ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 202 ————— INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS IN THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN Proceedings of the International Conference at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo, 25th to 29th October 2008 edited by KIM DUISTERMAAT and ILONA REGULSKI with the collaboration of GWEN JENNES and LARA WEISS UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES LEUVEN – PARIS – WALPOLE, MA 2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX PROGRAMME OF THE CONFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . XIII M. BIETAK Preface . . . . . . . . . . . XIX . . . . . . . . XXI S. SHERRATT Between Theory, Texts and Archaeology: Working with the Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 D. PANAGIOTOPOULOS The Stirring Sea. Conceptualising Transculturality in the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . 31 E. ASOUTI Community Identities, Interactions and ‘Cultures’ in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of Western Asia: A Commentary on the Production of Historical Knowledge . . . . . . . . . 53 N. MAC SWEENEY Strange and Estranged: Perceiving Cultural Contacts in Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age Anatolia . . . . . . . . 67 A. SIMANDIRAKI-GRIMSHAW Religious Exchanges Between Minoan Crete and its Neighbours: Methodological Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 79 S. CAPPEL Considerations on Sealing Practice and Agency in Minoan Crete and the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd Millennium BC . . 89 . . . . . . . . . K. DUISTERMAAT Introduction and acknowledgements THEORY AND METHODOLOGY IDENTIFYING FOREIGNERS AND IMMIGRANTS L. HULIN Pragmatic Technology: Issues in the Interpretation of Libyan Material Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS M. WASMUTH Tracing Egyptians outside Egypt: Assessing the Sources . . 115 A. HASSLER Mycenaeans at Tell Abu Gurob? . . 125 . . . . . . . . B. BADER Traces of Foreign Settlers in the Archaeological Record of Tell el-Dab{a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 P. WILSON Pots, People and the Plural Community: A Case Study of the Greeks in Egypt at Sais . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 P. PERKINS The Etruscans, their DNA and the Orient . . . . . . . 171 MATERIAL EVIDENCE FOR CONTACT: CERAMICS, IMPORTS AND IMITATIONS J. BRETSCHNEIDER and K. VAN LERBERGHE The Jebleh Plain through History: Tell Tweini and its Intercultural Contacts in the Bronze and Early Iron Age . . . . . 183 L. BADRE Cultural Interconnections in the Eastern Mediterranean: Evidence from Tell Kazel in the Late Bronze Age . . . . . . . 205 G.J. VAN WIJNGAARDEN Tokens of a Special Relationship? Mycenaeans and Egyptians 225 B. BURNS Context and Distance: Associations of Egyptian Objects and Style at Mycenae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 M. OWNBY and L.M.V. SMITH The Impact of Changing Political Situations on Trade between Egypt and the Near East: A Provenance Study of Canaanite Jars from Memphis, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 A. AHRENS Strangers in a Strange Land? The Function and Social Significance of Egyptian Imports in the Northern Levant during the 2nd Millennium BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 VII TABLE OF CONTENTS G. GRAZIADIO and G. GUGLIELMINO The Aegean and Cypriot Imports to Italy as Evidence for Direct and Indirect Trade in the 14th and 13th Centuries BC . . . 309 G. GERNEZ The Exchange of Products and Concepts between the Near East and the Mediterranean: The Example of Weapons during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages . . . . . . . . . 327 F. HÖFLMAYER Egyptian Imitations of Cypriote Base Ring Ware in the Eastern Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR An Eastern Mediterranean Painting Convention in Western Anatolia: Lydian Black-on-Red . . . . . . . . . . 359 MARITIME TRADE AND SEA PORTS M.-H. GATES Maritime Business in the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean: the View from its Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 M. SAMAES and J. COENAERTS Exchange Between Southeastern Cyprus and the Surrounding Regions in the Eastern Mediterranean During the Late Bronze Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 A. VIANELLO One Sea for All: Intercultural, Social and Economic Contacts in the Bronze Age Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . 411 C. SAUVAGE Evidence from Old Texts: Aspects of Late Bronze Age International Maritime Travel and Trade Regulations in the Eastern Mediterranean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 INFLUENCES IN ICONOGRAPHY, IDEOLOGY AND RELIGION K. IREN The First North Ionian Despotes Theron . . . . . . . 441 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS E. PAPPA From Seafaring Men to Travelling Images: The Phoenician ‘Commercial Expansion’ in Southeastern Spain as a Stimulus for Artistic Interactions in Iberia . . . . . . . . . . 461 A. POGGIO Incidents in Dynastic Hunts in Lycia and Phoenicia . . . . 479 I. FAPPAS Exchange of Ideas in the Eastern Mediterranean during the 14th and 13th centuries BC: The Case of Perfumed Oil Use and Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 S. ERDIL-KOCAMAN and B. ÖGÜT From Teshub to Jupiter Dolichenus – The Iconographical Development of the Storm God in Southeastern Turkey and Northern Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 S. YALCIN A Study of Cultural Interaction in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age: Adaptation of the Winged Sun Disc by the Hittites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY L. JIRÁSKOVÁ Relations between Egypt and Syria-Palestine in the Latter Part of the Old Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 A. MUROCK HUSSEIN Minoan Goat Hunting: Social Status and the Economics of War 569 R. MÜLLER-WOLLERMANN The Impact of the Greco-Persian Conflict on the Egyptian Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION IN WESTERN ANATOLIA: LYDIAN BLACK-ON-RED R. Gül GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR Introduction Black-on-red ware was a common painting technique locally applied and imported into various regions and production centers in the Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia, and a few Greek centers. There were several styles of this painting technique among different production centers, where we may observe diverse shape repertoires, decorative elements and decoration schemes, while the technique of painted decoration in matt dark glaze over a bright red slip remained constant. The wide distribution of this painting convention, attested from the Aegean sites to inner Anatolia and to the Levant, seems to have regional characteristics with distinct chronologies and stylistic appearances. There is relatively more published research related to the material found in the Levant.1 One of the earliest suggestions on the origin of black-on-red pottery in Cyprus and Palestine was made by E. Gjerstad, who stated in 1948 that the black-on-red pottery dated to the period between Cypro-Geometric IA (c. 1050-950 BC) and Cypro-Geometric III (c. 850-700 BC) may be considered as import, possibly from the Syro-Anatolian region, and that it was locally made and exported from the mid 9th century BC onwards (Gjerstad 1948: 288, 314-5, 435-6; see also Albright 1953: 22-4). A Syro-Anatolian origin for black-on-red pottery was not accepted by a number of scholars, who suggested that black-on-red pottery originated in Phoenicia and that this ware first arrived in Cyprus via commercial relationships before it was locally produced at a later stage.2 Black-on-red pottery was also locally produced in Cilicia in addition to being imported, possibly from Cyprus 1 N. Schreiber’s volume on The Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age (Schreiber 2003) is an intensive study of black-on-red pottery where he not only analyses distribution but also investigates origin and dating. See also pages xxii-xxix for a good summary of past scholarship on the origin and date of the pottery. 2 One of the earliest rejections was made by Van Beek 1951: 27-8. Later some other scholars not only rejected a Syro-Anatolian origin but also suggested a Phoenician origin: Goldman 1963: 57; Birmingham 1963: 36; Vandenabeele 1968: 110; 1985: 107; Coldstream 1985: 52. 360 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR (Goldman 1963: 50-7; Mellink 1959: 79; Dupré 1983: 82-3, pl. 94.268-9, 271, pl. 99.268-271). Recently, Schreiber accepted a Cypriot origin for this ware (Schreiber 2003: 307-8, see also pages xxiv and xxvi in Schreiber 2003 for scholars who accepted this idea before he did). This suggestion is also supported by archaeometric analysis of black-on-red samples from Cyprus, Al Mina and Palestine (Brodie and Steel 1996: 271-5). Black-on-red pottery attested at Phoenician, Cypriot and Cilician sites has a similar style of painting and preference for similar shapes and similar decorative patterns, although some local adaptations and regional aspects may well be observed. This is not surprising since these regions are geographically close and had trade relations during the early centuries of the 1st millennium BC. Black-on-red pottery of this style seems to have been exported to the Dodecanese islands and Crete. The black-on-red vessels from these islands are limited to unguent flasks with ridged necks, generally decorated with rows of full concentric circles and concentric narrow horizontal bands, and were probably imported from Cyprus for their content (Coldstream 1968: 3). Coldstream suggests that the local Greek imitations of these vessels may have been produced, especially in the 8th century BC, by a population of Cypro-Phoenician origin living in the Dodecanese islands and in Crete (Coldstream 1969: 1; 1977: 68, 248; 1979: 261; 1984: 137). In addition to the black-on-red pottery of Cypriot character discovered in Cilicia, black-on-red pottery is also attested at several other sites in Anatolia. It seems to be a commonly favored painting convention between about the 8th and 6th centuries BC in the Anatolian Iron Ages koine. The Cilician black-on-red pottery is closer to its Cypriot counterparts, while the other Anatolian black-on-red pottery produced elsewhere is a mixture of both Cilician and local Anatolian elements. The survey research directed by J. Mellaart in southwestern Turkey and by J. Birmingham in the Burdur, Antalya and Denizli regions – also located in the southwestern part of Turkey – have yielded black-on-red pottery possibly of local Anatolian production (Mellaart 1955: 119-21; Birmingham 1964). There are various other sites where there is evidence of this ware: – Propontis (Daskyleion inv. nos. 1295, 1302, 1355), – Aiolis (Mytilene: Schaus 1992: 154 (n. 9)), – Ionia (Smyrna: Mellaart 1955: 119, 122. Ephesus: Hogarth 1908: 223-4 (figs. 49-50); Brein 1978: 726-8, pls. 224-6 (nos. 18-23); Bammer 1984: 199 (fig. 102, pictures on the upper right and lower left); AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 361 Gasser 1992: 190-1; Kerschner 2005: 136, pl. 10.3-4; 2006: 284 (fig. 6); 2008a: 130; 2008b: 227, 232 (fig. 195.a)), – Caria (Aphrodisias: Erim 1992: 21 (fig. 19); Mierse 1986: 419-21), – Lycia (Xanthos and modern Ka≥ and Pınara: Mellaart 1955: 119; Metzger 1972: 59-60, 64-6, pl. 20.82-4, pl. 21.85-92)), – Pamphylia (Aspendos: Mellaart 1955: 122 (fig. 31)), – Psidia (Burdur: Dörtlük 1977: 9-15), – Central and eastern Phrygia (Gordion: Körte and Körte 1904: 178 (fig. 160), 179 (fig. 161); Mellink 1954: 168; Young 1956: 263, pl. 94.48; 1966: 273, pl. 74.14; 1968: 239-40, pl. 76; Sams 1979: 13; Young 1981: 34-7, 47; Schaus 1992: 152-68 (nos. 1-43). Midas City: Haspels 1951: 35-7, pl. 9.a-c. Bogazköy: Bossert 1963: 62-5 (figs. 8-11, nos. 13-9). Konya Plain: Mellink 1954: 168; Mellaart 1955: 116, 118 (n. 15); Alp 1979: 538, pl. 329b; Tigrel 1979: 560-1, pls. 330e.7-8, 330f.9-10; Summers 1992: 193, 197 (fig. 7.1-8), 199 (fig. 8.3-4); Zoroglu 1994: 150; Bahar 1999. Pazarlı: Mellink 1954: 168; Mellaart 1955: 118 (n. 14). Can Hasan: French 1964: 27. Göllüdag: Mellink 1970: 167). Due to its very limited publication there is insufficient information on Anatolian black-on-red ware. Unfortunately, no extensive study has been carried out concerning the definitions of imported black-on-red pottery or their local regional variations and characterizations. The same is true for the origins and chronology of black-on-red ware in the eastern Aegean and Anatolia. Although no comprehensive clay analysis has been done – except for a couple of minor analyses of neutron activation and petrographic definitions – the study of Lydian black-on-red ware here is mainly based on visual aspects of the homogeneity of fabric and paint. Previous study of Lydian pottery has determined that there must have been more than one provincial production centre that manufactured pottery in the Lydian character (Gürtekin-Demir 2007: 47-77), and this suggestion was supported by the clay analyses carried out on the Lydian pottery found at Daskyleion.3 The aim of this paper is to present 3 Neutron Activation Analyses, carried out by M.J. Hughes, on a group of local ware from Sardis, including bichrome, black-on-red, streaked, marbled and monochrome wares, were interpreted as indicating the same area of production (Greenewalt et al. 1997: 128-9); more recent Neutron Activation Analyses on the relevant pottery from Sardis and Daskyleion reveals two subgroups of local Sardian products and four provenance groups at Daskyleion (DasA, DasB, DasC, and DasD). H. Mommsen, M. Kerschner, C.H. Greenewalt, Jr., N.D. Cahill and the author will jointly publish the results concerning the archaeometric analyses of the Lydian pottery from Sardis and Daskyleion. 362 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR an introductory commentary on the general characteristic features that define Lydian black-on-red pottery. It concentrates on the Lydian pottery found in the Lydian capital, Sardis, and its immediate environs. Lydian black-on-red pottery4 The black-on-red pottery at Sardis was discovered mainly in the residential and commercial areas of the city, and was used as daily utensils rather than as luxury vessels or as grave goods. The clay of local Lydian pottery discovered at Sardis is soft, micaceous and orange-red in color. This fabric is apparently observed in the majority of the local Sardian pottery especially during and after the period of the Lydian Kingdom. The decoration is applied as a dark matt glaze on a bright red slip and occasionally on well-burnished red clay. Infrequently, a white coated narrow band is applied to embellish some of the black-on-red ware vessels dated to the 7th century BC (e.g. Gürtekin 1998: pls. 1.11, 5.11 (white coated narrow band on the interior, black-on-red on the exterior)). A similar concept is also observed on black-on-red pottery from Tarsus (Goldman 1963: 171 (fig. 58.115), 242 (fig. 134.1028)), Burdur (Dörtlük 1977: 21 (figs. 20-1)), Midas City (Haspels 1951: 37 (Type 3)) and Gordion (Schaus 1992: 166-8 (nos. 40-3)). The use of black, red and white colors may call to mind the color combinations of the popular Lydian painting techniques such as Ephesian ware, Ephesianizing ware and Lydian Bichrome. However, among these painting conventions there are diverse executions of decoration schemes, decorative elements and preferences for using these colors on different areas of decoration (Greenewalt 1973 (Ephesian ware); Gürtekin 1998: 109-64 (Bichrome ware); Gürtekin-Demir 2002: 114 (Ephesian ware), 115-9 (Ephesianizing ware), 119-22 (Bichrome ware)). Two distinct types may be identified in terms of the aspects of the patterns and their rendering on the pottery: geometric black-on-red and linear black-on-red. These two varieties may also be named early type (geometric black-on-red) and late type (linear black-on-red) due to their chronological occurrences. The terms ‘geometric’ and ‘linear’ point to the types of decorative elements and not to chronological phases. Unlike 4 Lydian black-on-red pottery was partially studied by the author in her PhD Dissertation, which focused on the foreign influences on Lydian pottery (written in Turkish). The general features of the pottery presented here are derived from her PhD Dissertation (Gürtekin 1998: 22-108). AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 363 the black-on-red pottery attested at the Eastern Mediterranean sites, floral or figural elements are never typical on Lydian black-on-red pottery5 or at other sites in Anatolia, except for a few examples discovered at Burdur, Gordion, and Ephesus.6 Geometric / early black-on-red pottery (Figs. 1, 3, 4) The patterns in geometric/early black-on-red are painted with thicker brushes in accordance with the spacious bands. The most common patterns are rows of pendant concentric semi-circles, latticed squares and double axes. Other popular patterns include circles, concentric circles, hatched or cross-hatched geometric patterns, checkerboards, and groups of parallel vertical or horizontal wavy lines (Fig. 1). Geometric black-onred decoration is applied to a variety of shapes, such as fruit stands, cups, bowls, kraters and dinos with a high stand, one-handled jugs, lekythos and pitchers. Most of the Lydian geometric black-on-red vessels found are from Sardis, while a couple of examples belonging to kraters and a fruit stand were collected by R. Meriç during his survey research in the 1980s at Özbektepe, Ala≥ehir and Akçapınar in the neighborhood of Sardis (Gürtekin-Demir forthcoming). Now there is new evidence from Tavas in Denizli, located outside the territory of Lydia and this may suggest a possible Lydian interaction in the region of Caria (the relevant pottery is under study by the author). A. Ramage, in his study on the re-evaluation of the stratigraphical information achieved from sector ‘House of Bronzes’ at Sardis, suggests that ‘by the beginning of the 9th century black-on-red had become the standard painted pottery of Iron Age Lydia’ and that the style continued to flourish in the later phases (Ramage 1994a: 164, 170, pl. 14.4.2). The earliest examples of Lydian black-on-red include trefoil pitchers that are frequently decorated with checkerboards, cross-hatched triangles, and zigzags (Ramage 1994a: 170, pl. 14.4.2; Gürtekin 1998: pl. 13.45-6. Examples are also attested at sector ‘Byzantine Fortress’, Trench 11, Basket 48; at sector ‘Pactolus Cliff’, in diagonal cut, zone 3, *88.00-87.50). 5 An exception may be a terracotta anthropomorphic protome attached between the handle and rim of a pitcher, Sardis inv. no. P63.219:5282 excavated at the ‘House of Bronzes’, now in Manisa Museum, inv. no: 4358. 6 The neck of a black-on-red oinochoe discovered in a tomb at Burdur is decorated with heraldic animals in eastern Greek Wild Goat Style: Dörtlük 1977: 21, pls. 20-1; Çokay-Kepçe 2009. See also Brein 1978: pl. 226.22 (Ephesus) and Schaus 1992: pl. 35.3.24 (Gordion) for floral ornaments used on black-on-red ware. 364 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR Fig. 1: Common decorative elements of Lydian geometric/early black-on-red. Fig. 2: Common decorative elements of Lydian linear/late black-on-red. AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 365 These patterns are universally rendered in various cultures and may be attested in Protogeometric levels at the Greek sites (e.g. Desborough 1952: 74-5, pl. 9.2086; Popham et al. 1979: pls. 137.3, 271.b; Andriomenou 1960: pl. 132; Coldstream 1968: pl. 58.b-c), as well as in some Anatolian centers (e.g. Mellaart 1955: pl. 8.111; Metzger 1972: pl. 23.96; Sams 1994: pls. 59-60.638-9, 80.751, 122.923, 140.972, 161.168). This may be the result of a common sharing of decorative elements observed by the Anatolian potters and applied in a local manner rather than pointing out a direct relationship between Greek and Anatolian centers. A successive level at the ‘House of Bronzes’, which marks the end of the Early Iron Age, ends with a fire that was previously associated with the Cimmerian attack of the 650s BC (Hanfmann 1966: 8-18; 1967: 31-7; Hanfmann and Waldbaum 1970: 28-9; Hanfmann and Mierse 1983: 26), but has now been reassessed by Ramage, who attributes it to a different destruction that ended in a fire dating to about 725 BC (Ramage 1994a: 164. His work on The Final Report on the House of Bronzes: Lydian Trench is in progress). The black-on-red pottery from this destruction level contains fruit stands and kraters (Fig. 4), a globular pitcher and a round-mouthed jug (Hanfmann and Mierse 1983: figs. 36-7; Gürtekin 1998: 42, 100 (no. 4), 104 (no. 31), 106 (no. 41) and 108 (no. 53)). Early Lydian painted pottery from sector ‘Pactolus Cliff’ has strong correlations with that discovered at the ‘House of Bronzes’. Geometric black-on-red pottery dating to the 8th century BC from ‘Pactolus Cliff’ Lydian Level III includes fruit stands and one-handled jugs decorated with pendant concentric semicircles (Hanfmann 1961: 23; Gürtekin 1998: 42, 100 (no. 3), 106 (no. 40). Also see Ramage 1994b for an overview of the pottery found at Pactolus Cliff). The majority of the rare datable contexts for geometric/early black-on-red from Sardis gives a 7th century BC date.7 Geometric/early black-on-red is not apparent in the levels dating to the 6th century BC, since the style was superceded by a 7 A jar fragment, decorated with pendant concentric semicircles and with several rows of latticed squares was found together with a Protocorinthian linear kotyle in Lydian Level II at ‘Pactolus Cliff’ (Hanfmann and Mierse 1983: 41; Gürtekin 1998: 43, pl. 16.52); local pottery including geometric black-on-red pottery was discovered in mid- or late 7th century BC contexts at the Byzantine Fortress (Greenewalt et al. 1993: 29; 1994: 26-7. Stratigraphical information taken from C. Ratté, Byzantine Fortress Trenches 11&12 reports and fieldbooks, 1991) and at sector MMS/S together with a late Protocorinthian aryballos (stratigraphical information taken from T. Asena, Trench MMS/S fieldbooks and reports, 2001: Lot 392, Baskets 12-4, (Protocorinthian aryballos inv. no: P01.004: 11205)) and also at sector MMS I in a stratum (Lot 135, Basket 34) presumably dating to the 7th century BC (stratigraphical information taken from N.D. Cahill, MMS I fieldbooks and reports, 2000). 366 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR new understanding of black-on-red (linear/late black-on-red) from about the late 7th century BC and onwards. A few examples of round-mouthed jugs with a single vertical handle (Gürtekin 1998: 32-3, 105-6 (nos. 37-41)) seem to be inspired by their Phrygian parallels. K. Sams argues that the origin of the shape may be observed in Macedonia rather than in mainland Greece as the late E. Akurgal suggested in 1955 (Sams 1994: 53; Akurgal 1955: 42-3). In addition to this Phrygian shape, the other shapes attested for Lydian black-on-red pottery, as well as for Lydian pottery in general, are predominantly Greek. The fruit stand seems to be the most common shape of the geometric black-on-red ware. The fruit stands are often painted with rows of adjacent pendant concentric semicircles, rows of solid painted double-axe patterns, rows of latticed squares or hatched rectangles placed on the rim plate and/or below the rim on the interior (Fig. 3). Another popular shape is a krater with a high stand. Kraters are discovered in smaller amounts and are generally decorated with hatched or plain painted double axes, or with hatched squares or rectangles below the rim, and are more elaborately decorated on the stand (Fig. 4) (Gürtekin 1998: pls. 9.26-8, 10.29-33). The shape of high-stand kraters was popular during the Attic Middle Geometric Period; these vases were exported and locally produced at other sites (Coldstream 1968: 269). Parallels to the shape are discovered at Thessaly, Euboia, Boeotia, Rhodes, Samos, Chios and at Smyrna, for example (Coldstream 1968: 161, pl. 33.f-g (Thessaly) and pls. 3.1, 4.a, 5.g, 15.j (Boeotia); Bucher 1964: 267-8 (figs. 2.b-c) (Euboia); Johansen 1958: 102-14 (Rhodes); Technau 1929: 13 and Eilmann 1933 (Samos); Boardman 1952: 105-13 (fig. 68) (Chios); Özgünel 1979: 286a (Smyrna)). The continuity of the production of kraters with high stands is observed within the late Geometric and Subgeometric Periods in some other Greek centers after the decline of its popularity on the mainland. The Lydian potters may have seen the shape at Sardis among the exported pottery from Rhodes in the second half of the 8th century BC (see Ramage 1994a: 166, pl. 14.1.2 for a Rhodian krater with a high stand from Sardis) or from other eastern Greek centers that produced late Geometric pottery. Another blend of Greek influence can be seen in compass-drawn pendant concentric semicircles that were very popular on Lydian painted pottery, especially on the geometric black-on-red vessels (Figs. 1, 3). This pattern was never that popular in other Anatolian pottery centers. The earliest traces of this decorative pattern are observed on Attic Protogeometric pottery; it then became more popular in the Greek islands and AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 367 Fig. 3: Lydian geometric/early black-on-red fruitstand from sector House of Bronzes at Sardis (Inv. no: P64.354: 6469). Fig. 4: Lydian geometric/early black-on-red krater stand fragment from sector House of Bronzes at Sardis (Inv. no: P66.66: 7081). 368 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Subprotogeometric Period in the 9th and 8th centuries BC, following the fall of the Protogeometric tradition in mainland Greece (Popham et al. 1979: 27-56; see also Robertson 1940: 2-4 (fig. 1.a-k); Desborough 1952: pls. 25.C, 26; Goldman 1963: 305-7; Coldstream 1985: 325-6, pl. 23.3-4; Andriomenou 1986: 101-6). It was most popular on the skyphoi attested at Euboia, Skyros, Thessaly, the northern Cyclades, and in the Eastern Mediterranean (Desborough 1952: 180-4; Coldstream 1968: 151-7, 310-3; Popham et al. 1979: 28-9, 32, 37-8, 42-3, 297-300). The number of semicircles painted on the Lydian black-on-red vessels is generally no more than four or five and they are placed on plate rims and/or on bands placed below rim level, whereas the Greek versions contain about 10 to 15 semicircles, which occupy an area from rim level to about mid-body. This pattern may have come to Lydia during the late 8th century BC via trade with the Greek islands or the eastern Greek centers in Asia Minor. However, the execution of the design reflects local adaptation to suit the taste of the Lydians. Other rare Anatolian versions of this decorative element in various painting techniques, found in Ma≥at Höyük (Özgüç 1982: fig. H.21), southwestern Anatolia (Birmingham 1964: 31), Porsuk (Dupré 1983: pls. 62.24, 65.57-8, 65-6, 68, 69.8) and at the former Hittite capital, Bogazköy (Seeher 1995: 616, 619 (fig. 23.f)), seem experimental and are coarser, freehand drawn, and are far from comparable. Some of the geometric patterns on the Lydian early black-on-red vessels, along with various shapes, provide a glimpse of Greek foreign influences in Lydia during the late 8th and the 7th centuries BC. The Greek decorative elements that contributed to the formulation of Lydian early black-on-red appear to have been mainly restricted to some geometric patterns; the application of patterns and the decoration scheme remain local. Moreover, the technique of black-on-red may have arrived in Lydia as a common sharing of Anatolian trends in the 8th and the 7th centuries BC, like the bichrome painting. Linear / late black-on-red pottery (Figs. 2, 5, 6) Lydian linear/late black-on-red pottery is mainly distinguished by the use of thin brushes and a preference for linear patterns, such as dog-teeth, ladders, meanders, and square bars within narrow bands subordinated by concentric narrow bands reminiscent of the Cypriot and Cilician blackon-red decorations (Fig. 2). Some of the vessels of this type, especially ring-based bowls and fruit stands, are decorated with concentric lines on AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 369 the interior only and with plain painted thick bands below the rim on the exterior. The use of a matt purplish black and a darker red color also differs from color tones on the early black-on-red ware. Fruit stands and shallow bowls are by far the most common shapes, while other Greek shapes such as phiale, skyphos, mugs, dinos, oinokhoe, and column kraters, as well as Phrygian shapes such as the one-handled jugs and sieve-spouted jugs were also used. Linear black-on-red dish fragments of Sardian fabric are also attested at Daskyleion and Gordion (a single dish fragment from Daskyleion was excavated in 2003. A dish fragment from Gordion was excavated in City Mound, S-Cuts A I-II (Inv. no. 12137 P5348)). Evidence for dating linear/late black-on-red ware at Sardis comes from levels associated with the ‘Persian Destruction’, which occurred in the mid-6th century BC (Greenewalt et al. 1985: 76, 78; 1987: 68-70; 1990: 143-54; Greenewalt 1990: 10-6) and from ‘Puppy Burial’ contexts discovered at the sectors ‘House of Bronzes’ and ‘Pactolus Cliff’ (Greenewalt 1978). Black-on-red vessels found at the Persian Destruction level in particular consist of shallow bowls or fruit stands that are moderately decorated with groups of concentric narrow lines. A thicker line on the upper and the lower part frames these concentric lines (Greenewalt 1990: 15-7; Greenewalt et al. 1990: 146-53; Gürtekin 1998: 44, pl. 5.12. For similar dishes from elsewhere at Sardis see also Greenewalt et al. 1987: 28 (fig. 12); 1994: 31 (figs. 35-6) (discovered at Karnıyarık Tepe in Bin Tepe, a royal cemetery of tumuli near Sardis) and Gürtekin 1998: pl. 6.14). Other shapes from the Persian Destruction level include an oinochoe with a globular and slightly compressed body (Fig. 6) (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 10.48, 157 (fig. 14.48). For a close local parallel from Sardis see Hanfmann and Waldbaum (1970: 36, fig. 26; 1975: fig. 308), similar to the Late Corinthian ‘Globular Oinoche’ of the 6th century BC (e.g. see Payne 1931: 337; Hopper 1949: 236; Payne et al. 1962: 210; Blegen et al. 1964: 110-2). Some of the pottery assemblages unearthed in ‘Puppy Burial’ contexts involve black-on-red shallow dishes or fruit stands and trefoil oinochoai (Greenewalt 1978: 17, e.g. see pls. 19.2, 21.2). The burial contexts are dated between 575 and 525 BC by Greenewalt (1978: 28). The linear patterns within narrow horizontal bands (Figs. 2, 5) have parallels in the eastern Greek Orientalizing Styles (e.g. Wild Goat Style and Fikellura) as well as in the local Sardian Wild Goat Style, Ephesian and Ephesianizing wares (for parallel examples see Gürtekin 1998: 73-4). These patterns also feature on other contemporary provincial black-on-red 370 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR Fig. 5: Lydian linear/late black-on-red dish fragment from sector House of Bronzes at Sardis (excavated in 1963, no inventory number). Fig. 6: Lydian linear/late black-on-red oinochoe from sector MMS I at Sardis (Inv. no. P95.38: 10252). AN EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PAINTING CONVENTION 371 pottery found in Phrygia, Pisidia, and Ionia.8 The majority of the sites where we can trace parallels to Lydian linear/late black-on-red pottery are in the neighborhood of Lydia, and were under Lydian control during the first half of the 6th century BC. Lydian control over the larger part of the lands to the west of the Halys River during the reigns of Alyattes and of Croisus is also indicated by literary sources (Herodotus, Histories I, 6, 72). Furthermore, the linear patterns within the narrow bands imply a common sharing of decorative elements in a similar manner in Anatolian black-on-red ware of the 6th century BC. The Lydians may have played an intermediary role in the distribution of these patterns to their eastern neighbor Phrygia, including its eastern plateau through earlier Hittite lands with its capital at Bogazköy and to southwestern Asia Minor including the Konya Plain and Psidia. Despite the lack of comprehensively published material of black-onred pottery from excavations in Anatolia, enough material has been published to at least observe and trace the general characteristics of the related pottery group. Groups of spiral bands seem to be universally accepted by various Anatolian production centers that manufactured black-on-red pottery in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. This pattern should have been applied with a multi-ended brush, occasionally having thicker brushes that frame the upper and the lower borders of the spiral bands. The earliest traces of this pattern in Anatolia are observed on the CyproCilician black-on-red ware attested in Cilicia. The common aspects observed both on the Lydian and other Anatolian black-on-red pottery groups of the later 7th and 6th centuries BC are the linear ornaments within narrow bands and spiral bands, a preference for small or mediumsized containers, and the use of matt manganese glaze on a bright red slip. This stylistic similarity indicates the existence of a ceramic koine in the Anatolian Iron Age, and it is clear that all shared a Cypro-Cilician influence in terms of the preference for spiral bands. On the other hand, it is possible to suggest that the Cypro-Cilician aspects of Lydian linear black-on-red ware should have arrived via Anatolian neighbors since there 8 The ladder pattern is attested on imported black-on-red ware at Gordion (Schaus 1992: 160 (fig. 2.19) and Bogazköy (Bossert 1963: 63 (fig. 9.15), as well as at Midas City (Haspels 1951: pls. 9.b.7, 39.2), Acı Göl (Mellaart 1955: pl. 3.41), Ferezli Höyük (Mellaart 1955: pl. 3.46) and at Ephesus (Brein 1978: pl. 224); the dotted square bars are seen at Mancarlı (Mellaart 1955: pl. 4.62) and Gordion (Schaus 1992: pl. 35.26); the dog-tooth pattern is attested at Midas City (Haspels 1951: pl. 39.2), Konya Plain (Tigrel 1979: 330 (figs. 9-10)) and Ephesus (Brein 1978: pl. 225.20) and the false meander at Bogazköy (Bossert 1963: 63 (fig. 9.15-6)), Midas City (Haspels 1951: pl. 39.2), Gordion (Mellaart 1955: pl. 6.74) and Ephesus (Brein 1978: pls. 224.18, 225.19 and Hogarth 1908: 223 (fig. 49)). 372 R.G. GÜRTEKIN-DEMIR is no sufficient archaeological or historical evidence to suggest a direct relationship with the Cilicians. Conclusion Archaeological data on local painted pottery, as well as other Lydian material culture at Sardis, seem to increase within the rule of the Mermnad Dynasty between the first king, Gyges (c. 680-645 BC), and the last, Croisus (c. 560-547 BC). Earlier evidence of painted pottery is restricted to a limited number of black-on-red and bichrome painting conventions. In the early stages of Lydian black-on-red production, the pottery bears mostly geometric patterns reminiscent of the Greek Protogeometric and Geometric pattern repertory, but with a different decoration scheme, while the shapes seem to be adapted from Greek (such as the krater and dinos with high stand) and, to a lesser degree, from Phrygian neighbors (such as the round-mouthed jug). Presumably from about the late 7th century BC to the second half of the 6th century BC a new conception of black-on-red ware became popular. This pottery is decorated with linear patterns in narrow bands that are also occasionally observed on eastern Greek vessels. On the other hand, the horizontal spiral bands bring to mind the ware’s Cypro-Phoenician and Cypro-Cilician counterparts. The Lydian region owed its geographical significance not only to its fertile lands but also to its intermediary position between eastern Greek neighbors in the west and Phrygian neighbors in the east. These two routes also acted as agents for the goods coming from the mainland and the Greek islands in the west, as well as from the Near Eastern cultures in the east. Lydian black-on-red pottery bears more affinities with the east compared to the influences arriving from the Greek centers in the west. Acknowledgements I am grateful to C.H. 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