntze, 1891, the calamint of the fields - Acinos arvensis (Lam.) Dandy or Clinopodium acinos (L.) Kuntze, 1891, the calamint of Corsica - Acinos corsicus (Pers.) Getliffe or Clinopodium corsicum (Pers.) Govaerts, 1999, the nepeta calamint - Calamintha http://jppres.com/jppres nepeta (L.) Savi or Clinopodium nepeta (L.) Kuntze, 1891 and the small calamint- Calamintha officinalis Moench or Clinopodium nepeta (L.) Kuntze. Also, both with oregano and calamint, adjectives or descriptors are used to specify and differentiate their respective species. So, for oregano, a species is related to the Rif region, whereas another is attached to the region of Tadla. For calamint, there is an opposition between the species from the Alps and Corsica. Moreover, in the study area as well as elsewhere in Morocco, four species of the genus Urtica from the Urticaceae family are grouped under the name “harriga” relating to nettle. These are Urtica membranacea Poir., Urtica urens L., Urtica pilulifera L. and Urtica dioica L. This uniqueness of the vernacular name is due to their common property, namely the presence of stinging hairs on the whole plant. It is also the presence of hairs, in addition to the triangular shape of the leaves, that gave the same vernacular "harriga" to Lamium album L. "white nettle" belonging to the Lamiaceae family, except that the plant does not sting. Mercurialis annua L. and Mercurialis perennis L. from the Euphorbiaceae family are also called "harriga melssa" or smooth nettle. In the same sense, the vernacular name "chih" which is a generic name for several sagebrushes in J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 240 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks the Arab world (Bellakhdar, 1997), corresponds in Morocco to several species of the genus Artemisia, such as Artemisia herba-alba Asso., Artemisia mesatlantica Maire, Artemisia ifranensis J.Didier, Artemisia flahaultii Emb. & Maire, Artemisia negrei Ouyahya and Artemisia atlantica Coss. & Dur. var. maroccana (Coss.). tetrandra S. Moore (hanfangji) with medicinal virtues and Aristolochia fangchi YC Wu ex LD Chou & SM Wang (guangfangchi), a very toxic species, caused severe nephropathy and sometimes ureteric cancer to many consumers; in fact, aristolochic acid, a bioactive molecule present in Aristolochia fangchi Y.C Wu ex L.D Chou & S.M Wang is a nephrotoxic and carcinogenic agent (Martinez et al., 2002). For its part, the vernacular name "jaada" designates three species belonging to three different genera of the same family of Lamiaceae; they are respectively Teucrium pollium L., Lavandula dentata L. and Marrubium deserti Denoe. Finally, the similarity of vernacular names can take on greater dimensions through extending to species from different families; for example, the name "sikran" is used to designate both Conium maculatum L. and Hyoscyamus sp. who belong respectively to the Apiaceae and Solanaceae families. Moreover, all plants that produce delirium or drunkenness (sekra) such as thornapples, henbanes, heliotropes, withania, and ryegrass are named “sikran”. Another example is that of "zaggum" which corresponds to three species belonging to the same genus Euphorbia and to the Euphorbiaceae family; there are Euphorbia resinifera Berg., Euphorbia beaumierana Hook.f. & Coss, Euphorbia echinus Hook.f. & Coss. and also, by the species Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. from the Zygophyllaceae family. These plants are thorny and proverbial for their bitterness, which may be why they have the same popular name (Bellakhder, 1997). This similarity of names is not without consequences; indeed, it could be the cause of the ineffectiveness of some medicinal recipes, or even the toxicity of others, especially as plants are often recommended orally on the basis of their vernacular name. There is already a variation in the chemical composition both qualitatively and quantitatively between edaphic or climatic races of the same species; so, this will surely be amplified between different species (Zougagh et al., 2019). In 1992, in Belgium, the confusion in a slimming preparation between two Chinese plants with very similar vernacular names, Stephania http://jppres.com/jppres In the study area, the different parts of nettles, especially Urtica urens L. are indicated in traditional therapy. Their local use is mainly related to their use against rheumatism, eczema, allergic, rheumatoid rhinitis, and the roots are used to treat benign prostate hyperplasia (Farag et al., 2013); whereas, white nettle Lamium album L. is used in cases of mild bleeding, diarrhea, anemia, cystitis, painful periods and bronchitis. Therefore, the confusion between these two species leads to the ineffectiveness of the therapeutic treatment. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del, commonly known as “zaggum” has food and medicinal uses; while its bark cures tonsillitis, bronchitis, and various lung diseases, the leaves are used to prepare sauces for tooth decay prevention are recommended for the treatment of goiter (Bellakhder, 1997). However, if somebody refers only to the vernacular name, there is a risk to use for these purposes Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg., which is not food and whose therapeutic virtues are completely different. Everywhere in Morocco, Euphorbia resinifera O. Berg has an external use; its resin is used to treat rheumatism and dental pain, and it is applied as a repellent against poisonous stings (Bellakhder, 1997). The plant, the fresh latex, and the resin are harmful products due to the presence of diterpene esters; the latex is a powerful and dangerous purgative, and the resin is an abortifacient (Bellakhder, 1997). In other Moroccan regions, E. resinifera O. Berg. is named "daghmouss"; this vernacular is shared with Caralluma europaea (Guss.) N.E. Br, an abundant species in the study region, belongs to the Apocynaceae family and used to treat urogenital diseases. Nevertheless, in many other cases, the vernaculars are very precise; for example, in the lavenders group, Lavandula pedunculata (Mill) cav., Lavandula J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 241 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks stoechas L. and Lavandula atlantica (Br.-Bl.) Br.-Bl. & Maire have the same vernacular name "lhalhal"; that is very well-founded from a systematic point of view, as these three taxa remain very affine and are sometimes considered just subspecies of Lavandula stoechas L. Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L. is a poisonous species that can be easily confused either with certain edible plants (the edible parts are stems or receptacle) such as Carlina acaulis L. and Cynara humilis L. belonging to the same family of Compositae, or with medicinal plants such as Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball. and Scolymus hispanicus L. also from the Compositae family (Fig. 2). The consumption of Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L. can induce inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation and the Krebs cycle (Daniele et al., 2005), digestive disorders (Georgiou et al., 1988), and multivisceral disorders (Hamouda et al., 2004) because of its chemical composition containing mitochondrial poisons, notably diterpenic heterosides such as atractylosides, carboxyatractylosides or gummiferin, parquine and carboxiparquine (Skalli et al., 2002; Hammiche et al., 2013). According to the Moroccan Poison Control and Pharmacovigilance Center, there were 240 cases of poisoning by Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L. during the period 1981-2004 due to its direct use for therapeutic purposes or its confusion with other plants (Mouaffak et al., 2013). On the other hand, the species Lavandula maroccana Murb., Lavandula dentata L., and Lavandula multifida L., which are not affine with Lavandula stoechas L., have their own vernacular names, respectively, timzouria, halhal marakchiya and kohyla (Bachiri et al., 2015). Confusion during harvesting In addition to the risks of confusion between plants having common names, other errors may occur during harvesting, when non-specialists collect species. In fact, plant identification is not always easy, especially in certain families, such as the Apiaceae, which is rich in medicinal or edible species and in toxic plants that are difficult to distinguish (Dolivo, 2003). In the Eastern Pyrenees, a man died after consuming the leaves of the Aconitum napellus subsp. napellus L. belonging to the Ranunculaceae family, instead of Molopospermum peloponnesiacum (L.) W.D.J. Koch belonging to the Apiaceae family. A. napellus is a very toxic plant called vegetal arsenic as it is very rich in powerful alkaloids such as aconitine. At the vegetative stage, the two plants are easily confused, and only the appearance of the typical purplish-blue flowers in the shape of a Jupiter’s helmet or a monk's helmet allows the distinction of aconite (Sinno-Tellier, 2018). Similarly, in Switzerland, during 2002, a person died after eating the leaves of Colchicum autumnale L. “autumn colchicum”, a Cochicaceae that he confused with leaves of Allium ursinum L. “wild garlic” belonging to the Amaryllidaceae family (Dolivo, 2003). In our study, the list of the species presented in Table 1 is not exempt from cases of confusion; these are generally due to the similarities between the plants' ports or some of their specific parts, such as the inflorescence fruit and leaves (Table 3). http://jppres.com/jppres Also, the leaves of Taxus bacata L. may be confused with those of Abies sp. because of their resemblance (Fig. 3); in this case, the intoxication is unavoidable due to the significant toxicity of the leaves of Taxus bacata L. containing taxine A and B (Sinn, 1991; Panzeri et al., 2010), which cause digestive, neurological and cardiac disorders (Flesch, 2005). Furthermore, the very poisonous bacciform fruits of Atropa belladonna L. “belladonna” can be confused with those of Vaccinium myrtillus L. “blueberry” used in food and therapy (Fig. 4). The five starry-lobed calyces surrounding the fruit is a characteristic of Atropa belladonna L. (Dolivo, 2003). The intoxication causes vomiting, convulsions, coma, and respiratory depression (Flesch, 2012) due to a high content of alkaloids in A. belladonna L., such as atropine, L-hyoscyamine, and scopolamine (Goullé et al., 2004). Fruit confusion may also occur between Sambucus nigra L. and Sambucus ebulus L., as both species have blackberries (Fig. 5). J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 242 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Table 3. Examples of cases of confusion between plants during harvesting. Species considered Possible confusion Parts confused Fig. Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L. Carlina acaulis L., Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball., Scolymus hispanicus L. and Cynara humilis L. Vegetative apparatus 2 Taxus baccata L. Abies pinsapo subsp. marocana (Trab.) Emb. & Maire Leaves 3 Atropa belladonna L. Vaccinium myrtillus L. Fruit 4 Solanum nigrum L. Fruit/Vegetative apparatus Sambucus nigra L. Sambucus ebulus L. Fruit 5 Euphorbia resinifera O.Berg. Caralluma europaea (Guss.) N.EBr., Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt Vegetative apparatus 6 Urtica urens L. Mercurialis annua L., Lamium album L. Leaves 7 Ammi majus L. Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. Inflorescence 8 Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. = Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. Matricaria chamomilla L. = Matricaria recutita L. Inflorescence 9 Figure 2. (A) Atractylis gummifera Salzm. ex L.; (B) Carlina acaulis L.; (C) Centaurea chamaerhaponticum Ball.; (D) Scolymus hispanicus L.; (E) Cynara humilis L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, August 2018. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 243 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Figure 3. (A) Taxus baccata L.; (B) Abies pinsapo subsp. marocana (Trab) Emb & Maire. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, July 2018. Figure 4. (A) Atropa belladonna L.; (B) Vaccinium myrtillus L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, (A) August 2018, (B) May 2019. Figure 5. (A) Sambucus nigra L.; (B) Sambucus ebulus L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, August 2018. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 244 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Figure 6: (A) Euphorbia resinifera O.Berg. (B) Caralluma europaea (Guss.) N.EBr. (C) Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, May 2019. Figure 7. (A) Urtica urens L. before flowering; (B) Mercurialis annua L. before flowering (Guss.); (C) Flowering Mercurialis annua L; (D) Flowering Urtica urens L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, February 2019. Figure 8. (A) Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam.; (B) Ammi majus L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, June 2019. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 245 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Figure 9. (A) Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh.; (B) Matricaria chamomilla L. Image source: Photo taken by Najem M, April 2019. It is also possible to confuse Euphorbia resinifera O.Berg. widely used for the treatment of cysts, with Euphorbia officinarum subsp. echinus (Hook.f. & Coss.) Vindt and with Caralluma europaea (Guss.) N.EBr. belonging to the Apocynaceae family (Fig. 6). This confusion is due to their morphological similarity and their same common name "daghmouss". rocco, at least five species among which Artemisia mesatlantica Maire is an endemic share this denomination; however, all of them are widely exploited without any special precaution to the endemic one (Fennane and Rejdali, 2016). Finally, the occupation of similar biotopes in addition to the morphological resemblance promotes confusion between Urtica urens L. and Mercurialis perennis L. belonging respectively to the Urticaceae and Euphorbiaceae families (Fig. 7) as well as between Ammi majus L. and Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. F from the Apiaceae family (Fig. 8) and between Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bernh. and Matricaria chamomilla L. from the Compositae family (Fig. 9). This study was undertaken only in a part of Morocco (central Middle Atlas); it would be interesting to extend it to other Moroccan regions. In addition, it is fundamental to know precisely the plant to be used in order to avoid harvesting rare or very rare taxa; unfortunately, there are many inaccuracies about vernacular names and their corresponding scientific names (Fennane and Rejdali, 2016) and very rare and endemic species may disappear irreversibly. So, when considering oregano, it appears that Origanum vulgare L., Origanum grosii Pau & Font Quer, and Origanum elongatum (Bonnet) Emb. & Maire are strongly exploited; while the first species is widespread in Morocco, the two others are endemic and located respectively in the Chaouen region and in Rif, Tazekka and Bou Iblane (Belakhder, 1997). The example of "chih", usually corresponding to Artemisia herbaalba (sensu lato) is also significant; indeed, in Mo- Otherwise, the collection of voucher specimens was not an easy issue, given the geographical location of the study area; the field is not always a safe environment. Also, seasonal variations were a determining factor in the collection of these specimens. http://jppres.com/jppres Limitation of the study Also, during the present study, there were some difficulties, especially with the language; as most of the survey participants are Berber, the help of interpreters was essential. Similarly, older people needed more time than younger ones to become confident before delivering information about herbal remedies. CONCLUSIONS In the present work, we have tried to highlight the richness, the diversity, and the originality of the popular nomenclature of toxic plants used in herbal medicine in the central Middle Atlas region. It appears that there are several risks related to the multitude of vernaculars attributed to a given species as well as to the attribution of the same verJ Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 246 Najem et al. nacular to different species having different phytochemical profiles, virtues, and uses. The consequences of confusion are serious, especially when the interest in herbalism or the practice of phythotherapy for some people is justified only by a pure material need without concern for the health of the population. However, it should be noted that our objective is neither to discuss the effectiveness of medicinal plants nor to pronounce their harmlessness. We aim essentially to draw attention that the medicinal plant sector must be regulated and the actors of herbalism and traditional phytotherapy must be competent and very vigilant to avoid any confusion between plants and the inherent risks of toxicity. In all cases, whether the purpose is culinary, cosmetic, medicinal, or other, mastering the identification of plants is a key step in its success. Also, a charter regulating the collection and medicinal plants' use is imperative to avoid any risk of intoxication. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors declare no conflicts of interest. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors sincerely thank all practitioners of traditional medicine in the study area for their availability and information. REFERENCES Adam JG (1970) Noms vernaculaires de plantes du Sénégal. J Agric Tradit Bot Appl 17: 243–294. Anonymous (1934) Tuhfat al-ahbab "Glossaire de la matière médicale marocaine", translated from Arabic by Renaud HPJ. and Collins G. Publications de l'Institut des Hautes Études Marocaines.Tome XXIV- Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner-Paris. Bachiri L, Labazi N, Daoudi A, Ibijbijen J, Nassiri L, Echchegadda G, Mokhtari F (2015) Etude ethnobotanique de quelques lavandes marocaines spontanées. Int J Biol Chem Sci 9: 1308–1318. Bellakhdar J (1997) La pharmacopée marocaine traditionnelle, médecine arabe ancienne et savoirs populaires. Casablanca: Editions Le Fennec, Ibis Press. Bnouham M, Merhfour FZ, Elachoui M, Legssyer A, Mekhfi H, Lamnaouer D, Ziyyat A (2006) Toxic effects of some medicinal plants used in Moroccan traditional medicine. http://jppres.com/jppres Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Moroccan J Biol 2-3: 21–30. Bouiamrine E, Bachiri L, Ibijbijen J, Nassiri L (2017) Use medicinal plants in Middle Atlas of Morocco: potential health risks and indigenous knowledge in a Berber community. J Med Plant Stud 5: 338–342. Daniele C, Dahamna S, Firuzi O, Sekfali N, Saso L, Mazzanti G (2005) Atractylis gummifera L. poisoning: an ethnopharmacological review. J Ethnopharmacol 97: 175– 181. Daoudi A, Zerkani S, Nassiri L, Boukil M, Ibijbijen J (2013) Inventaire des plantes medicinales de la commune d’Aguelmouss- Province de Khenifra-Maroc. ScienceLib Editions Mersenne 5: 1–18. Dolivo A (2003) Confusions lors de cueillettes de plantes médicinales. Bull Cercle Vaud Bot 32: 17–22. El Jihad MD (2016) Changement climatique et développement rural dans les montagnes du Moyen-Atlas et leurs bordures (Maroc). J Rev Geogr Alp 104: 1–18. El Rhaffari L, Zaid A (2002) Pratique de la phytothérapie dans le sud-est du Maroc (Tafilalet): un savoir empirique pour une pharmacopée rénovée, In: Des sources du savoir aux médicaments du futur: actes du 4e congrès européen d'ethnopharmacologie. Paris (FRA); Metz: IRD; SFE, 293– 318. Farag MA, Weigend M, Luebert F, Brokamp G, Wessjohann LA (2013) Phytochemical, phylogenetic, and antiinflammatory evaluationof 43 Urtica accessions (stinging nettle) basedon UPLC–Q-TOF-MS metabolomic profiles. Phytochemistry 96: 170–183. Fennane M, Ibn Tattou M, El Oulaidi J (2014) Flore pratique du Maroc. Vol. 3, Travaux Institut Scientifique. Sér. Botanique N° 40, Rabat. Fennane M, Ibn Tattou M, Mathez J, Ouyahya A, El Oulaidi J (1999) Flore pratique du Maroc. Vol 1, Travaux Institut Scientifique, Sér. Botanique N° 36, Rabat. Fennane M, Ibn Tattou M, Ouyahya A, El Oulaidi J (2007) Flore pratique du Maroc. Vol. 2, Travaux Institut Scientifique. Sér. Botanique N° 38, Rabat. Fennane M, Rejdali M (2016) Aromatic and medicinal plants of Morocco: Richness, diversity and threats. Bulletin de l’Institut Scientifique, Rabat, Section Sciences de la Vie 38: 27–42. Flesch F (2005) Intoxications d’origine végétale. EMCMédecine 2: 532–546. Flesch F (2012) Plantes toxiques: les dangers du retour à la nature. Réanimation 21: 525–532. Georgiou M, Sianidou L, Hatzis T, Papadatos J, Koutselinis A (1988) Hepatotoxicity due to Atractylis gummifera L. Clin Toxicol 26: 487–493. Goullé J, Pépin G, Dumestre Toulet V, Lacroix C (2004) Botanique, chimie et toxicologie des solanacées hallucinogènes: belladone, datura, jusquiame, mandragore. Ann Toxicol Anal XVI: 22–35. J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 247 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Hammiche V, Merad R, Azzouz M (2013) Plantes toxiques à usage médicinal du pourtour méditerranéen. France, Paris: Springer-Verlag. Najem M, Bachiri L, Bouiamrine EH, Ibijbijen J, Nassiri L (2020b) Overview of some toxic plants for medicinal use: Case of the central Middle Atlas – Morocco. Ethnobot Res Appl 19: 1–23. Hamouda C, Hédhili H, Ben Salah N, Zhioua M, Amamou M (2004) A review of acute poisoning from Actractylis gummifera L. Vet Human Toxicol 46: 144–117. Nassiri L, Zarkani S, Daoudi A, Bammou Ibijbijen J (2016) Contribution à catalogue ethnobotanique de la d'Aguelmous (Province de Khénifra, Appl Stud 17: 373–387. HCP (2018) Haut-Commissariat au Plan, Recensement Général de la Population et de l’Habitat au Maroc 2014, Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Démographiques. M, Bouiamrine EH, l'élaboration d'un commune rurale Maroc). Int J Innov Kharchoufa L, Alami Merrouni I, Yamani A, Elachouri M (2018) Profile on medicinal plants used by the people of North Eastern Morocco: Toxicity concerns.Profile on medicinal plants used by the people of North Eastern. Toxicon 154: 90–113. Panzeri C, Bacis G, Ferri F, Rinaldi G, Persico A, Uberti F, Restani P (2010) Extracorporeal life support in a severe Taxus baccata poisoning. Clin Toxicol 48: 463–465. Martinez MM, Nortier J, Vereerstraeten P, Vanherweghem J (2002) Progression rate of Chinese herb nephropathy: impact of Aristolochia fangchi ingested dose. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17: 408–412. Sinn LE (1991) Fatal taxine poisoning from yew leaf ingestion. J Forensic Sci 36: 599–601. Pilegaard KR (2012) Confusable with poisonous plants. DTU Food. National Food Institute 2: 1–4. Sinno-Tellier S (2018) Confusion entre plantes comestibles et toxiques: gare aux ressemblances. Bull Vigil Anses 8: 1–5. Mouaffak Y, Boutbaoucht M, Ejlaidi A, Toufiki R, Younous S (2013) Fatal poisoning by Atractylis gummifera L.: A case report. Arch Pédiat 20: 496–498. Skalli S, Alaoui I, Pineau A, Zaid A, Soulaymani R (2002) L’intoxication par le chardon à glu (Atractylis gummifera L.): à propos d’un cas clinique. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 95: 284–286. Nacoulma E, Sakande J, Kafando E, Kpowbié ED, Guissou IP (2006) Profil hématologique et biochimique des drépanocytaires SS et SC en phase stationnaire au Centre Hospitalier National Yalgado Ouedraogo de Ouagadougou. Mali Med 21: 8–11. Trabut L (1935) Flore du Nord de l'Afrique: Répertoire des noms îndigènes des plantes spontanées, cultivées et utilisées dansl e Nord de I'Afrique. Collection du Centenaire de L'algérie 1830 – 1930. Edition Imprimeries la Typo-Litho et Jules Carbonel Réunies, Alger. Najem M, Daoudi A, Bouiamrine EH, Ibijbijen J, Nassiri L (2019) Biodiversity of poisonous medicinal plants solicited in the traditional phytotherapy of the central Middle Atlas -Morocco. Ethnobot Res Appl 18: 1–23. Zougagh S, Belghiti A, Rochd T, Zerdani I, Mouslim J (2019) Medicinal and aromatic plants used in traditional treatment of the oral pathology: The ethnobotanical survey in the economic capital Casablanca, Morocco (North Africa). Nat Prod Bioprospect 9: 35–48. Najem M, Harouak H, Ibijbijen J, Nassiri L (2020a) Oral disorders and ethnobotanical treatments: A field study in the central Middle Atlas (Morocco). Heliyon 6: 1–11. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION: Contribution Najem M Nassiri L Ibijbijen J Concepts or ideas x x Design x x Definition of intellectual content x x Literature search x x Experimental studies x x Data acquisition x x Data analysis x x Statistical analysis x x Manuscript preparation x x x Manuscript editing x x x Manuscript review x x x Citation Format: Najem M, Nassiri L, Ibijbijen J (2021) Vernacular names of plants between diversity and potential risks of confusion: case of toxic plants used in medication in the central Middle Atlas, Morocco. J Pharm Pharmacogn Res 9(2): 222–250. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 248 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks Appendix 1. Questionnaire sheets. 1- Code 2- Date 3- Municipality ⃝ 1. Azrou; ⃝ 2. El Hajeb; 4- Age 5- Profession 6- ⃝ 1. Druggist; 7- ⃝ 1. Female; 8- ⃝ 1. Nomadic; 9- ⃝ 1. Illiterate; ⃝ 2. Herbalist; Gender Locality ⃝ 3. Ifrane; ⃝ 5. Timehdit; ⃝ 6. Mrirt ⃝ 3. Traditional healers ⃝ 2. male ⃝ 2. City; Level of education Family ⃝ 4. Khenifra; ⃝ 3. Douar; ⃝ 2. Primary; ⃝ 4. Village ⃝ 3. Secondary; ⃝ 4. University 10- Genus 11- Species 12- Arabic vernacular name 13- French vernacular name 14- Tamazight vernacular name 15- Type ⃝ 1. Cultivated; ⃝ 2. Wild You can check multiple boxes http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 249 Najem et al. Plant vernacular names: diversity and confusion potential risks 16- Use ⃝1. Therapeutic; ⃝ 2. Cosmetic; You can check multiple boxes ⃝ 3. Other 17- State of the plant ⃝ 1. Fresh; ⃝ 2. Dried You can check multiple boxes 18- Used part ⃝ 1. Leaf; ⃝ 2. Fruit; ⃝ 3. Root; ⃝ 4. Stem; You can check multiple boxes 19- Method of preparation ⃝ 5. Seeds; ⃝ 1. Decoction; ⃝ 2. Infusion; ⃝ 3. Maceration; ⃝ 8. Cooked; ⃝ 10. Others You can check multiple boxes ⃝ 6. Resin; ⃝ 4. Powder; ⃝ 7. Flowers; ⃝ 5. Poultice; ⃝ 8. Capsules; ⃝ 6. Essential oil; ⃝ 9. Others ⃝ 7. Extract; 20- Used dose ⃝ 1. Spoonful ⃝ 2. Pinch ⃝ 3. Handle You can check multiple boxes 21- Administration mode ⃝ 1. Oral; ⃝ 2. Massage; ⃝ 3. Rinsing; You can check multiple boxes ⃝ 4. Bandaging; ⃝ 5. Others 22- Duration of use ⃝ 1. One-day; ⃝ 2. One-week; ⃝ 3. One-month; You can check multiple boxes 23- Treated disease ⃝ Dermatological disorders ⃝ Urogenital disorders ⃝ Affections of glands ⃝ Appendices of digestive tract You can check multiple boxes ⃝ 4. Until healing ⃝ Respiratory disorders ⃝ Osteoarticular disorders ⃝ Neurological disorders ⃝ Ophthalmic disorders ⃝ Cardiovascular diseases ⃝ Digestive tract disorders ⃝ Metabolic disorders ⃝ Oral disorders 24- Toxicity ⃝ 1. Yes; ⃝ 2. No 25- Source of their knowledge of the plants ⃝ 1. Parent; ⃝ 2. Media; http://jppres.com/jppres ⃝ 3. Personal experience; ⃝ 4. Other actors of traditional medicine J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2021) 9(2): 250