Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship
Series
Series Editors
Varun Uberoi
Brunel University London
London, UK
Nasar Meer
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, UK
Tariq Modood
University of Bristol
Bristol, UK
The politics of identity and citizenship has assumed increasing importance
as our polities have become significantly more culturally, ethnically and
religiously diverse. Different types of scholars, including philosophers,
sociologists, political scientists and historians make contributions to this
field and this series showcases a variety of innovative contributions to it.
Focusing on a range of different countries, and utilizing the insights of
different disciplines, the series helps to illuminate an increasingly controversial area of research and titles in it will be of interest to a number of
audiences including scholars, students and other interested individuals.
More information about this series at
http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14670
Tamás Kiss · István Gergő Székely
Tibor Toró · Nándor Bárdi
István Horváth
Editors
Unequal
Accommodation
of Minority Rights
Hungarians in Transylvania
Editors
Tamás Kiss
Romanian Institute for Research
on National Minorities
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
István Gergő Székely
Romanian Institute for Research
on National Minorities
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Nándor Bárdi
Institute for Minority Studies
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Centre
for Social Sciences
Budapest, Hungary
István Horváth
Romanian Institute for Research
on National Minorities
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Tibor Toró
International Relations and European
Studies Department
Sapientia Hungarian University
of Transylvania
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series
ISBN 978-3-319-78892-0
ISBN 978-3-319-78893-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78893-7
(eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018939724
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein
or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover credit: Istvan Kadar Photography/Getty Images
Printed on acid-free paper
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International
Publishing AG part of Springer Nature
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
1
Introduction: Unequal Accommodation, Ethnic
Parallelism, and Increasing Marginality
Tamás Kiss
Part I
2
3
4
1
The Minority Rights Regime and Political Strategies
Minority Political Agency in Historical Perspective:
Periodization and Key Problems
Nándor Bárdi and Tamás Kiss
37
Unequal Accommodation: An Institutionalist Analysis
of Ethnic Claim-Making and Bargaining
Tamás Kiss, Tibor Toró and István Gergő Székely
71
Language Use, Language Policy, and Language Rights
István Horváth and Tibor Toró
167
v
vi
Contents
Part II
5
6
Ethnic Parallelism: Political Program
and Social Reality—Ethnically and Non-ethnically
Integrated Social Fields
Ethnic Parallelism: Political Program and Social
Reality: An Introduction
Tamás Kiss and Dénes Kiss
227
Hungarian-Language Education: Legal Framework,
Institutional Structure and Assessment of School
Performances
Attila Z. Papp, János Márton, István Gergő Székely
and Gergő Barna
249
7
Churches and Religious Life
Dénes Kiss
8
Media Consumption and the Hungarian-Language
Media in Transylvania
Tamás Kiss
9
Economy and Ethnicity in Transylvania
Zsombor Csata
Part III
10
11
293
317
345
Societal and Demographic Macro-processes
Demographic Dynamics and Ethnic Classification:
An Introduction to Societal Macro-Processes
Tamás Kiss
383
A Changing System of Ethnic Stratification:
The Social Positions of Transylvanian Hungarians
Tamás Kiss
419
Contents
12
Assimilation and Boundary Reinforcement:
Ethnic Exogamy and Socialization in Ethnically
Mixed Families
Tamás Kiss
vii
459
Bibliography
501
Index
539
List of Figures
Chapter 1
Fig. 1 Hungarians in Transylvania (Source Map created
by Samu Márton Balogh based on census data)
Chapter 3
Fig. 1 Attitudes toward minority rights at national level (2000–2014)
(Source Surveys by IMAS (1995, 1996), CCRIT (2000, 2006),
MetroMedia Transilvania (Etno barometer 2001, 2002), and
Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorties (2008,
2012, 2014, 2016))
Fig. 2 Acceptance of granting various rights to Hungarians among
ethnic Romanians (proportion of affirmative/positive answers)
(Source Surveys by IMAS (1995, 1996) and Romanian Institute
for Research on National Minorties (2012, 2014, 2016))
Fig. 3 The evolution of funding for ethnic kin communities from the
Hungarian state budget between 1990 and 2015 (million USD)
Authors’ calculations (Sources Bárdi and Misovicz (2010); Papp
(2010); http://www.bgazrt.hu/ (Accessed 12 July 2017))
25
88
89
134
ix
x
List of Figures
Chapter 4
Fig. 1 Communication in Hungarian with local public institutions
according to the proportion of Hungarians in the municipality
(Source Authors’ own calculations based on survey data)
Chapter 6
Fig. 1 Pass rates at the National Evaluation by size of settlement and
language of education (Source Authors’ own calculation based
on data published by the Ministry of Education)
Fig. 2 National Evaluation exam scores of ethnic Hungarian pupils
by the language of upper secondary education chosen (2014)
(Source Authors’ own calculations based on data from admitere.
edu.ro)
Fig. 3 High-school-leaving examinations: official pass rates and the
rate of success compared to the number of high-school graduates, Romania and Hungarian-language programs (2012–2016)
(Source Authors’ own calculation based on data published by the
Ministry of Education)
Fig. 4 High-school-leaving examination pass rates by settlement size
and language of education (Source Authors’ own calculation
based on data published by the Ministry of Education)
Chapter 8
Fig. 1 Audience of different types of radio stations (2007 and 2015).
Figures represent percentages among respondents who reported
that they listened to the radio (Source Romanian Institute for
Research on National Minorities 2015 and TransObjective
Consulting 2007)
Fig. 2 Audience of TV channels transmitted from Hungary
(1999–2015). Figures represent percentages of respondents
who mentioned the respective TV channels (Source Kvantum
Research 2010; TransObjective Consulting 2007; Romanian
Institute for Research on National Minorities 2013, 2015)
Fig. 3 Audience of TV channels transmitted from Romania
(1999–2015). Figures represent percentages of respondents who
mentioned the respective TV channels (Source TransObjective
Consulting 2007; Kvantum Research 2010; Romanian Institute
for Research on National Minorities 2013, 2015)
214
278
280
282
283
333
336
337
Fig. 4
List of Figures
xi
Language use in media consumption (1997–2015). Numbers
represent percentages (Source ELTE-UNSECO Minority
Studies 1997; CCRIT 2004; RIRNM 2011, 2015)
339
Chapter 10
Fig. 1 The annual dynamics of the Hungarian population in Romania
(1964–2017) (Source Author’s calculations; for the 1964–1992
period demographic inverse projection using 1992 census
results)
Fig. 2 Crude birth and death rates of the Hungarian population in
Transylvania (1964–2011) (Source Author’s calculations; for the
1964–1992 period demographic inverse projection using 1992
census results)
Chapter 11
Fig. 1 The proportion of urban dwellers among Hungarians and
Romanians in Transylvania (1900–2011) (Source Hungarian
and Romanian census data)
Fig. 2 The proportion of university graduates by birth cohorts
among Hungarians and Romanians (2011) (Source IPUMSInternational, 10% sample of the 2011 Romanian census—
Minnesota Population Center. Integrated Public Use Microdata
Series, International: Version 7.0 [2011 Romanian Census].
Minneapolis, MN: IPUMS, 2018. http://doi.org/10.18128/
D020.V70)
Fig. 3 Distribution by income quintiles (2011) (Source CCCDCRIRNM survey, January 2011)
Fig. 4 The hierarchy of occupational statuses in Romania and among
Transylvanian Hungarians (2002) (Source Database of married
couples and consensual unions created by the author, based on
the IPUMS-International 10% sample of the 2002 Romanian
census)
Chapter 12
Fig. 1 Proportion of ethnically mixed marriages among Transylvanian
Hungarians (flow data, 1966 and 1992–2015) (Source Data
provided by the National Institute of Statistics)
387
389
431
432
441
447
472
xii
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
List of Figures
Homogenous and heterogeneous marriages by counties (2011)
(Source Map created by Samu Márton Balogh based on the
IPUMS-International 10% sample of the 2011 Romanian
census)
Mother tongue and identity choice for children born in
ethnically mixed marriages (2011) (Source Map created
by Samu Márton Balogh based on the IPUMS-International
10% sample of the 2011 Romanian census)
480
489
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1 The structure, the levels of analysis and the main
arguments of the volume
Chapter 2
Table 1 Minority political agency and the institutional network
of the Transylvanian Hungarians in a historical perspective
Table 2 Parliamentary electoral results of Hungarian political
organizations between 1922 and 1948
Chapter 3
Table 1 Acceptance of Hungarian-language education
and territorial autonomy among ethnic Romanians
(2000–2006)
Table 2 Results of Hungarian political competitors at the elections
for Romania’s parliament, president and the European
Parliament (1990–2016)
Table 3 Periods and strategies of Hungarian political claim-making
after 1989
Table 4 Applicants for simplified naturalization by first citizenship by
October 2017
9
48
54
90
94
97
128
xiii
xiv
List of Tables
Chapter 4
Table 1 Native speakers of Hungarian in Romania
and Transylvania (1869–2011)
Table 2 Hungarian speakers in Transylvania by their proportion
in the administrative units (2011)
Table 3 Multilingualism among Transylvanian Hungarians
Table 4 Official language regulations and minority language
rights in Central and Eastern Europe
Table 5 Minority language rights related to public administration
in Romania
Table 6 Minority language rights in the judicial system in Romania
Chapter 5
Table 1 The sectorial structure of the Hungarian minority
institutional system in Transylvania
Chapter 6
Table 1 The proportion of Hungarian pupils studying
in their mother tongue (1970–2009)
Table 2 Legally defined group sizes for different levels of education
Table 3 Ethnic Hungarian students enrolled in higher education at
the time of the 1992, 2002, and 2011 censuses
Table 4 Pass rates at the National Evaluation (2012–2016)
Table 5 Average GPA at the National Evaluation by language
of education (2014)
Table 6 Results and pass rates of high-school-leaving examinations
(2012–2016)
Table 7 Results of PISA competency evaluations by language
of education and language spoken at home (2006–2015)
Chapter 7
Table 1 The Hungarians in Romania by denominations (2011)
Table 2 Frequency of church attendance and praying among
Transylvanian Hungarians, by denomination (2009)
Table 3 Belief in religious dogmas among Transylvanian
Hungarians by denomination (2009)
Table 4 Representations of the nature of God, Transylvanian
Hungarians by denomination (2009)
Table 5 Forms of religiosity among Transylvanian Hungarians
by denomination (2009)
170
172
178
189
193
198
240
255
262
273
277
279
281
285
296
297
298
298
299
List of Tables
Table 6
Table 7
The organizational structure of the four most numerous
historical Hungarian churches
Church-run educational institutions with Hungarianlanguage education (2016)
Chapter 8
Table 1 Hungarian-language media in Transylvania (2010)
Table 2 Circulation figures for daily newspapers (2010)
Table 3 The audience of Transylvanian Hungarian-language web
portals (proportion of internet users)
Chapter 9
Table 1 Romanian-language proficiency among Transylvanian
Hungarian youth
Table 2 Factors influencing income among Transylvanian
Hungarians (OLS regression model)
Table 3 Components of (individual level) social capital
of Transylvanian Hungarians
Table 4 Size and composition of the personal networks
of Transylvanian Hungarians (2000, 2012)
Table 5 Proportion of ethnic Hungarians reporting ties with
Romanian ethnics (2000, 2012)
Table 6 Level of trust among Transylvanian Hungarians (2012)
Table 7 Factors influencing the equivalent per capita income
of households (OLS regression 2012)
Table 8 Factors influencing the equivalent per capita income
of households, within categories delimited by sex
and percentage of Hungarians in municipalities
(OLS regression 2012)
Table 9 Factors influencing the risk of income poverty
(binary logistic regression, 2012)
Table 10 Economic ethnocentrism among ethnic Hungarians
and Romanians (2008)
Table 11 Factors affecting economic ethnocentrism
(OLS regression 2008)
Chapter 10
Table 1 Changes in the ethnic structure of Transylvania
(1910–2011)
xv
301
308
327
328
338
352
354
357
358
359
360
361
363
364
367
367
386
xvi
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
List of Tables
Main indicators of vital statistics: Romania and the
Transylvanian Hungarian population (1992–2011)
The approximate number of Hungarian ethnics leaving
Romania between 1964 and 2011
The regional dynamics of the Hungarian population
(1992–2011)
Contexts in which Transylvanian Hungarians reported
feeling themselves as Romanians (2016)
Chapter 11
Table 1 Language knowledge by mother tongue (1880)
Table 2 Educational attainment in Romania and among
Transylvanian Hungarians and Romanians (2011)
Table 3 The effect of ascribed characteristics on the likelihood
of graduating university in Romania (Binomial logistic
regression, 2011)
Table 4 Equivalized per capita household income (2011)
Table 5 Factors influencing the equivalized per capita income
of the households (linear regression, 2011)
Table 6 Factors increasing the risk of poverty (binomial logistic
regression, 2011)
Table 7 The hierarchy of the occupational statuses
in Romania (2002)
Table 8 Distribution by occupational status composite categories,
Romania and Transylvanian Hungarians and Romanians
(2011)
Table 9 The effect of income and educational attainment
on occupational status (2011)
Table 10 Equivalized per capita income in Romania, among
Transylvanian Hungarians and Romanians (2011)
Chapter 12
Table 1 Factors affecting the likelihood of living in a mixed
union (binomial logistic regression models)
Table 2 Proportion of exogamous marriages among several
autochthonous minorities in Europe
389
391
396
408
426
435
436
438
439
442
445
449
449
450
473
476
List of Tables
Table 3
Table 4
Ethnic identification of minor children born in ethnically
mixed marriages at the census by religion of the child
(1992, 2002)
Factors affecting the ethnic categorization of children living
in ethnically mixed families (Binomial logistic regressions)
xvii
486
488