st
Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
Sustainable Management of the Herbal Wealth of the Himalayas:
prioritising biodiversity for conservation and development
Gargi Banerji, Sejuti Basu
Pragya, India (www.pragya.org)
Abstract
The Himalayas region in India houses several species of medicinal & aromatic plants (MAPs), including
many rare and endemic species that are highly valued in the pharma and cosmetic industry. These
Himalayan herbs are a priority for conservation action, since many of them are critically endangered today,
threatened by both anthropogenic impacts and climate change. At the same time, the rapidly growing market
demand for the species is also an opportunity for the economic development of farmers in Himalayan
villages. A development organisation, Pragya, carried out a comprehensive intervention aimed at studying
and resolving these opposing pulls with respect to Himalayan MAPs. The intervention included surveys and
consultations for inventorying and threat assessment of medicinal species and mapping Important Plant
Areas for medicinal plants in the Indian Himalayan Region; findings have also enhance understanding of the
vulnerability and resilience of high altitude habitats and helped focus conservation action for medicinal plants
in their natural habitats and outside it. To address the need to seize the opportunity of exploding demand for
medicinal plants for rural development, a series of multi-stakeholder consultations followed a thorough
supply-cum-demand-side analysis of Himalayan herbs in industry. This strand of the intervention prioritised
the Himalayan MAPs with potential for rural livelihoods and also determined the necessary actions for
making them levers for developing the Himalayan economy. A holistic grassroots project was also carried
out in several Himalayan districts with considerable success; the project demonstrates the effectiveness of
applying the recommendations of the studies and consultations.
Keywords: medicinal plants, biodiversity, vulnerability, Important Plant Areas, participatory mapping,
species prioritization, ex-situ conservation
______________________________________________________________________________________
1.
Introduction
The Himalayas, stretching over 3,000 kilometers of northern India, Nepal and Bhutan, is a bio-geographically
unique region, with a very high species diversity, supported by its ecological, phyto-geographical and
evolutionary factors, and the maximum degree of endemism in the Asian region. The Indian Himalayan
Region supports about 18,000 species of plants, including a large repository of medicinal & aromatic plant
species (MAPs), including many rare and valuable species. The medicinal plants are an integral part of the
culture of the local communities of the Himalayas, woven into their lives in innumerable ways and a major
input for the healthcare of the rural poor. In recent times, the market for alternative medicine and herbal
products has also been growing exponentially, and many of the Himalayan MAPs are highly valued as inputs
for these products.
The value of the Himalayan MAPs in local lives as well as far markets constitutes an opportunity as well as a
threat, that require a strategic approach and management. Most of the plant material in use is extracted from
the wild, and the destruction of their habitats due to development pressures along with the negative impacts
of climate change, have also contributed to their shrinking populations. Several Himalayan species of MAPs
have suffered depletion rates of upto 80% in the last six to ten years, and many of them, including those
endemic to the region, are at various levels of endangerment today. Apart from biodiversity and ecological
impacts, the depleting plant resources in the wild also has adverse impacts on the Himalayan poor who are
dependent on them for their healthcare and food supplements. At the same time, this exploding demand for
medicinal plant material in the national and international markets is an opportunity that should be seized to
help improve the economic status of Himalayan farmers in India. If cultivated, they could prove to be high
value cash crops and help farmers benefit from the burgeoning herbal trade sector. However non-availability
of cultivation packages, marketing problems, quality assurance issues, are some of the bottlenecks.
1.1
Key issues
Habitat degradation and impacts of climate change: The Himalayan region has lost more than 70% of its
original habitat, and is one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world (Conservation International). The
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
steadily increasing human population in the region has led to large-scale conversion of forests, wetlands and
grasslands for agriculture, and for settlements. Road construction has contributed to fragmentation of
habitats and also facilitates the spread of invasive species, diseases and harmful insects. Unplanned and
poorly managed tourism along with transnational instability has led to increased habitat destruction. The
remaining wild areas are a source of Minor Forest Products for the rural communities and extraction is
increasing with the increasing population, contributing to degradation of forests.
Ecological change as a result of global warming, it is estimated, will also be especially catastrophic for
Himalayan MAPs because of their habitat specificity and narrow range of distribution. Analysis of tree-ring
samples of Taxus baccata, Albies pindrow, Abies spectabilis from various forest stands have provided
valuable information on the plant growth and climate relationship (Yadav RR, Bera SK, 2002). The impacts
of climate change are going to be more pronounced for the highly sensitive sub-alpine and alpine species
like Saussurea spp. Thus, a greater understanding and vulnerability assessment of various species and
habitats are necessary, with a focus on their adaptability range.
High demand levels and unsustainable extraction for herb trade: The worldwide market for herbal
material is of the order of over US$60 billion, and increasing rapidly; closer home, several herbal industries,
pharmacies and TM practitioners use MAPs for serving the healthcare needs of a wide population base in
India, while many rural households are supported by incomes from the collection of MAPs for domestic use
and exports. The high economic-use value of MAPs leads to over-extraction and consequent endangerment
of the species. Himalayan MAPs are much in demand due in part to their rarity and small populations: 18%
of the MAP material traded in India and 350 of the 960 most used MAPs in industry, come from the
Himalayan region (Export-Import Bank of India, 2003). The price trends of most of the Himalayan species of
medicinal plants traded in market, such as Picrorhiza, Aconitum, Jatamansi, have been on a continual
upward trend, indicative of the surge in demand and value for these species in markets worldwide. The
present scale of commercial cultivation & production of medicinal plants is way below the raw material
demand of the industry and largescale illegal harvesting from the wild is resorted to in order to meet the
demand-supply gap. Close to 90% of the plant material used locally and in the herbal industry is collected
from the wild, as much as 70% of it destructively harvested (Planning Commission, Govt. of India, 2000).
The open access to medicinal plants combined with the low rates paid to commercial collectors leads to
mining of the high value species from their natural habitats in the Himalayas. Community norms that had
traditionally ensured sustainable use have been replaced by forest laws by the state, whose implementation
and enforcement, especially in the remote terrain of the Himalayas, is extremely weak. A study carried out
on Himalayan MAPs indicated that 41% of the primary-level traders source their material only through
collection, 45% follow a mixed sourcing, i.e., from both collection and cultivated sources. A large majority of
the plants in trade are used for parts that require destructive forms of harvesting- 63% of the material in trade
comprises roots and 5% comprise whole plants. Less than 20 of the estimated 800 species that are currently
used in industry for large-scale production of herbal products, are under commercial cultivation. A factor that
discourages farmers from commercial cultivation of medicinal plants especially in the high altitude zones is
the long gestation period of these species.
Endangerment of species: The Himalayan herbal resource base is at great risk with species survival
seriously threatened and the associated social and ecological functions performed by these species also
jeopardized. Hundreds of species are now threatened because of over-harvesting, destructive collection
techniques, and conversion of habitats to crop-based agriculture or other land-use. Species associated with
habitats of restricted occurrence, as Mecanopsis spp. in the Himalayas, are especially vulnerable. While
Aconitum heterophyllum, Aconitum ferox, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurroa, Nardostachys jatamansi,
Arnebia euchroma, Valeriana jatamansi, and Angelica glauca, have been determined at severe levels of
endangerment, others such as Dioscorea deltoida, Jurinea, Polygonatum, and Berberis are also under
threats. Of about 3500 flowering plants in Himachal Pradesh in the western Indian Himalayas, nearly 130 are
in great demand in industry and 68 are threatened. The situation appeals for urgent need of conservation
both in their natural habitat as well as outside their natural habitats.
Impacts on host communities: The large-scale commercial exploitation of the MAP resources in the wild is
leading to increased insecurity and a further impoverishment of the poor in the Himalayas, who are most
dependent on them. As the resources in the wild get depleted, there is less available for meeting their
consumption and healthcare needs. The depletion of medicinal plant resources is affecting the lives of host
communities indirectly through ecosystem services, as well. Agricultural productivity is being affected as a
result of desertification, soil erosion and other effects of large-scale removal of these plants. Further MAPs
are a biocultural resource of the people of the region, on which various social and cultural practices are
based: they are an intrinsic part of religious rituals, festivals and celebrations, cosmetic uses and
adornments; their rapid depletion would leave a cultural vacuum among the Himalayan people. Even in the
commercial exploitation of the plants, very little of the benefits flow back to the host communities, who are
typically paid collector’s wages for harvesting the required plant parts.
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
Lack of R&D and policy neglect: The high altitude belt of the Himalayas suffers from a severe paucity of
information on the status of biodiversity, development and its impacts. The Mountain Research Initiative has
recorded a large observational data gap in mountainous regions between approximately 40°N and 30°S.
There are very few high-elevation measurement and monitoring sites to support any scientific research, the
inaccessibility of the region having robbed it of the research attention it deserves. Altitude has been found to
be inversely related to resources and development, with the high altitude areas with the rarest of species and
most vulnerable of ecosystems receiving almost no attention. It is increasingly evident today however that
rapid environmental change in this region would significantly alter the numerous, critical goods & services
lowland populations receive from it, for instance, MAPs being one of them. The burgeoning trade and
conservation urgency of the MAPs indicates the severity of the need for research to create alternate sources
of supply for the material in use in trade. Mainstreaming the high-demand species in cultivation would ensure
protection of the resources in the wild. However, most of these species suffer from lack of proven and
successful agro-techniques and the inter-relationships between the growing conditions and/or post-harvest
processing requirements and their active principle, are also not adequately understood. There is a critical
need therefore to promote research and development on many aspects of Himalayan MAPs.
Lack of protection and conservation: Although the importance of the Indian Himalaya ecoregion and its
protection has been recognised by the national government in India, as well as the global conservation
community, management of forests of the ecoregion has suffered heavily due to overexploitation & habitat
degradation as well as inadequacies of conservation action. At a national level, special importance has been
given to protection of these forests and 75 PAs have been established in the IHR. In spite of this, there is an
accelerated loss of the habitat in the PAs, with majority of the PAs suffering from encroachments; only a few
of them are interconnected by natural corridors, whereas extremes of weather in the Himalayas imply that
vegetation & animals need contiguous habitats in order to maintain adequate & viable populations.
Himalayan PAs are also poorly managed because of their extreme remoteness and inaccessibility; further,
the exclusion of communities from the forests has alienated the communities from these resources and
contributed in part to the unsustainable use of the resources. Protected areas also tend to focus on the
larger and the more charismatic of the species that inhabit this earth. Thus wildlife receives much more
attention and protection than do the shrubs and herbs. Implementation of the regulations for conservation
and sustainable use of MAPs is also inadequate.
1.2
MAP Research in the HAH (High Altitude Himalayas)
Pragya, a non-governmental development
Aims of Pragya’s MAP research in the high altitude Himalayas:
organisation, dedicated to the conservation and
(1) Inventorying the herbal wealth status in the high altitude Indian
sustainable development of the Himalayan
Himalayas and creating a scientific database for further action
region, undertook to study the medicinal plants
(2) Identifying the threatened species of Medicinal and Aromatic
diversity and distribution of the high altitude belt,
Plants and the priority habitats that call for urgent conservation
in context of climate change and eco-system
(3) Devising conservation and management strategies for MAPs in
resilience, through in-depth field research.
the HAH with multi-stakeholder involvement, and including ex-situ
Analysis helped identify ‘species at risk’ and
and in-situ methods, as well as grassroots to policy action
‘important plant areas’ for conservation action,
and grassroots initiatives in the Himalayan
region served to support sustainable MAP-based livelihoods and encourage community stewardship for
protecting the plants in the wild. A series of consultations followed at local and national levels, towards
prioritising MAP species for research, conservation and cultivation, and crystallising strategies for policy and
programming, which formed an input to programming at the National Medicinal Plants Board of the
Government of India, as well as for conservation planning for the greater Himalayan region spanning five
Himalayan countries.
2.
Study of diversity and vulnerability of Himalayan MAPs
A comprehensive inventorying of the MAP-wealth of the high altitude Himalayas was undertaken in 2003-06
and involved extensive ground surveys in the Western, Central and Eastern divisions of the Indian
Himalayan region; the exercise focused on the high altitude and very high altitude belt (9000-18500 ft.) in the
region. This was followed by a thorough status assessment and vulnerability analysis of species identified
through the process. The study had wide participation of a range of stakeholders and contribution of several
research institutions.
2.1
Ground mapping of Himalayan MAPs
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PRAGYA, info@pragya.org
st
Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest
Fo
Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and
nd Forest Biodiversity
Ground surveys were carried out in the high-altitude belt in the six states of Jamm
mu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, W. Bengal, Si
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, across four flower
ering seasons (from June
2003 to August 2006) of Himalayan
n MAPs. A nested process was followed for samp
pling (refer fig. 2). Thirtynine stretches were selected for the
e field surveys: 17 in the Trans Himalayas, 8 in the
he western Himalaya, 5 in
the central Himalaya and 9 in the eastern
e
Himalaya. Within these stretches, likelyy areas
a
for field recording
were identified through ground recon
onnaissance and consultation with knowledgeable
le local residents, such as
traditional healers, forest officers and scientists. A total of 500 pockets were selected
ted for detailed study, and
5000 quadrats of 3x3 m size laid in them for gathering and recording species data.
ta. Primary data collected
included: enumeration of plant speci
ecies, recording of morphological characters, photo
otographic documentation,
soil sampling, physiographic info
nformation documentation, traditional knowledg
dge and ethno-botanic
documentation. This was supplemen
ented with collection of collateral information from
om Forest Survey of India
and Botanical Survey of India repor
orts, District Statistical records, and vegetation and
an topographical maps,
particularly on population (human and
an animal), climate and ecology, developmentt p
pressures, occurrence of
disasters, etc. Previous studies carrie
rried out in this belt by other researchers were also
so consulted.
Ground Mapping
Pre-Mapping
Post-Mapping
•Sampling (using nested
quadrat method) and data
collection
•Collection of species data:
species count, morphological
characters, collar diameter,
photographs of species
•Collection of habitat data:
soil, location, altitude, nature
of habitat, disturbances
•Stakeholder interactions
•Collection of secondary data
•Reconnaissance field survey
•Design of tools for data
collection
•Team mobilisation,
collaborations and trainings
•Soil sample analysis
•Identification of plant
samples
•Documentation of primary
data
•Quantitative analysis
•Findings and conclusions,
sharing
Fig.1 - Process
rocess followed
fo
for medicinal plants mapping and IPA selection
Biogeographic
Zone (4)
Trans Himalayas
Western
Himalayas
Central Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas
State (6)
Jammu &
Kashmir
Sub
Sub-Zone
(14)
Arunachal
Pradesh
Sikkim
Leh
Chang
Changthang
Nubra
Zansk
Zanskar
Spiti
Lahau
Lahaul
Pangi
Kinnau
Kinnaur
Cham
Chamoli
Uttark
Uttarkashi
Pithor
Pithoragarh
Tawan & W.
Tawang
Kame
Kameng
N & W Sikkim
W. Bengal
Darjee
Darjeeling
Himachal
Pradesh
Himachal
Pradesh
Uttarakhand
Stretch (39)
Central Leh, Kharu, Khaltse
Nyoma, Durbuk
Hunder, Sumur
Suru, Lugnak
Lower, Middle, Upper Spiti
Gar&Tod, Tinan, Pattan & Mayar
Sach, Chenab, Hudan & Sural
Phoo, Hungrung, Ropa, Sangla
Niti, Mana
Gaumukh, Nanadanvan
Milam
Zemithang, PTTso, Geshela, Thangapa,
gapa,
Luguthang, Chabrila
N.Sikkim
W.Sikkim
Sandakpho
Surveyed Area: 5000 quadrats of 9 sq.m.
.m. in 500
50 pockets across 39 stretches covering 14 sub-zones
nes in 6 states
s
Fig.2 - Sampling
Sam
detail for the mapping study in Himalayas
The process for the study was wh
wholly participative, and hence as insightful ass were
w
its findings. Local
communities, particularly the traditio
itional healers, local youth and tourist guides, women,
wo
and pastoralists,
participated in the survey and docum
umentation of species as well as identification of sp
species-rich in-situ areas;
the traditional healers also provided
d information on traditional knowledge value of species.
spe
Premier research
and academic institutes of India inclu
cluding the Forest Research Institute (FRI, Dehradu
adun), Botanical Survey of
India, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalay
layan Environment and Development (GBPIHED),
D), Field Labs of Defense
Research and Development Organiz
nization (DRDO, now DIHAR) collaborated at variou
ious stages of study- from
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
imparting inventorying skills to the 40-odd qualified botanists that constituted the mapping team of Pragya
(apart from local community surveyors), to identification of plant specimens collected. The community
participants also attended post-mapping consultations, along with state functionaries, individual MAP
specialists, botanists, foresters and researchers from forest departments, local and regional research
institutions, NGOs and CSOs.
Following the ground surveys, 9 Conservation Assessment and Management Planning (CAMP) workshops
were held at regional and sub-regional levels, to validate the threat status of the species (following IUCN
guidelines) and to learn more about the population dynamics of the species according to local stakeholders.
A national level CAMP helped validate the findings and draw out conclusions.
Indices for species and vulnerability assessment: The data collected through the ground surveys was
put through rigorous quantitative analysis at multiple levels, beginning with simple computation of species
populations and richness, followed by extraction of indices, and thereafter, an analysis of
vulnerability/resilience of habitats vis a vis MAPs. Variables related to ecology, demographics & behaviour,
and climate, were combined through principal component analysis to arrive at composite indices that
constituted the predictive variables for vulnerability assessment. Analysis of these predictive variables and
the direction of their influence helped to determine the criterion variables of MAP-diversity Index and Habitat
Vulnerability Index, and their component indices. MRA (Multiple Regression Analysis) were carried out to
establish a cause and effect relationship between the predictive variables (i.e. natural disaster,
developmental interference, anthropogenic pressure, change in climate, soil quality, use of MAPs) and the
criterion variables.
Species Density:
Frequency:
Basal Area:
Species Richness:
Importance Value:
no. of plants per unit of area
%age occurrence of a species in a
unit of area
basal diameter of a species
no. of species in a unit of area
Species Clusters:
At-Risk Species:
summation of Relative Density, Relative
Frequency, Relative Basal Area
clusters of species that display an association
by occurring together
species with lowest populations (relative
density + relative frequency) in HAH
+
Anthropogenic Pressure:
Climate Change:
Habitat Conditions:
Human Value Index:
Supportive Habitat Index:
Pressure/threat Index:
Population & animal pressure; Tourist inflows and developmental interventions
Change in minimum, maximum and average temperature; Change in rainfall and snowfall)
NPK, organic carbon and pH level in soil; Moisture levels; Altitude
Economic and ethno-botanical value of species
Soil & habitat; Altitude; Average precipitation
Population pressure; Usage of MAPs; Developmental interference; Natural disasters
MAP Conservation Value Index: species richness, species density, species at risk
Habitat Vulnerability Index: MAP conservation value; human-use value, supportive characteristics, pressure/threat
2.2
MAP-diversity and vulnerability of habitats in the high-altitude Himalayas
While the analysis validated through scientific processes some widely held beliefs regarding Himalayan
habitats, species richness and vulnerability, it also brought forth some interesting findings, relative richness
and threat levels of the western, central and eastern Himalayas, and thereby helped create an evidencebase to direct and guide conservation action. Highlights of the findings with respect to MAP species and
related habitat aspects in the high-altitudes are discussed below.
2.2.1 Inventory of species and habitats
The study created an inventory of 2094 MAP species across the 4 zones mapped, along with their
ethnobotanic values. This included 622 species in the eastern Himalayas, 300 species in the central
Himalayas, 550 species in the western Himalayas, and 622 species in the Trans-Himalaya. The species
distribution was analysed (using the Bray-Curtis Cluster Analysis) to draw out 18 gross species clusters
across the Himalayas, 5 in the eastern Himalayas, 3 in the central Himalayas, 4 in the western Himalayas
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PRAGYA, info@pragya.org
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
and 6 in the Trans-Himalaya. These comprise 11 finer clusters in the eastern Himalayas, 14 in the central
Himalayas, 12 in the western Himalayas, and 3 in the Trans-Himalayas.
Species-habitat match: Description of the habitat characteristics also helped derive the species-habitat
match. This has particular relevance both for conservation and cultivation objectives: conservation of the
species cluster may be met by adopting a habitat protection approach; cultivation research is easier
undertaken when the habitats of multiple species and related support conditions are mapped, and farmers
may be guided to cultivate species based on the precise match between their field conditions and the
specific species habitat.
2.2.2 Species at risk and conservation value of habitats
The variety and density of MAP species in the high-altitude Himalayas were found to vary with longitude and
altitude; corroborating studies in other regions, a significant positive relationship was also found between
species richness and density. The average number of species per pocket (average species richness) across
the high altitude Himalayas was found to be: 12.7, while the average species density across the region was
21.67. It ranges from Ladakh region in the trans-Himalaya at the low end (9.5 species richness; 14.77
species density) to a MAP-diversity that is nearly double in the Central Himalayas (20.2 species richness;
25.7 species density) and the Eastern Himalayas (18.8 species variety; 37.32 species density). Malari (north)
in Chamoli, Uttarakhand in the Central Himalayas was found to have the highest richness and density
(species richness of 62; species density of 125.75). An in-depth appraisal reveals that the altitude zone of
11000-13000ft is most suited to MAPs with highest species density (20), and richness of medicinal plants
(13.3), and above this altitude, MAP richness and density decrease sharply. A total of 327 ‘At-Risk’ MAP
species were identified in the high altitude Himalayas during the study; the concentration of these species
are higher in Trans and Eastern Himalayas (123 in Trans Himalayas, 43 in Western Himalayas, 57 in Central
Himalayas and 127 in the Eastern Himalayas); the occurrence of these species in a single pocket is the
highest in the Central Himalayas (15 species), and lowest in the Trans-Himalayan zone. 70% of the pockets
surveyed had the occurrence of at least one at-risk MAP species, and 23 pockets were found to be
especially rich in at-risk species, each displaying the occurrence of 5-15 species.
MAP Conservation Value index: The MAP Conservation Value (ranging from 4.85 to -1.16) was found to
be highest in the Central and Eastern Himalayas, indicating higher species richness, diversity as well as
endangerment levels in these regions, and lower in the Ladakh Himalayas. Of the pockets surveyed,
Ghumsali in Chamoli, Uttarakhand, and Hot spring Sachu river in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, were
determined to have highest conservation value.
2.2.3 The people and plants relationship
The significance of various Himalayan MAP species for humans, is dependent on the extent of use of each
species for local consumption for medicine or for food, in the alternative medicine and formal pharma or
herbal sector, as determined by their demand, and their economic value in trade. Medicinal plants with
higher ethnobotanical (local use) values are found concentrated in Uttarakhand in the central Himalayas, and
Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern Himalayas follows a close second; the herbal wealth of Himachal Pradesh
(eastern corner of western Himalayas) and Sikkim (western corner of eastern Himalayas) are nearly alike in
ethnobotanical value, and this is followed by the species found in Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir) in the western
Himalayas. Occurrence of species of high economic value is highest in Arunachal Pradesh, followed by the
stretches in Himachal Pradesh.
Human-use value: The gross Human-use Value for MAPs in the Himalayan region lie between 2.13 and
2.22. The use of the MAPs by local communities, as well as their use & value in trade, indicate the strength
of the people-plants relationship in the region, but, unfortunately, also contribute to their extraction from the
wild and consequent depletion. Species with higher ethno-botanical and economic value were found to be
concentrated in the 11000ft-13000ft altitude, making this zone ‘high risk’ in terms of extraction pressure. The
central and eastern Himalayas were found to have a greater concentration and number of species with
higher human-use values; of the areas surveyed, Ghumsali (Chamoli, Uttarakhand, central Himalayas) and
Karpkarchang (Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalayas) were found to have the highest human-use
value of MAPs. It is important to note that the areas with higher Conservation Value and those with higher
Human-Use Value coincide, a clear indication of the relationship between the significance of specific species
for humans and their status in the wild.
2.2.4 Extent and nature of threats to MAPs
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
MAPs in the Himalayas are at risk due to both anthropogenic pressures as a result of increasing pressure of
the local population and their cattle, escalating tourist inflows and other presures of development, and
increasing natural threats on the MAP habitats – of disasters and climate change. The study brought out a
significant and positive correlation between ‘at risk’ species and these threat factors, while species richness
and density were found to have a negative association with anthropogenic and natural pressures.
The study revealed that the anthropogenic pressure is highest in the central Himalayas. People in the high
altitudes are heavily dependent on natural resources, with the majority following agro-patoralism as a
livelihood; most households also extract food supplements and material for a host of items of daily use from
the forests. The dependent human population is the highest in Uttarakhand (356/pocket) followed by Tawang
(297), and it is lowest in Himachal Pradesh (189). Pressure of cattle population (1791/pocket) is mediated by
the nature of livelihood and hence the highest in Ladakh in the cold deserts of the Trans Himalayas where
nomadic pastoralism is a way of life for many, followed by Uttarakhand (840) and Himachal Pradesh (657);
lowest pressure of cattle population is in Tawang (423) in the eastern Himalayas. Uttarakhand in the central
Himalayas is also the most severely affected by high tourist inflows, followed by Sikkim in the eastern
Himalayas and Leh in the Trans Himalayas; the Pangi sub-region, a lesser-known area in the western
Himalayas, displays the lowest tourist pressure. The Himalayan MAPs are also affected by development
interference in the natural sites. The study revealed that 43% of the area in the high altitudes is affected by
development interference, majority of this located in the western Himalayas (60%), with the trans-Himalayas
and the eastern Himalayas being less affected (23.87% and 28.34% respectively), and the central Himalayas
lying in between (42.42%).
The high altitudes are also prone to frequent natural disasters and this is another cause for habitat
destruction and thereby reducing MAPs. Frequency of natural disaster is highest in Western Himalayas,
followed by Eastern and Central Himalayas; Trans-Himalayan region has the lowest occurrence of natural
disasters. Pangi block in Himachal Pradesh and Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh have among the
highest frequency of natural disasters (44 in 5 years in Pangi, and 30 in Tawang). The 8000-11000ft altitude
belt is the most prone to natural disasters. That disaster in the making, climate change, is higher at higher
altitudes, with the degree of change in minimum as well as maximum temperature increasing with altitude;
the change in precipitation was found to be the highest in altitude band 8,000-11,000ft.
Pressure/Threat Index: The Gross Anthropogenic Pressure ranges from -0.93 to +1.16 in the high altitude
Himalayas. Kalpa in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh (western Himalayas) was found to be under
maximum stress, while Tapovan pocket in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand (central Himalayas) displays
lowest anthropogenic pressure. The Gross Natural Pressure on the other hand, is highest in Kinnaur (0.51),
followed by Central Leh (0.38); Sandakphu (-0.48) and Tawang (-0.33) display greater environmental
stability and lowest pressure due to natural disasters and climate change, among the areas surveyed.
2.2.5 Support factors for MAP growth
While the above mentioned threat & pressure factors are contributing to endangerment of MAPs in the
Himalayas, the intrinsic supportive quality of Himalayan habitats acts as a positive force, enabling
regeneration of species and resilience to extreme pressure and threat levels. Availability of soil nutrients,
moisture conditions and precipitation at the sites, constitute these supportive habitat conditions. The study
revealed that Central Himalayan soils are the most suited for plant growth (NPK: 0.41%, 15.62 ppm, 2.87%),
followed by the Eastern and Western Himalayas where the soil qualities are moderately good; TransHimalayan soils are lowest in nutrient content (NPK: 0.16%, 8.96 ppm, 1.98%). Across all the 39 stretches
surveyed, the best soils for plant growth are found in the Sandakphu area of Darjeeling, West Bengal (NPK:
0.16%, 8.96ppm, 1.98%). Observations show that the soil quality is good in altitude band 11,000-13,000 ft.,
the range with the highest species richness and density as well. Soils in the 8,000-11,000ft. range are
moderate in quality, while the highest altitude band (>13,000 ft) has the poorest soil quality. Chamoli and
Tawang have the highest average annual precipitation among the sites covered and the lowest precipitation
is in Ladakh region.
The supportiveness of the various habitats is seen to be reflected by the species richness under the
particular habitat category in a particular zone. The average species richness values vary widely across the
zones. The highest species richness for Trans Himalayas is 13.57, whereas the lowest value in the central
Himalayas is 13 and it goes up as high as 31.66. The supportiveness of a particular habitat type is also seen
to vary across the region. The species richness of alpine forest habitats are higher in the central Himalayas
(24) compared to the other zones (16 in western Himalayas, 12.5 in the Trans Himalayas and only 11.31 in
the eastern Himalayas). Similarly, the glacial stream banks have average species richness of 29 in the
eastern Himalayas, and 19.66 in the central Himalayas, 13.09 and 13.57 in the western Himalayas. This
habitat category has the highest species richness in both the trans Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas, but
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the values vary significantly (13.57 and 29). Open semi-arid slopes have the lowest species richness in
trans, western and the central Himalayan zone; the values vary considerably though - from 13 in the central
Himalayas to only 7.22 in the western Himalayas. The highest species richness in a habitat category is
observed for the moist slopes in the central Himalayas (31.66), followed by glacial stream habitats in the
eastern Himalayas (29) and the alpine forests in the central Himalayas (24).
Supportive Habitat Index: The gross supportive index ranges from a high of +1.35 (supportive) to a low of 1.53 (unsupportive) across the high altitude Himalayas. Supportive habitats are found predominantly in the
eastern, western and central Himalayas, in the 8,000-11,000 ft. and 11,000-13,000 ft. altitude bands (38%
and 34% respectively). The Trans-Himalaya has lowest percentage of supportive habitats for MAP growthonly 15% of the surveyed area was deemed supportive; the eastern Himalayas on the other hand had
maximum MAP-supportive area, with only 11% assessed to be unsupportive. The central Himalayas showed
the maximum area (61%) in the ‘most supportive’ habitat category. The most supportive sub-zones are:
Sandakphu (average 0.46); Chamoli (average 0.34); Tawang (average 0.31); Kinnaur (average 0.24). The
least supportive of all the sub-zones was found to be the Changthang belt in Ladakh (-0.26). The very high
altitude band (>13,000ft.) was found to be the least MAP-supportive habitat across the Himalayas, with more
than 50% of the area deemed to be unsupportive for MAP growth.
Trans Himalayas
Western Himalayas
Central Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas
Fig.3 – Species richness across different pockets in the Himalayas used to determine habitat supportiveness
2.2.6 Vulnerability and resilience of sites in the high altitude Himalayas
Habitats of Himalayan MAPs and thereby the MAP species, are made vulnerable to degradation by
anthropogenic pressure (population, tourism, development) and natural environmental processes
(degradation, disasters, climate change). Their resilience on the other hand is a factor of the supportive
charcateristics of soil, nature of habitat, precipitation and altitude. The Trans-Himalaya and Sikkim in the
Eastern Himalaya were found to be highly vulnerable, the former as a result of unsupportive habitat, and low
MAP populations, along with high anthropogenic pressure, the latter because of severe anthropogenic
pressure. 89% of pockets in Ladakh (western Himalayas) were categorised as vulnerable, with Mathoo in
Central Leh being most vulnerable across the range, while 74% of pockets in Sikkim are vulnerable. Central
and western Himalayan stretches display moderate to low vulnerability, with only 8 out of 33 pockets in
Uttarakhand and 16% of the pockets in Himachal Pradesh being vulnerable; the specific MAP-hotspots that
were determined to be highly vulnerable (Chamoli in central Himalayas, Poh in western Himalayas) indicate
the negative influence of tourism and development interventions on habitat integrity. Habitat resilience (96%
of pockets) was found to be highest in the eastern Himalayas, due to its supportive habitat, very high MAP
populations and relatively low anthropogenic presure, with Hot spring Sachu river having the highest
resilience. Specific parts of the central and western Himalayas emerged as MAP-greenspots due to their
high intrinsic biodiversity, along with relative inaccessibility and low anthropogenic pressure. Thus Pangi, a
remote and less-developed area in the western Himalayas contributed a chunk of the region’s resilience
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score, and Ghumsali in Uttarakhand (central Himalayas), another less-accessible and biodiversity-rich area
had the highest resilience score.
Fig.4 – Vulnerability/Resilience pattern - across the 4 Bio-geographic Zones
HV-LR = high vulnerability-low resilience; HV-HR = high vulnerability-high resilience;
LV-HR = low vulnerability-high resilience; LV- LR = low vulnerability-low resilience
Fig.5 – Vulnerability/Resilience across different pockets in the Himalayas
2.2.7 Priorities for conservation in the high altitude Himalayas
High ‘Net Vulnerability’ sites: The priorities for conservation may be determined first at the level of the
specific geographic sites that have a high Net Vulnerability. A specific site could be highly vulnerable and yet
resilient at the same time, and determining Net Vulnerability of a site would help identify the sites for which
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vulnerability is higher than resilience. The vulnerability and resilience levels of the pockets surveyed have
been cast in the scatter diagrams above (fig. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4), each diagram clustering the pockets into 4
quadrats: (i) high vulnerability-low resilience, (ii) high vulnerability-high resilience, (iii) low vulnerability-low
resilience and (iv) low vulnerability-high resilience. Net Vulnerability is the highest for the first group (high
vulnerability-low resilience) and the pockets that lie in this quadrat need the highest level of attention in all
the region, followed by those that are assessed to be in the high vulnerability-high resilience category. The
Trans Himalayas have the highest Net Vulnerability in that 175 pockets (62.7% of the sample) are highly
vulnerable and low on resilience; another 229 pockets are vulnerable and only 11.11% pockets are
ecologically stable. The Eastern Himalayas similarly has a high concentration of vulnerable pockets (73 of
127 pockets) of which, 80.82% have low resilience. The western and central Himalayas show better
resilience and most of the pockets surveyed are also low on vulnerability. 5 of only 8 vulnerable pockets in
Uttarakhand (central Himalayas) are in the high vulnerability-low resilience category and need urgent
conservation focus.
The study also brings out that anthropogenic pressure, natural disasters, developmental interventions,
ethno-botanical and economic uses of medicinal plants, are jointly responsible for 63.8% of the vulnerability
of high altitude Himalayan habitats for MAPs. On the other hand, soil quality, nature of habitat, average
precipitation and altitude collectively contribute to 57.7% of resilience of pockets in high altitude Himalayas. It
is estimated that a 1% reduction of developmental interventions in MAP-rich sites could reduce their
vulnerability by 0.46%; reducing anthropogenic pressure and wild harvesting of medicinal plants by 1%,
would imply a concomitant reduction of 0.25% and 0.23% respectively in the vulnerability of the concerned
habitats. These can be used to guide action options for conservation in the degraded and vulnerable
stretches in the Himalayas. While the Vulnerability/Resilience index helps in determining the priority sites for
interventions, understanding of the contribution of the sub-indices (e.g. human-use, natural disaster,
developmental interference, anthropogenic pressure, change in climate, soil quality, use of MAPs etc) help in
determining the action options for each pocket.
Critical ‘species-habitat composites’: Within the vulnerable sites, the most critically at-risk species and
habitats would be the focus for conservation. The At-Risk Species in the high altitude Himalayas identified
through the survey were assessed by a multi-stakeholder group, and classified into 3 conservation
categories based on their status in the wild and conservation value:
- C1: Most threatened and conservation action is critical and imperative- the ‘highest risk’ species
- C2: Threatened and conservation action is important and urgent
- C3: Serious (moderately threatened) and conservation action is beneficial
An average of 10 species were selected for each category in each high-altitude zone under the survey, for
focussing conservation actions. The associated habitats for the species were identified with the aim of an
ecosystem-based conservation approach. The highest risk species across the high altitude Himalayas were
thus identified to be: Aconitum heterophyllum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Swertia chiraiyta, Arnebia
benthamii, Arnebia euchroma, Bunium persicum, Ephedra gerardiana, Angelica glauca, Dactylorhiza
hatagirea. The related habitats are: alpine deserts; dry, stony and rocky slopes; open slopes; moist, shady
slopes, particularly at high passes; moist alpine slopes and meadows and grazing lands; along glacial
streams and wetlands.
3.
Important Plant Areas in the Himalayas
As mentioned earlier, protected areas in the Himalayan ecoregion have not succeeded in saving it from the
escalated degradation and the herbal wealth of the region is especially at risk as a result. The strategic
weaknesses of PA systems may be remedied through informal approaches to site conservation through local
and civil society actions. The first step towards this would be the identification of the in-situ sites for MAPs
that are most deserving of conservation focus. Important Plant Areas - selected based on the three standard
criteria of presence of threatened species, species richness, and presence of threatened habitats - are the
most important places in the world for wild plant diversity that can be protected and managed as specific
sites (Plantlife International). Identification of such Important Plant Areas for MAPs in the Himalayas can help
focus conservation efforts for MAPs, and provide a framework for protection, research and policy
implementation for conservation of medicinal plants, inside and outside protected areas.
IPAs for MAPs in the Himalayas would be areas of concentration of medicinal plants within the larger hotspot
of the Himalayan region. These ‘high resource wealth’ sites could include government-managed forests,
sacred groves, community lands, individual landholdings, etc., and would function as micro-ecological niches
of particular threatened species. Since in the higher altitudes, medicinal plants frequently act as keystone
species for the particular habitats, nurturing other vegetal species through biodynamics and being food for
several faunal species as well, determination and conservation of medplants focused IPAs would have
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significant ecosystem preservation value beyond the particular species themselves. It is desirable therefore
to prioritise such medplants IPAs and establish a ‘conservation grid’ of small-scale community protected
areas dispersed through various ecological zones in the region.
3.1
Identification of Important Herb Areas in the Himalayas
Identification of IPAs, specifically for MAPs in the Himalayas, was taken up by Pragya, with the aim of
directing local conservation action. IPAs in the high-altitude belt (2500-5500m) of the Indian Himalaya were
identified based on the ground mapping and subsequent CAMP workshops and consultations described in
(2) above, while those in the lower altitude belts were based on an extensive review of the literature and
consultation with well-informed research institutes. Site prioritisation and IPA identification involved:
1. Compilation of site-specific data on presence of threatened species, species abundance and richness
2. Clustering of sites based on habitat homogeneity, biophysical boundaries and physical proximity
3. Prioritization of clusters ensuring representation of all ecotypes, proportionate to species abundance &
diversity
3.1.1 IPA selection inputs for the high altitudes in the Himalayas
The data collected through the mapping process was analysed to reveal tracts of habitat that met the first
two IPA criteria (‘presence of threatened species’ and ‘exceptional species richness’).
• Presence of Threatened Species: Site-specific occurrence of threatened MAP species (IUCN Red listed,
Indian Red Data Book listed) was gathered for each pocket. The threatened species identified through
the regional CAMP workshops were also taken into consideration.
• Species Concentration and Richness: Further short-listing of sites was carried out based on species
concentration as revealed by mapping data and inputs from regional CAMPs. The data from the ground
mapping provided the number of individual plants of each MAP species occurring at the pocket level,
determined through the Species-Area Curve.
The concentration of each threatened species in a pocket were classified thus: < 4 individual plants per 9
sq.m. = low; < 4-7 individual plants per 9 sq.m. = medium; 7 individual plants per 9 sq.m. = high.
Species Richness was determined by the species count of each site, with special focus on the RET (rare,
endangered, threatened) MAP species. This analysis helped arrive at the distribution pattern of such
MAP species, and CAMP inputs on the original habitat and degradation levels were also considered.
3.1.2 IPA selection inputs for the low and medium altitudes in the Himalayas
For extracting information on middle and low
Institutions (and their works) consulted have included:
altitude Himalayas, not covered through the
Centre for Himalayan Bioresources, Palampur; National Research Centre
ground mapping exercise, to enable IPA
for Orchids, Gangtok; RRL, Jammu; Herbal Research Development
selection in these region, Pragya carried out
Institute, Chamoli; BSI, Kolkata/Dehradun; FRI, Dehradun; University of
an extensive literature study and sourcing of
Almora, Uttaranchal; GB Pant High Altitude Plant Physiology Centre,
secondary data. This involved review of both
SKUAST, J&K; Agricultural University, Solan; DRDO, Ladakh; Forest
historical and current information from
Departments of various states, Ministry of Environment and Forests, state
published literature, field biologists, local
govt. bodies on Ayurveda and other Traditional Health care systems; NGOs
administrators in the regions and available
like TERI, Delhi; WWF-India, FRLHT, Bangalore; TRAFFIC-India; Fauna &
literature on Himalayan flora, comprising
Flora International, UK; Nature Conservancy, UK; CITES; IUCN; ICIMOD,
scientific papers, reports and books, primarily
BGCI, Plantlife International, Conservational International.
relying on the premier institutes for plant
research in the country, reputed NGOs, prominent university departments and govt. bodies for data
collection.
The important and medicinally rich sites mentioned in the secondary literature was crossed checked in the
field, wherever possible. Forest officers, traditional healers, local resource persons, scientists and
researchers working with medicinal plants were interviewed for garnering more information on the selected
sites and also for validation.
3.1.3 Structuring and selection of MAP-IPAs
The tracts identified through the processes in 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 above, were grouped into clusters, in order to
build sufficient scale, thereby allowing effective conservation of the species. A typical cluster consists of
several core areas for medicinal plants and the ground between them, the latter being poorer in medicinal
plants but regarded as having the potential to be restored as ecological corridors. The parameters used for
clustering were:
• Habitat Homogeneity: In most cases, sites that demonstrate a relative homogeneity of habitat, in terms of
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•
the ecological conditions of the sites, viz, the soil, humidity and other physical characteristics and the
associated vegetation type, were clustered together. This has typically meant that a cluster adheres to a
particular altitudinal band; in certain cases however, such as for the eastern Himalayas, river valley
systems were used as cluster defining criteria, which has meant that multiple altitudinal bands have been
included in the same cluster.
Biophysical Delineations & Physical Proximity: Physical proximity of sites was also used as a factor for
clustering. Typically in the mountains, physical proximity and related conditions of access are associated
with the biophysical features of mountain ranges and river valleys. To a great extent therefore, this
system was used to delineate the boundaries of a cluster, although in certain cases, a few sites that could
lie just outside a particular valley or beyond a particular range, but display habitat homogeneity and
adhere to the proximity principle, have been included in the cluster.
A total of 32 such clusters were identified and the final prioritization of the clusters was carried out ensuring a
representation of all administrative and biophysical divisions within the Indian Himalayas. The tracts in the
eastern Himalaya tend to be smaller, based on valleys and span multiple altitudinal belts. In contrast, tracts
in the western Himalaya are often geographically more extensive but confined to particular altitudinal zones.
Finally, the clusters were reviewed to ensure good representation according to several major geographical
features of the Indian Himalaya:
(1) Adequate coverage of all major Himalayan regions (western, central, eastern);
(2) Adequate coverage of all major administrative units (states and districts);
(3) Adequate coverage of all altitudinal eco-regions (sub-tropical, temperate, alpine etc.).
The review also considered representation in relation to the relative areas covered by these various
geographical features.
3.1.4 IPAs identified in the Himalayas
The above processes resulted in the recognition of 15 IPAs for medicinal plants in the Indian Himalaya, each
typically with a small number of tracts. The list of identified IPAs for medicinal plants in the Indian Himalaya
is given in Table 1 below.
Constraints: The availability of information was a key factor in the identification of IPAs in the middle and
lower Himalayas. Many other areas that are probably botanically rich but less documented, had to be
excluded in the process of selection of IPA sites. The plant rich sites are difficult to locate in maps since for
co-ordinate information is often not available. Demarcation of the IPA boundaries also poses problems in
these areas. It is difficult to locate contiguous stretches of rich virgin floral areas because of the characteristic
undulating topography; areas in the higher reaches, especially in the cold deserts, display sparse and
fragmented vegetation because of low succession rate, harsh climatic condition, and scanty moisture. Many
of the plant-rich sites in the Himalayas are in strategic locations with considerable military presence and
related activities like road construction. These sites are not open to study nor conservation interventions.
3.1.5 Observations and implications for Conservation
There are several noteworthy features of these IPAs for Himalayan MAPs. One is that, despite the
unprejudiced procedures, most IPAs are concentrated at high altitudes. In the Himalayan context, plant
endemism was used as an important tool for determining priority conservation sites and species in the
timberline zone of western Himalaya, and the higher proportion of IPAs in the high-altitudes reflects the
30-32
higher number of endemic species found in these altitudes
(alpine and sub-alpine zones), especially in
30,36,37
the case of the western Himalaya (including the trans-Himalayan region)
, where even quite small sites
33,34
. A study revealed that some of the relatively small, non-protected
can be exceptionally rich in endemics
2
areas (Pindari: 76.7km area; 39.85 endemics) with high endemic diversity ranked highest on priority. This
shows that even a relatively small area can serve as a rich repository of endemic diversity.
The IPAs vary widely: in area, species concentration, ownership, etc. Each IPA typically has a cluster of
plant rich tracts and the area of an IPA, although the number of tracts within an IPA varies as per the density
of such tracts within a relatively homogenous area, and the total spread and boundaries of the IPA, are
determined by a composite of the habitat characteristics and delineating biophysical features. While some
IPAs, such as those in the western Himalayas are spread over a large area within the same agro-ecological
zone, in the eastern Himalayas one the other hand, an IPA spread is lesser but it spans multiple altitudinal
belts and hence diverse vegetation characteristics. The number of IPAs identified in a particular region, viz,
western, central and eastern Himalayas, has been to an extent determined by the area required to save or
conserve the designated medicinal plant species, the floral diversity present in the region, and also on the
economic value of the species. A few of the identified sites are under the government’s Protected Area
system and Forest Reserves while a few sites are a mix of state owned forests and community owned land.
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Table 1: IPAs of the Himalayas
Himalayan
Division
Trans and
Western Indian
Himalayas
State
Jammu &
Kashmir
Eastern Indian
Himalayas
No. of
Tracts
1
Names of Tracts
Khardung-la
2/ Sapi-Penzi-la
3
3/ Argi-Sarchu
4/ Chika-PeukarKhangsar
5/ Rohtang and Solang
2
3
6/ Malana-Parbati-Sainj
3
2
Uttarakhand
7/ Rakcham-Chitkul and
Rupi-Bhaba
8/ Kedar-Gangtori
4
West Bengal &
Sikkim
9/ Valley of Flowers and
Niti
10/ Gauri and Pindar
11/ Dzongri-Phedang
and Sandakphu
2
2
Kedarnath, Khatling-Sahastratal,
Kedartal-Gangotri, HarsilBhaironghati
Mana-Valley of Flowers, Niti valley,
Dronagiri, Kuari pass
Gauri valley, Pindar valley
Yuksam-Goeshela, Sandakphu
12/ Lachen and Lachung
2
Lachen-Chopta,Lachung-Goeshela
13/ Dirang-Tawang
4
14/ Upper Siang and
Dibang
15/ Western LohitChanglang
2
Thingbu-Luguthang, GoeshelaPTTso, Sela-Bangajang, SengeNyukmadung
Pemako, Anini-Bruini-Andra
2
Deomali, Demwee-Tiding
Himachal
Pradesh
Central Indian
Himalayas
Important Plant Areas
for Medicinal Plants
1/ Khardung-la
Arunachal
Pradesh
2
3
Sapi, Panikher-Parkachik, Penzi-laRangdum
Argi, Sarchu
Chika-Rarik-Patseo, Peukar-Charji,
Khangsar
Rohtang pass, Solang valley
Malana valley, Sainj-Tirthan,
Manikaran-Mantalai
Rakcham-Chitkul, Rupi-Bhaba
Conservation issues
overgrazing, overharvesting and illegal trade of MAPs, heavy vehicular traffic
(army), impacts of climate change
overgrazing, overharvesting and illegal trade of MAPs, impacts of climate change
overgrazing, road construction, climate change
conversion to agricultural land, overgrazing, overharvesting and illegal trade of
MAPs, heavy vehicular traffic, road construction
unsustainable tourism, heavy vehicular traffic, very heavy wild-harvesting of
MAPs
tourism, wildharvesting
overgrazing, wildharvesting of MAPs and MFPs, conversion to agricultural land,
hydel projects, frequent landslides
overgrazing, wildharvesting of MAPs and MFPs, effects of mass tourism, frequent
landslides and earthquakes
effects of mass tourism, overgrazing and MFP collection, conversion of land to
agricultural purposes, construction activities, hydel project, frequent landslides
effects of tourism, overgrazing, excess collection of fuelwood and fodder
effects of tourism, overgrazing, firewood extraction and fodder collection,
extraction/use of forest products, use of herbicides and other agri-chemicals in
tea gardens
tourism, overuse of forest wealth, overgrazing, road building and clearing of
vegetation by the army
overgrazing, logging, collection of MFPs
shifting cultivation, exploitation of timber, medicinal plants, and MFPs
logging, conversion to agricultural and urban land, mining, collection of MFPs
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Conservation of IPAs: The IPAs identified follow the cluster approach. This essentially implies that several
core areas for medicinal plants conservation have been identified within a larger area of the same/similar
habitat with a degree of physical proximity and delineated by a set of biophysical features. Effective
conservation could focus on protection of the identified core areas, using them for in-situ gene pool creation
of the herbal species, and developing corridors between multiple core areas within an IPA. it is essential to
instill a strong sense of stewardship in the communities that live in and around the IPAs, and help them with
processes such as ecosystem monitoring for sustainable management of habitats. The host communities
should be facilitated to develop the IPAs into ‘community heritage parks’; efforts should also be made to
extend these sites, and to network with other neighbouring sites, thereby spreading the impacts of
conservation wider in the ecosystem. It is noteworthy that the core areas of many of the IPAs lie within
protected areas, although there are many plant-rich sites that lie outside the PA system. The locations of
most of the plant-rich areas pose significant problems in conservation and management however. Those
sited in the high altitudes are less-accessible and disturbed by humans, but the rugged topography and
hostile climate, take their toll and make constructive intervention difficult. The high altitude areas lie snowbound for more than half of the year. In the lower altitudes and Eastern Himalayas the sites are more
accessable, but as a consequence, most of the identified IPA sites have a lot of human interference in the
form of grazing, conversion of forest areas to agricultural land, logging and hunting, destructive harvesting.
4. Prioritisation of species and action options
In order to bring the results of the studies conducted into appropriate action and policy, multi-stakeholder
consultations were conducted under the aegis of the National Medicinal Plants Board, supply and demand
side issues were analysed to arrive at broad strategies for management of Himalayan MAPs, and speciesspecific options devised for conservation, research and market promotion. A framework was created for
analysis of Himalayan MAPs, and their prioritisation for development policies and interventions. The
consultations involved: foresters and policymakers from the state sector; academicians, scientists and
researchers in medicinal plants; representatives of civil society groups working on medicinal plants; traders
and industry representatives of the herbal sector; large-scale practitioners/producers of traditional medicine,
and individual traditional healers; farmers and growers of medicinal plants.
4.1
Supply and Demand side analysis
4.1.1 Supply side gaps and needs
Conservation-related Issues:
Lack of information on species populations and
The supply side of the herbal sector chain as it applies to
harvesting limits
Himalayan MAPs stretches from the first stage of access of
Absence
of appropriate regulatory mechanisms
plant material, either by collection or through cultivation, and
Cultivation-related Issues:
through post harvest processing, to the first buyer in the trade
Lack of market information on MAPs
channel. The key issues on the supply side are to do with
Lack of agro-technologies
conservation of the Himalayan MAP species and their habitats,
Shortage of quality planting material
and the lacunae vis a vis cultivation of the species for supply of
Quality issues with respect to plant material
quality material for its use in healthcare and industry.
Lack of control of toxicities
Conservation issues have been dealth with in detail in previous
Lack of post harvest treatment and high wastage
section. The cultivation of medicinal herbs is also faced with
Fluctuations in the MAP market
several problems. There are few high value medicinal species
Unfair transactions and lack of financial support
with reliable and mainstreamed agro-techniques. MAPs need
observation starting from their habitat, distribution, and
adaptability to different micro-climatic conditions and morphological variability, before cultivation, and
information on these aspects is still incomplete. Non-availability of planting materials, lack of appropriate
cultivation practices, uncertainty in trade and lack of sufficient land under cultivation are major concerns.
Furthermore, several species have long gestation periods pre-harvest. The legal requirements also confuse
the growers, and lack of established grading norms, leads to non-uniform quality of plant material to
intermediate processors.
Different action types could be adopted to address the range of supply side issues for Himalayan MAPs.
Research and technology development is needed for addressing conservation aims and for improving the
quality of plant material available for processing; use of participatory methods in such work would also
enable pro-poor technologies and benefits. Educational and promotional activities are required for
sustainable management of biodiversity as well as for responsible trade; these need to be targeted at
various stakeholders and at all levels in the supply-demand chain. Extension and grassroots work would help
increase the numbers of growers and thereby widen the stakeholder and benefits base from the herbal
sector. These actions would need to be supported through adequate financial and infrastructural inputs to
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enable optimal development of the supply side of the herbal sector, while suitable regulatory actions would
ensure sustainable use of biodiversity, as well as fair trade.
4.1.2 Demand side gaps and needs
Demand-side Issues:
On the demand side are those issues that characterise the part
• Lack of market and channel information
• Inadequate post harvest facilities
of the herbal sector chain that stretches from the primary trader
• Adulteration
to the final customer, i.e., the user of herbal products and
• Lacunae in packaging & labeling
medicines. Demand side issues are many, but may be broadly
• Absence of quality standards and facilities
classified into the following four areas: Post-Harvest & QA
• Lack of administrative support
Processes, Information & Regulation, Channel Development,
and Marketing & Promotion. Much of the plant material that
processing points, goes through very basic quality checks, if any, and standards either do not exist, or are
not in use. Post harvesting, the plant material is stored poorly and 40% of the material is wasted due to
spoilage during storage and transportation. Adulteration is a growing problem and is threatening to cloud the
image of the traditional medicine sector, while also potentially affecting the future and the international
market prospects.
Research and technology development for demand side issues has to focus on improving quality at all
stages of the value-addition, as well as on the processing – methods, technologies and equipment. Since
lack of availability and wastage of plant material are critical issues, process efficiency in terms of use of plant
material, should be examined. There is a need to disseminate these technologies to existing producers,
backing it up with adequate regulatory rigour to ensure adherence to quality requirements. Towards ensuring
benefits to the poor, technology and other services must be deployed to grower communities at the
grassroots to address storage, quality and post-harvest processing requirements, and facilitation of linkages
between channel partners and stakeholders can ensure optimal and shared benefits. Suitable programmes
and state support would help promote particular species, while financial and infrastructural support for
particular aspects such as quality enhancement, testing labs, process efficiency improvement, etc., could
enhance sectoral effectiveness. Regulations are called for particularly with respect to quality of plant
material, transportation and fair trade.
4.2
Species Prioritisation and Development Options
4.2.1 Potential of Himalayan MAPs for livelihoods
Apart from their enormous value to human health globally, and to Himalayan communities in particular in
innumerable ways in their daily lives, Himalayan MAPs have the power to act as an engine of growth for the
rural economies of the Himalayan region and catalyse livelihoods for the poor. Despite the rich heritage of
1
the Himalayas, the people of the region face a ‘vertical gradient of poverty’ that puts 30-40% of them below
the poverty line, with an average of 47% of underemployment as well. Although stewards of the medicinal
plants wealth of the Himalayas, they benefit only marginally from the trade of medicinal plants harvested
from the region, in the form of collector’s wages. If high-value herbs were to be cultivated by small &
marginal farmers in the Himalayas, they would as cash crops serve to lift many of the Himalayan poor out of
the clutch of poverty. Most Himalayan MAP species are high-value species and fetch a premium price in the
market. A study by CECI- India (Regmi & Bista, 2002), indicated that from a single district of Pitthoragarh in
Uttaranchal state of India, more than 1300 tons of MAPs are collected and traded annually. In the Great
Himalayan National Park, local people earn around $100/HH/year through collection & sales of MAPs. A
preliminary cost benefit analysis (Karki, et al, 2003) of the production of Aconitum heterophyllum - a highvalue MAP species in Uttarkashi district of the Central Himalayas revealed that as compared to the
traditional crop of potato which yields a net profit $ 200/ha, Aconitum heterophyllum yields $ 6000/ha.
Cultivation of Himalayan MAPs by farmers in the region would also deliver multiple other benefits. These
species are agro-climatically adapted and hence need lesser inputs of water & manure; being hardy, native
species, they are less vulnerable to pests and diseases and even droughts to an extent; they do not degrade
the land as other non-native species and in fact also perform certain other functions, such as soil binding; the
income per unit of land with the cultivation of medicinal plants is much higher than with other cash crops
such as peas or potatoes. Most important of all, the high-value Himalayan species are endemic to the region,
giving the Himalayan farmer a definite competitive advantage in these species, vis a vis other cash crops.
Prioritisation of the Himalayan MAPs becomes important in this context. Analysis of the specific supply and
1
Payne, Katrina, Warrington, Siobhan and Bennett, Olivia; 2002; High Stakes - The future for mountain societies; The Panos Institute
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Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
demand side issues that beleaguer each Himalayan species, would help to determine the potential of the
species for use in Himalayan livelihoods. It would also indicate the specific actions required to develop,
support and promote each prioritised species to deliver to its potential. The key factors are:
On the supply side: The status of a species in the wild and the extent of need for conservation is a factor that
has a strong bearing on the supply of the species in trade. The extent to which a species is suitable to the
agro-ecological conditions of the given area and the degree to which it has been domesticated, in the form of
existing agro-techniques, would also influence the feasibility of its inclusion in Himalayan livelihoods.
On the demand side: The incidence of local use and the diversity of use at the local level of a particular
species, is a major determinant of the quantities required of the plant material of the species, as well as the
strength of the local/regional market and demand for the species. The demand of a species in far markets
and in overseas markets, as well as its use in well-known formulations of alternative medicine or in allopathic
medicine, would imply higher levels of market prospects.
4.2.2 The Framework for Prioritization
While designing the framework for prioritization of species, several development considerations were kept in
mind, and 5 principles were evolved in order to address these considerations. A comprehensive and
appropriate evaluation of species would require examination of the medicinal plant wealth of various ecoregions in the Himalayas. Each medicinal species is besides, circumstanced differently, and the particular
species circumstances determine the prospects and problems with respect to that species. This 'species
circumstance' cannot be understood through a skewed look at only the commercial considerations or at the
ecological status. Although prioritisation calls for examination of species, one against another, a purely
relative assessment of species is likely to lose validity over time. An assessment framework that enables
change of ratings with a change of 'species circumstance' would retain validity over a longer term. Further, a
species assessment procedure that enables an identification as well as measurement of the severity of the
issues with respect to each species, would greatly facilitate the determination of interventions.
Hence, the following principles were evolved:
1: Species prioritisation should be for each eco-region of the Himalayas, to be subsequently compiled,
ensuring an equitable representation of all Himalayan eco-regions.
2: Species prioritisation process has to involve assessment on each species on supply side considerations
as well as demand side considerations.
3: Species prioritisation process has to involve an assessment of each species against key issues that beset
the sector at both supply and demand ends, ensuring attention to conservation and commercial concerns.
4: The species assessment framework should enable independent evaluation of species as well as a
comparative evaluation between species.
5: The species assessment scoring should be a composite that allows tracing to key issues and thus
determination of action requirements for each species.
Whole Chain Assessment: The prioritization
framework takes into consideration both supply
side and demand side issues for a
comprehensive assessment of the factors that
drive the herbal sector.
Supply side aspects: The key supply side
issues and associated values that were
determined
for
each
species
under
consideration, were: Conservation value,
indicating the status of a species in the wild
and the criticality of its need for conservation;
high conservation values indicate lesser
availability of wild resources; Cultivation
prospect value, indicating degree to which a
species has been domesticated, and the
availability of agro-techniques, to enable
uptake of cultivation.
Demand side aspects: The key demand side
issues and associated values that were
determined
for
each
species
under
consideration, were: Local use value,
indicating strength of the local/regional market
and demand for the species, with higher
values indicate higher estimated volumes of
A 20-point disaggregated Species Prioritisation Scale, with equal
weightage for each of two supply side issues as well as two demand
side issues (5 points per issue), was used. Scores were allotted to
each species against its Conservation Value & Cultivation Prospects
under Supply Side considerations, and its Value in Local Use and
Far/Larger Market Status under Demand Side considerations. Species
with higher ratings were accorded a higher priority.
- Species were scored on their Conservation Values depending on the
size & distribution of their wild resource base (horizontal &
vertical), erosion of the resource base, nature & scale of impacts by
trade, status on the red list, phylogenetic distinctiveness, available
legal protection (e.g. CITES, etc), regeneration period.
- Scores on Cultivation Prospects were based on suitability to the
area’s agro-ecology and farming systems, availability of
cultivation/propagation techniques, harvestable in short rotation
period, social acceptance for promotion in the specific zone.
- Local Use Values were by the use of the species in primary health
care, in treating common ailments as well as a range of ailments,
importance in local ethnobotany and traditional medicine, use for
multiple purposes- sociocultural, fodder, food.
- Scores for Far/Larger Market Status were assigned on the basis of
demand in local, regional, national and global markets, market
price, potential for domestic value addition, annual industrial
demand and export potential.
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
local demand; Far/larger market value, indicating demand of a species in markets beyond the local area,
including in overseas markets; higher values indicate a higher market demand in such markets.
4.2.2 Prioritized Medicinal Plant Species of the Indian Himalayas
Following the framework described above, the Himalayan medicinal plant species identified during the
mapping exercise, were prioritized in 2 sub-groups: Priority I (with aggregate ratings of 15-20 on the 20-point
Species Rating Scale- see box above) and Priority II (with ratings of 10-15), based on scores assigned to
them by the working groups at the national consultations. The list of prioritized species is given in Table 2.
4.2.3 Action options for optimising on species potential
The framework used for prioritisation also point out the exact nature of support required for each prioritised
species, towards optimising on the potential of the species in the herbal sector, while addressing its
conservation needs. Three well-delineated Action Options may be crystallised, comprising a mix of supply
and demand side interventions.
Action A: R&D First! The Priority Species that were assessed to have a 'Low Cultivation Prospect', whether
rated high or low against the other three parameters of conservation value, local use value and far/larger
market demand, are placed in this group and prioritized for R&D interventions. The rationale is that the
required research needs to precede any other developmental activity for these particular species, in order to
remove/reduce the existing bottlenecks that affect optimising on the potential of the species. Species with
low scores on cultivation prospects especially, lack developed propagation methods through natural means
and/or standardised cultivation packages, and adequate nursery production of saplings for use in cultivation.
They also might have specific agro-climatic niche requirements that are not available at a larger scale.
Besides, several of these species are not adequately understood in terms of the inter-relationships between
the growing conditions and/or post-harvest processing requirements and the active principle content in the
plant material. These are bottlenecks that will not allow a sustainable use of these species by the herbal
sector, in spite of the high market demand for them. The R&D intervention should therefore include:
Developing propagation & cultivation protocols for strengthening the supply base, including micropropagation protocols for recalcitrant species
Nursery propagation and production support
Developing techniques for post-harvest processes, establishing quality standards and testing methods
Action B: Conserve, Cultivate, Channelise: The Priority Species that were assessed to have a 'High
Conservation Value' as well as a 'High Cultivation Prospect', and an established market with a high value in
local use and/or far/larger markets, are placed in this group. Such species call for a composite intervention
that comprises conservation of the species along with promotion of cultivation and marketing. Prioritised
species with high scores on Conservation Value indicate a restricted resource base for the species.
Harvesting and usage of the species without adequate conservation action would lead to serious biodiversity
impacts. Several such species are also rated to possess high cultivation prospects, indicating an availability
of cultivation techniques and hence good chances of lucrative returns to farmers. However, this potential will
not be realised unless farmers are made aware of available technologies and galvanised for production.
Several of the species have existing demand in local markets, which calls for local level sources of supply. A
high rating on the status in far/larger markets, indicates assured returns to the farmers and with it, the need
to work on developing the marketing channel. Depending on the species status, Action B could include:
Targeted conservation measures for MAP-rich areas, and a ex-situ conservation for species
Promoting cultivation for local consumption, and for supplying to far/larger markets
Regulating supplies for sustainability, optimal quality and fair benefits
Improving post-harvest processes and adherence to quality standards
Action C: A Market Boost!: The Priority Species that were assessed to have a 'Low Value in Markets',
whether in Local and/or Far/Larger Markets, and whether rated high or low against the other two parameters
of conservation value, cultivation prospects, are placed in this group and prioritized for Market Development
interventions. Such species do not have a well-established market demand, although they might have
established pharmaceutical actions and/or potential for use in wellness or cosmetic products. Research may
have indicated that these species have high potential in the market and in certain cases, local use value may
be high but far/larger markets do not recognise these values. Unless the markets are made aware of the
potential of these species, this potential is unlikely to be realised. Action C is therefore aimed at creating an
adequate market in order to ensure the realisation of the potential of such species, and would include:
Focussed attention on product development
Analyzing potential markets and product positioning
Promotion and demand creation
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
Table 2 – Prioritised Himalayan MAP species for intervention
Species name
Rating: Supply-side
considerations
Conservation
Cultivation
value
prospects
CV
CP
Priority I
Swertia chirayita
Aconitum heterophyllum
Taxus baccata subsp.
wallichiana
Podophyllum hexandrum
Paris polyphylla
Gloriosa superba
Angelica glauca
Dactylorhiza hatagirea
Myrica esculenta
Nardostachys grandiflora
Picrorhiza kurrooa
Sapindus mukorossi
Saussurea costus
Arnebia benthamii
Arnebia euchroma
Rheum australe
Rheum moorcroftianum
Coptis teeta
Panax pseudo ginseng
Aquillaria agallocha
Terminalia bellirica
Zanthoxylum armatum
Ammomum subulatum
Hardwickia javanica
Rheum nobile
Costus speciosus
Rating: Demand side
considerations
Value in local
Value in far/
use
larger
VLU
markets
VFM
Gross
rating
regionscale
Development actions
Option A
R&D for
cultivation
5
5
5
5
3
1
3
5
5
5
5
5
18
18
16
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
1
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
3
5
3
4
5
4
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
5
5
4
2
2
3
4
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
1
5
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
2
4
17
17
15
16
16
16
16
12
16
16
15
15
15
15
20
20
19
15
17
16
16
16
18
Option B
Thrust on
conservation
Support for
cultivation
Cultivation
only for local
consumption
Option C
Market
linkages
and postharvest
facilities
Promotion
and market
development
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Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
Priority II
Aconitum ferox
Allium stracheyi
Bunium persicum
Delphinium denudatum
Hippophae rhamnoides
Pistacia khinjuk
Rheum webbianum
Valeriana jatamansi
Carum carvi
Oroxylum indicum
Polygonatum cirrhifolium
Polygonatum multiflorum
Polygonatum
verticillatum
Acorus calamus
Dioscorea deltoidea
Gentiana kurroo
Thalictrum foliolosum
Saussurea obvallata
Gymnocardia odorata
Gymnocladus assamicus
Gaultheria fragrantissima
Potentilla fulgens
Meconopsis nepaulensis
5
3
3
5
5
2
3
5
2
3
5
5
5
3
4
3
1
1
5
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
5
5
3
5
2
5
3
5
5
2
2
2
4
2
3
5
3
5
5
5
3
3
5
5
5
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
13
12
13
13
13
4
5
4
2
5
3
5
4
4
5
1
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
3
3
1
3
5
5
5
3
3
1
5
3
5
5
1
2
1
4
2
0
13
12
12
11
12
13
13
12
11
7
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
5.
Pilot interventions for community based biodiversity conservation
Pragya has been working for conservation and
sustainable utilisation of the medicinal and
aromatic plants of the Indian Himalayas. A pilot
project initiated in Lahaul and Spiti district of
Himachal Pradesh was replicated across the
high altitude Indian Himalayas. The project
promotes the cultivation of high-value herbal
species as alternative cash crops by local
communities, thus enhancing farmer incomes.
Alongside cultivation of medicinal plants, the
Pragya intervention also encourages community
stewardship for protecting the plants in the wild
and preservation of the ethnobotanic traditions.
Findings of the MAP mapping & threat
assessment study and the various multistakeholder consultations over the years, formed
key inputs to this work. The project is currently
being supported in 12 high altitude districts
across 5 Himalayan states including Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
This project has also been awarded the 2000
Whitley Gold Award, an international recognition
for nature conservation projects, by the Whitley
Foundation and the Royal Geographical Society.
The project has multiple components:
Pragya Project ethos:
Pragmatic Conservation. It recognises the fact that the
bioresources of a region are as much a cultural as an ecological
phenomenon, because of their place in the lives of local
communities. The community-centric, development-inclusive
conservation approach that Pragya follows begins with rekindling
the sense of stewardship in Himalayan communities, and building
in them the skills and the responsibility for managing their bioresources in a sustainable manner, tying in the development of the
Himalayan communities with the conservation of their ecosystems.
This approach also does not reject the market forces that play, but
accepts and manages them for the benefit of the people while also
ensuring the sustainable use of biological resources, by instituting
appropriate alternatives, such as cultivating medicinal plants as
against collection from the wild.
Heritage-based Enterprises and collaborative economic endeavour.
Pragya believes that livelihoods shaped around niche produce of
the Himalayas, arising from the unique Himalayan heritage, such as
Himalayan MAPs, are most suitable as an economic lever for the
Himalayan region. Micro/small heritage-based enterprises (based
on local cultural and natural heritage), would enable significant
economic benefit to be wrested by mountain communities from
their specific advantages, and related niche products & markets.
Apart from providing alternate income avenues, productive use of
local resources could also dynamise these very resources, stem
their degradation & erosion, and ensure that a greater part of the
benefits is retained by local communities. The sparse population of
the Himalayas however pose problems to achieving economies of
scale, and inhibits access to markets. Pragya seeks to develop
collaborative community enterprises, such as cooperatives of
medicinal plants growers, to counter this.
Community Conservation of Medicinal &
Aromatic Plant resources: The strong people
and plants relationship necessitates that community engagement in conservation is at the core of the
initiative. Children, women, youth and traditional healers, are educated on the need for conservation and
enlisted for active stewardship of the herbal resources in the wild. Special curricular modules have been
designed on ‘Ecology & Conservation’ and rolled out through the schools in the area. Community-based
‘Natural Heritage Conservation Councils’ (NHCC) have been formed in all Himalayan valleys with
responsibility for the conservation of natural resources and local level activities directed towards it. The
NHCCs are also responsible for carrying out conservation campaigns and afforestation drives in the
Himalayas and maintaining and updating Community Biodiversity Registers (CBRs) for their own valleys.
The NHCCs are encouraged to adopt areas of MAP concentration (in the identified IPAs) as ‘Community
Protected Areas’, protect them through social or physical fencing, and implement community-controlled
usage of the sites. 12 such sites have been set up and are also serving as genetic reserves for the ‘at risk’
species. This intervention is a step towards creating a grid of community-managed hotspots across the high
altitude belt of the Himalayas for in-situ conservation of the region’s herbal wealth. Rangeland management
interventions and training of pastoralists have also been undertaken in order to reduce grazing-induced
stress at MAP-rich stretches. A community-based Biodiversity & Habitat Monitoring System has been
launched in the high altitude districts for scientific data collection and management of threatened/degraded
habitats. A simple toolkit has been devised and the stakeholders trained in its operation.
Fig.5 – (a) Community Protected Areas in the Himalayas (b) Ethno-botanic Centre in Lahaul, HP
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PRAGYA, info@pragya.org
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest
Fo
Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and
nd Forest Biodiversity
Ex-situ conservation and cultivat
ation of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants: Farmers
rs and traditional healers
have been trained and assisted in ssetting up micro-plantations of medicinal plants at
a altitudes ranging from
8,000 ft. to 16,000 ft. Recognising
g women
w
as the key repositories of knowledge on aromatic, spice & dye
plants, the project has helped set up
u several Self-Help-Groups of women kitchen-g
gardeners and supports
them in undertaking cultivation of these species. The Pragya team provides co
continual support to the
medplants growers and works to enhance
enh
uptake. It has developed simple, easy-to--use cultivation protocols
for 18 MAP species, and seed-dorm
rmancy treatment and propagation protocols have
e been worked out for 10
species. In order to bridge the lab-to
to-land gap, regular training and field demonstrat
rations are conducted and
technical assistance provided on
n propagation, cultivation, plantation-planning and
a
pest management.
Several nurseries and greenhouses
es have also been set up for the propagation off the
th high-value medicinal
species and distribution of saplingss to farmers. Farmer Expert Groups are being created
cre
in each valley for
local level research into medicinal pla
plants cultivation and mentoring of new med-plants
nts farmers.
In order to promote sustainable bio-enterprises
bio
and fair trade, Pragya has estab
ablished medicinal plants
growers’ cooperatives in several H
Himalayan districts. This has involved intensive
e training on cooperative
management, followed by assistance
nce in registration with the authorities and handhol
olding for formalization in
terms of accounting systems and participation
par
processes.
Medicinal plants harvesting and processing
pro
call for stringent quality norms. The m
market channel uses the
rudimentary measure of physical observation
obs
of plant parts for checking quality. This
his makes incorporation of
processing at a local level difficultlt a
and value-addition has to be limited to post-harv
arvest processes. Pragya
has therefore equipped the medicina
inal plants growers’ cooperatives with produce dryin
rying equipment that helps
reduce wastage and transportation
n costs
c
of the produce. Women’s SHGs have also
o been
b
facilitated to set up
spices drying and packaging enterpr
rprises.
Fair trade mechanisms are being in
instituted as well. Farmers are provided regular updates
u
on regional and
national markets and buyer require
irements. The cooperatives have been aided in
n linking
l
up with channel
partners for marketing and sale of the produce. Buyer-seller meets are conducte
cted periodically at which
national level manufacturers of her
herbal products as well as large traders are bro
rought face to face with
Himalayan farmers. These intervent
ntions have the potential of increasing medicinal
al plants revenues for the
Himalayan farmer by several times.
Fig.6 – (a) Kitchen garden of Medic
dicinal Plants; (b) Cultivation research at Pragya App
pplied Research Centre
Documentation & Preservation of Ethnobotanical Knowledge: Pragya has carrie
rried out a documentation
of the ethnobotany in various zon
ones and cultures across the Himalayas. Three
ee Ethnobotanic Centres
anchored with the NHCCs and an on-line
on
repository host the information and help conserve
co
local knowledge
about medicinal plants. Pragya has
as also helped create and support traditional healers
he
associations and
networks. Traditional Healing Centre
tres/groups have been formed in several districts an
and been trained in using
modern tools & systems for diagnos
osis, documentation, medicine preparation and tre
treatment. Periodic health
camps and awareness sessions on promotive & preventive health involving the
e ttraditional healers have
helped in keeping the system alive
ive, while also enhancing access to health care
e sservices for the remote
Himalayan villages.
Regional Networking & Wider Dissemination:
Dis
Initiatives have also focused on
n knowledge-sharing and
advocacy for the herbal wealth of the
th high altitude Himalayas. The research on threa
reatened habitats and ‘atrisk’ species have been able to draw
d
policy focus on the species under threat
eat at the high altitudes.
Publication of an inventory and thre
hreat status of MAPs and national level consultati
ations & networking have
aided in shaping some positive polic
licy decisions in this sector. Documentation of the
e Himalayan MAPs in the
form of species chart/posters, bio-pro
profiles, e-herbarium, etc., have helped in reaching
g out to the wider public,
while the Ethnobotanic Centres and
nd various awareness initiatives have helped sprea
eading awareness among
Himalayan people as well as visitors
rs to the region. Pragya continues its endeavourss tto reach out to the wider
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Pre-Congress Workshop of 1 Indian Forest Congress; August 2011; HFRI
Sub-theme: Ecosystem Resilience and Forest Biodiversity
public, policy makers and research communities at national & international levels regarding the threats to the
Himalayan ecosystem, its rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge, and its community-based, sustainable
MAP-enterprises.
The Lahaul Medicinal Plant Growers’ Cooperative: A Pragya initiative
THE JOURNEY IN MILESTONES: A very successful Medicinal Plants Growers’ Cooperative has been formed in Lahaul and is being
assisted in forging linkages with bulk buyers at the national level.
1998:
research into medicinal plants and cultivation prospects and protocols; launch of training for farmers in medplants
cultivation
2000:
6 experimental plots for medplants set up by farmers in the district with technical inputs & assistance from Pragya
2001:
the first tentative protocols for 3 medicinal species of the district; exposure visit for farmers to industry
2002:
2 nurseries set up in the district; distribution of seeds & saplings to farmers for medplants cultivation; several new farmers
begin cultivation of medicinal plants
2003:
first national seminar-cum-workshop with farmers and researchers; launch of cultivation protocols for 4 species; launch of
the Lahaul cooperative (MPGC) with training and registration
2004:
first harvest from a Pragya-supported medicinal plants plantation and sale to traders in Kullu; distribution of seeds by
MPGC to new members
2005:
provision of solar dryer to MPGC; members in MPGC increased to 165; second national seminar cum workshop on
medicinal plants; first buyer-seller meet with representation of 13 pharma/herbal companies
2006:
third national seminar; second buyer-seller meet; exposure to national markets, processing centres; training on quality
requirements by traders and Hamdard Univ.
2007:
increase of farmers in MPGC to 205; training of farmers by Unilever Research Lab on post-harvest technologies and quality
requirements; participation of MPGC members in a stakeholder consultation commissioned by NMPB towards determining
th
policy inputs for the 11 Plan; cultivation protocols firmed up total 18
2008:
business deal finalized with Dabur*
2009:
a long-term agreement with industry for supply of medicinal plant material at a mutually negotiated rate.
2010:
increase in offtake by Dabur; increase of members to 409; new industrial houses contact MPGC for purchasing plant
material
* The Dabur-MPGC Deal:
In order to ensure the sustainability of the medplants cultivation endeavour, Pragya worked towards creating market linkages
between cultivators and buyers. Towards this end, an extensive market survey was conducted and potential buyers (both at the
national and local level) were identified. Buyer-seller meets were organized at several stages to establish fair trade channels
between the cultivators/producers of medicinal plants and the traders.
In 2008, we established a dialogue between MPGC and Dabur India Ltd., India’s leading pharmaceutical company with
approximately 90% of the medicinal plant market share. After several rounds of talks, quality checks on the produce and discussions
with the MPGC, Lahaul, Dabur finalized the deal. The deal earned the cooperative Rs. 2 million and several species like Inula,
Saussurea and Aconitum were purchased over two phases.
Apart from the monetary benefit of this linkage for farmers in Lahaul valley, the deal served to act as a demonstration of the
benefits flowing from a synergy of conservation efforts with market tie-ups. The success of this can be gauged by the steep increase
in the membership of the cooperative, following the deal. This has also resulted in an increase in requests for seed and other
planting material for growing of medicinal plants commercially.
6.
Way ahead/Conclusion
A 9-point MAP Management Strategy for the Himalayan Region
The studies conducted, the consultations and the grassroots initiatives, have brought out the need for a
certain strategic agenda going forward, to ensure effective management of the herbal wealth of the
Himalayas, including the conservation of the species in the wild, and the delivery of economic benefits of
biodiversity to the Himalayan poor.
Given below are the key elements of a 10-point strategic agenda:
i. Strengthen the biodiversity management institutions and enforcement of legislations and good
practices. Although the structures for management of biodiversity (Biodiversity Authorities & Committees)
and the legislations (Biodiversity Act, etc.) to control threat to bio-resources in India do exist, much illegal
wild-harvesting continues. This needs to be addressed by institutional strengthening such that the
mechanisms and legislations for biodiversity protection are strictly enforced. Civil society extension activities
may be used to create local management structures of Biodiversity Management Committees and build
capacity in them for biodiversity & habitat monitoring, and controlling illegal extraction of MAPs. Civil society
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may also be harnessed to catalyse stricter enforcement of biodiversity legislations. Development, extension
and capacity building for sustainable and non-destructive collection practices, even when for consumption by
host communities, are necessary. Developing guidelines for conservation & use of MAPs in the wild, along
with clear definition of stakeholder roles, and the strict enforcement of necessary certification/governance
procedures, could be a key to solving the problem of unsustainable levels of harvesting. Towards this end, a
rapid documentation of species populations is critical; since much work has been done in this field by various
agencies, collation of existing data with state and non-state agencies and targeted efforts at gap-filling will be
most suitable. The status-assessment process would however need to be periodically carried out, and
conservation/development strategies adapted to current conditions.
ii. Promote community conservation of species and habitats and facilitate community-state
collaboration for conservation. Himalayan communities in India, as all nature-based peoples in the world,
have deep-rooted conservation ethics. Hence, extension work with communities must be focused on reviving
traditional conservation practices and community stewardship. There should be a thrust on raising
conservation awareness among the communities, and engaging the children and youth in the process. A
genuinely collaborative approach between the State and the Himalayan communities would contribute to
effective management of forests & habitats. Recognising the inefficiency of the conventional conservation
paradigm and the escalating man-nature conflicts, the India government has legitimised the customary rights
of tribal communities over the forests with the Forest Right Act. At this juncture, it is essential to instill a
strong sense of stewardship in the communities along with processes such as ecosystem monitoring, that
would help them in sustainable management of the habitats. The halting implementation of the Act also
speaks of the need to facilitate the rights & participation approach in State functionaries.
A greater concentration of resource flows to the identified IPAs in the Himalayas would help conserve these
MAP-rich sites, and create the suggested ‘Conservation Grid for Himalayan MAPs’. Grassroots capacity
building would be necessary to educate on conservation techniques, and facilitate them to access available
schemes (such as from the National Medicinal Plants Board) for conservation and efficient management of
these areas. Site-specific strategies should be worked out for protection of core MAP-rich areas in IPAs;
identification of newer IPAs and core areas, and associated conservation/protection efforts also need to be
undertaken.
iii. Participatory agro-technology development and germplasm management. Work on development of
agro-techniques for endangered, undomesticated species with high market value, needs to continue at a
brisk pace, and dissemination of agro-techniques that exist has to be a major thrust area. R&D institutions
with relevant capacity need to share the work of agro-technique development for the priority Himalayan
MAPs. It is important to recognise the fact that farmers in the Himalayas can play a significant role in this
research, and participatory forms of research involving researchers and farmers in collaborative research
efforts, are likely to be more successful by far for the land-based protocols. This would enable quicker
absorption of the developed protocols and least lab-land gaps. Particularly for those species that inhabit a
wide ecological range, such collaborations will also facilitate a species-area-agrotechnique match. Farmer
groups could be encouraged to establish experimental plots for agrotechnique development, that could flow
seamlessly into becoming nurseries for bringing the species into production. State and non-state actors as
well as the rural media may be harnessed for extension of the technical know-how and promotion of Good
Agricultural Practices. Germplasm management should likewise be a dispersed and participative effort.
Germplasm banks with R&D institutions may have field counterparts in the form of MAP seed banks with
farmer groups in each agro-climatic region. Apart from maintaining the germplasm, this would help enhance
supplies of responsibly sourced plant material. Industry linkages will be effective for post-harvest processing
and testing, and participation of traditional healers in setting quality and grading norms, could enable
dissemination and absorption of quality norms.
iv. Promote area-specific cultivation of prioritised MAPs. Large-scale cultivation of Himalayan medicinal
plants is the strategy that would help meet the industry demand while offering an alternative to wild collection
and thus conservation of the species in the wild. The endemic nature of several Himalayan medicinal species
implies a competitive advantage for Himalayan farmers and indicates the potential for economic
development of the region. There is therefore a strong need for a concerted effort by governmental and nongovernmental agencies to catalyse cultivation of the particularly at-risk Himalayan MAPs by farmers in the
region. Facilitation Centres for MAPs need to be set up, and would do much to escalate the uptake of
cultivation of priority species among farmers; these could serve as certification agencies for the plant
material as well. Since distances are large in the Himalayas and travel and transportation difficult, to
adequately address the remote Himalayan villages, facilitation centres and services would need to be
dispersed and made available at a district/sub-district level. A micro-level localised approach is required for
the Himalayas, for agro-climatic variation in the region is very high, and most Himalayan species are niche
species that do not have a large ecological range. Species that are most ecologically-suited and high-value
in each micro agro-climatic zone within the Himalayan region, must therefore be identified and serve to guide
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farmers on what crops to take up for cultivation. Species-wise targets may be aligned with the market
demand for the species.
Although the interest in cultivating medicinal plants is definitely growing in the Himalayan region, planting
materials are severely limited and available quantities are not able to meet the demand. Nurseries are
required in every cluster of villages in the Himalayan region and these should be supported to produce and
distribute saplings to farmers who wish to cultivate medicinal plants. A special thrust should be given to
utilising MAP cultivation for poverty reduction and livelihood generation in marginalised regions, and the
small & marginal farmers should be supported through subsidies and agri-inputs as well as crop insurance.
v. Develop a network of growers' cooperatives, collection centres and commodity markets for the
Himalayan region. The Himalayan farmer is usually a small farmer trading in small volumes, and distant
from the market about which he/she has little information. This makes it difficult for an individual Himalayan
farmer to reach the buyer or even attract the buyer. It also makes the farmer vulnerable to unfair trade
practices. The problem of marketing is magnified due to the region’s remoteness and the logistical difficulties
and costs involved. The produce to market distance is 200-600 kilometres (not considering local markets)
and several days away. Dependence on middle men is high and returns to producers are lower with higher
leakage to middlemen; wastage and spoilage of produce and related losses are also higher. Cooperatives
for medicinal plants growers in each Himalayan district could enable a collective effort by farmers for
handling the marketing and logistics barriers. They would facilitate produce aggregation and collective
transportation, and thereby reduce costs, wastage and leakage to middlement, and also provide strength in
negotiation. If federated into an apex structure - at the regional or national level – they could also facilitate
information flow and fair trade.
There is a strong need for back-end assistance by the State to growers’ collectives to make them
competitive and ensure quality of produce. Collection, storage and transportation support should be
instituted; basic post-harvest processes (drying, cutting and packaging) should be integrated at the local
level. Specialised Herbal Markets at the regional level, regulated by state-designated organisations and/or
cooperatives, may further facilitate fair trade practices, with transparent grading & pricing, and even global
sales, and GAP, GDP, GHP, and all necessary certification. As with commodity markets, both spot trading
and forward contracts should be encouraged. Negotiated and transparent buy-back arrangements may be
incentivised.
vi. Information & documentation services for farmers. Although some information services do exist today
for the herbal trade sector, the actual growers are still unreached by information, and hence vulnerable to
exploitation and unfair practices. The Himalayan farmers are especially distant from real time information on
medicinal plants markets. Electronic herbal networks could enable real time information of prices of different
species and their extracts, regional demand and supply levels, industry events, etc., and direct buyer-seller
contacts. The stringent procedural and documentation formalities for trade of medicinal plant material, tend
to dissuade the average Himalayan farmer from undertaking medplants cultivation. The suggested facilitation
centres and regional MAP markets should assist the Himalayan farmers undertaking medicinal plants
cultivation with the various procedural as well as the documentation requirements for international trade in
medicinal plant material.
vii. Authentication, Testing & Certification of Produce. Authentication and quality testing of medicinal
plants material is necessary for effective negotiations with buyers. But the cost of testing at both the
government managed institutions and those run privately, is prohibitive; very few testing centres are besides
available and none in the Himalayan region. Testing fees of medicinal plants should be subsidized for early
stage growers of medicinal plants. Testing facilities also need to be established nearer to production hubs.
Investing into the development of an easy field-testing method and self-certification/authentication system for
use by farmers’ cooperatives, is likely to yield significant benefits.
viii. Responsible Trade Networks. The creation of a Responsible Trade Network can support conformity to
restrictions on wild-harvesting. Manufacturers and buyers should be encouraged to be a part of the
Responsible Trade Network and exhibit their corporate social responsibility (CSR) credentials. The peer
group support provided by membership in this group and the clean image promoted in the market, would
become incentives for fair trade practices. Certain financial incentives are also recommended by the
government for the members of this RTN in the initial period.
ix. Undertake promotion for market development and international status of Himalayan MAPs.
Awareness of the efficacy of prioritised Himalayan herbs has to be built in international markets, and this
would also entail work to remove the barriers to trade in developed nations. Various State and industry
association need to play a role in making a strong representation and promote a global integration of
traditional medicine systems with the existing mainstream healthcare system, and recognition of national
systems and institutions and their certification processes. Considering post-2011 regulatory scenario, State
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agencies will need to undertake an aggressive drive to register high sales and priority TCAM products, and
facilitate industry, especially the smaller units and growers’ cooperatives, with respect to handling the
international regulatory framework for exports.
References
Anon. (2006); Country IPA Report - India; presentation made at Regional workshop Identification and
Conservation of Important Plant Areas for Medicinal Plants in the Himalayas 19th- 22nd Sept, 2006,
Kathmandu, Nepal; Pragya
Anon. (2006); Preliminary Identification of IPAs for Medicinal Plants in the Himalayas - Country Report INDIA, Pragya
Anon. (2007); Inventorying and Threat Assessment of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants of the High Altitude
Himalayas; presentation at 'Management of the Herbal Wealth of the High Altitude Himalayas': A MultiStakeholder Consultative Workshop hosted by NMPB and Pragya; NRM Team, Pragya
Anon. (2008); Management of the Herbal Wealth of India - Report on the Proceedings of a MultiStakeholder Consultative Workshop hosted by NMPB and Pragya; NRM Team, Pragya
Hamilton, A. (2008); Medicinal plants in conservation and development: case studies and lessons learnt;
PlantLife International, Salisbury, UK
Hamilton, A. and Radford E. (2007); Identification and conservation of Important Plant Areas for medicinal
plants in the Himalaya; PlantLife International (Salisbury, UK) and Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal
(Kathmandu, Nepal)
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