PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
Introduction
Exploring European Sporting Identities:
History, heory, Methodology
In his groundbreaking investigation of the emergence of the world sports
system, Global Games (2001), the Dutch historian and sociologist Maarten
Van Bottenburg charted the evolution of modern sport from its origins in
locally varied pastimes to the international standardization that renders
possible today’s mega-competitions, such as the football World Cup and
the Olympic Games. he point of departure for this sports-based transformation of the world was Europe, which was primarily responsible for the
development, codiication and then exportation of these new corporeal
practices, simultaneously transforming itself and its inhabitants. As Van
Bottenburg notes:
In European societies everyday life was conducted at the local or regional level well
into the nineteenth century. […]
In the latter half of the nineteenth century geographical and social relations were
quickly transformed, partly through the advent of new transportation and communications networks. […] All this had the ef fect of bridging cultural dif ferences.
Variations between regional costumes became blurred, standard languages came
to predominate over dialects, national feast days demoted local festivities to the
status of folklore, and nationally standardized sports became more important than
local recreational activities. Without these processes of integration and increases in
scale it would have been impossible for sportsmen and sportswomen from dif ferent
regions (let alone countries) to compete with any regularity or for competitions to be
organized and coordinated with set rules at the national and eventually international level.1
1
M. Van Bottenburg, Global Games (trans. B. Jackson; Urbana, IL: University of
Illinois Press, 2001), pp.3–4.
2
PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
hus regarded, the development of modern sport may legitimately be considered as a precursor of the processes of administrative integration and,
within important limits, cultural homogenization that characterized the
project of European construction in the wake of the Second World War,
and which has been signiicantly extended since the fall of the Berlin Wall
in 1989 and the inal collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Yet, paradoxically, a central theme of the present volume is the remarkable extent to
which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even
to predominate, in European sport, where they show no sign of ceasing to
elicit meanings for individuals and communities which our contributors
reveal to be both historically determined and contextually speciic.
he point of departure for this survey of ‘the state of play’ in European sport is the sheer scale and ubiquity of this characteristically social
(both associative and societal) phenomenon. For sport annually mobilizes millions of people across Europe: as practitioners in a wide variety
of competitive, educational, recreational and, increasingly, health-related
contexts; and as spectators, whether physically present or, more typically,
following events via the mass media. In so doing, sporting practices and
representations contribute signiicantly to the social construction of identities, through the elaboration of discourses and networks of power relations that, together, both shape and serve to legitimize highly distinctive
processes of socialization. hese mechanisms may be regarded negatively,
for instance, by Marxist, Foucauldian and feminist critics respectively, as
alienating, disciplinary and/or patriarchal.2 hey may also be interpreted
more positively, as permitting self-expression and even self-actualization of
various kinds, in a tradition of linking the playing of games to the education of the young that stretches at least as far back as the Roman concept
of mens sana in corpore sano (a healthy mind in a healthy body). However,
perhaps most persuasively, sport may be understood as combining both
positive and negative features, depending on the speciic situations in which
it is practised, watched, listened to, read about or otherwise consumed,
and thus on the variety of individual and collective experiences to which
2
P. Markula and R. Pringle, Foucault, Sport and Exercise: Power, Knowledge and
Transforming the Self (London: Routledge, 2006), pp.98–103.
Introduction
3
it may give rise. his is the consciously broad approach that underpins this
collaborative investigation of sporting Europe and Europeans.
he inherent tensions and even contradictions of modern sport, and
particularly its complex existence as a site of both personal liberation and
institutional control, are necessarily an integral part of the case studies that
follow. Whether the focus is on such conventionally negative manifestations of sport’s social resonance as its use as an instrument of totalitarian
rule in Fascist Italy (investigated by Paul Dietschy in Chapter 5), or on
such apparently positive incarnations as the return of the Olympic Games
to their ancient homeland on the occasion of the Athens 2004 Olympiad
(discussed by Eleni heodoraki in Chapter 3), the frequently paradoxical
impacts of modern games come regularly to the fore. Moreover, as Patrick
Mignon reminds us, in a putatively postmodern age of globalization and
instant digital communication, the new individual and collective identities
made – and unmade – by ephemeral sporting events require, if anything,
an even greater focus on complexity and ambiguity.3
he essays collected here put forward original research into sport
in modern and contemporary Europe, with their common aim being to
examine its distinctive contribution to the construction of identities. To
this end, they focus scholarly attention on sport’s social signiicance, as a
set of mass-mediated practices and spectacles giving rise to a complex network of images, symbols and discourses. he individual chapters and the
work as a whole seek to explore, and ultimately to explain, the processes
of representation and mediation involved in the sporting construction,
and subsequent renegotiation, of local, national and, increasingly, global
identities. Our study thus of fers a survey of key developments in sporting Europe – from the mid-nineteenth century to the present, and from
the Atlantic to the Urals – presenting indings by acknowledged international experts and emerging scholars at the level of individuals, communities, regions, nations and Europe as a whole, both in its geographical and
political incarnations. he work’s focus on representation of fers a broadly
conceived, and consciously inclusive, approach to issues of ‘European-ness’
in modern and contemporary sport.
3
P. Mignon, ‘Le football investi par les capitaux’, Esprit, January 1999, pp.121–33; see
especially pp.132–3.
4
PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
he present collaborative study is thus intended to contribute to the
ongoing elucidation of the role of sport in the processes of identity construction in contemporary societies. Since the pioneering work of Eric
Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger on ‘the invention of tradition’ (1983), and
Benedict Anderson on ‘imagined communities’ (1983),4 modern games
have regularly been identiied as a core component in the construction of
Europeans’ individual and communal senses of self, particularly at the level
of the modern nation-state. Our volume seeks to build on these still solid
conceptual foundations, as well as on more recent and more speciically
targeted work in this area, such as the important edited volumes by Jeremy
MacClancy (Sport, Identity and Ethnicity, 1996), and by Adrian Smith
and Dilwyn Porter (the latter a contributor to the present volume) (Sport
and National Identity in the Post-War World, 2004).5 As a result of these
and related interventions in what has become an expanding ield of study,
few academic commentators would today doubt sport’s signiicance as a
mode of individual and communal interaction, and, a fortiori, of cultural
representation. Indeed, a persuasive case can be made for regarding participation, broadly conceived, in mass sporting activities as among the most
important modes of perception, both of ourselves and others, available to
contemporary societies. Since their emergence and codiication in the midnineteenth century, modern sports have exerted a powerful inf luence on
both personal and collective self-images, and have thus impacted extensively
on local and national politics, and even on the international order itself.
At the core of this evolving system of signiication, sport’s distinguishing
input to the imaginative life and the identity politics of modern European
nation-states has been a constant for well over a century.
his book, like the research project on which it is based, is consciously
European in orientation and ambition. However, it is no coincidence that
the funding which allowed the editors to invite sports specialists from
4
5
E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds), he Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983); B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin
and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
J. MacClancy (ed.), Sport, Identity and Ethnicity (Oxford: Berg, 1996); A. Smith
and D. Porter (eds), Sport and National Identity in the Post-War World (London:
Routledge, 2004).
Introduction
5
across the continent to gather and debate their indings should have been
Irish, nor that the venue for their deliberations should have been a small
city on Europe’s Atlantic periphery. For, while Ireland may be located on
the geographical – and even, perhaps, the economic and political – margins of Europe, there can be no doubting the centrality of the Irish case
in any informed analysis of sports-related identity construction. In fact,
the pivotal importance of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in the
development of cultural and political nationalism in Ireland – and in the
subsequent establishment and consolidation of a distinctively Irish state –
can hardly be overstated. Founded in 1884, the GAA celebrated its 125th
anniversary in 2009 and is widely hailed not only as the most important
sports association right across the still politically divided island, but also as
one of its foremost forces of social cohesion (notwithstanding its inevitably
contested position in the ‘Six Counties’ of British-administered Northern
Ireland).6 As a particularly clear exemplar, the case of the GAA stands as a
paradigm of sport’s multifaceted social role, and this at both the national
and local levels, additionally serving to underline the broader value of the
academic study of the history and sociology of modern sport. Again, signiicant contributions in this ield have been made by analysts such as John
Sugden and Alan Bairner (the latter a contributor to the present volume)
in their pioneering Sport, Sectarianism and Society in a Divided Ireland
(1986), as well as in subsequent works, including especially their edited
volume on Sport in Divided Societies (1999).7
While the quintessentially home-grown sphere of Gaelic games will
not be focused on in this European volume, other Irish sporting traditions
do igure here. More speciically, the most global of sports, association
football, is discussed in two of its most intriguing incarnations, north
and south of the still divided island’s political border, by Alan Bairner
6
7
See, among others, M. Cronin, M. Duncan and P. Rouse, he GAA: A People’s History
(Cork: he Collins Press, 2009); M. Cronin, W. Murphy and P. Rouse (eds), he
Gaelic Athletic Association, 1884–2009 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2009); J. Scally,
he GAA: An Oral History (Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2009).
J. Sugden and A. Bairner, Sport, Sectarianism and Society in a Divided Ireland
(Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1986); J. Sugden and A. Bairner (eds), Sport
in Divided Societies (Aachen: Meyer and Meyer, 1999).
6
PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
(in Chapter 10) and Marcus Free (in Chapter 9) respectively. hese Irish
analyses are juxtaposed with case studies taken from the United Kingdom
and across continental Europe to highlight both perceptual and structural
commonalities as well as important situational divergences. he editors’
aim has not been, and clearly cannot be, comprehensiveness in such a
richly diverse area of study. Rather, they have sought to encourage a methodologically coherent and thematically representative eclecticism, so as
to derive the maximum possible beneit from this gathering of specialists
from across Europe and from a broad range of disciplinary backgrounds,
including sports administration, anthropology, art criticism, geography,
history, literature, ilm and media studies, and sociology, as well as having
a variety of practical engagements with the sports under discussion, up
to and including personal involvement in elite competition. he iteen
individual contributions collected here together highlight the magnitude,
diversity and consequent social complexity of modern European sport.
he dual function of contemporary sporting practices, which are typically
experienced as participant activities and/or mass-mediated spectacles, is
ref lected in the attention given by our contributors both to ‘playing the
game’ and to the mechanics of fandom. he closely related issue of the
symbiotic relationship between sport and the media – previously explored
by scholars including Raymond Boyle and Richard Haynes in their coauthored Power Play: Sport, the Media and Popular Culture (2000), Alina
Bernstein and Neil Blain in their edited volume on Sport, Media, Culture: Local and Global Dimensions (2003) and David Rowe in his edited
volume on Critical Readings: Sport, Culture and the Media (2004)8 – is
also, inevitably, an important focus of our own volume, in which attention
is regularly drawn to their mutually dependent economies and systems of
representation.
8
R. Boyle and R. Haynes, Power Play: Sport, the Media and Popular Culture (London:
Longman, 2000); A. Bernstein and N. Blain (eds), Sport, Media, Culture: Local and
Global Dimensions (London: Frank Cass, 2003); D. Rowe (ed.), Critical Readings:
Sport, Culture and the Media (Maidenhead, Open University Press, 2004).
Introduction
7
Sport is undoubtedly a privileged site for studying European modes
of social organization and their associated mindsets. In the inal analysis,
as Fred Inglis explained three decades ago in a pioneering study of modern
games, ‘Sports tell us stories; they make sense of the world’.9 his is at
least as true in the European context as it is in any other. More speciically, sport serves to explain a Europe that is constantly evolving, oten
in apparently bewildering ways, of fering interpretative schemata that are
increasingly mobilized as a result of sport’s exceptionally visible location
at the interface between local, national and global cultures. Inevitably,
issues of governance are raised by sports policy and sports administration
at both national and international levels. Our study consequently includes
an analysis of the role of European sporting bodies such as the Union of
European Football Associations (UEFA), concentrating not only on their
management of key tournaments (such as the European club and nations
cup competitions), but also on their role in the supra-national governance
of European sport. Additionally considered is the impact on traditional,
nationally based management structures of interventions by other key
agencies, such as the European Court of Justice, whose Bosman ruling of
1995 was a landmark in the regulation of the transfer market in professional
football players. Patterns of migration af fecting both elite performers and
broader populations are themselves an important component of evolving
European identities, and thus of the constantly evolving sporting context
with which the present volume seeks to engage.
Part 1 of the volume consequently focuses on the shit from Europeled sporting dif fusion in the nineteenth century to contemporary sports
governance within the European Union, as discussed respectively by Sébastien Darbon and Borja García (Chapters 1 and 2). heir analysis is complemented by that of Eleni heodoraki (Chapter 3), whose reading of
the 2004 Athens Olympics explores the ways in which both the ancient
history and entrepreneurial modernity of Greece were mobilized to maximize the positive impacts for national self-images of this most global of
9
F. Inglis, he Name of the Game: Sport and Society (London: Heinemann, 1977),
p.71.
8
PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
sporting mega-events. Later in the volume, Gyozo Molnar investigates
the concrete impact on individual identities of the increasing mobility of
elite sports players, focusing on the under-researched topic of Central and
Eastern European professionals, represented here by Hungarian footballers (Chapter 11).
he following section of the book concentrates the contributors’
attention on the national level, still arguably the most dynamic sphere of
sporting investments, both moral and material, notwithstanding the much
anticipated withering away of the nation-state in the era of globalization.
All three of the constituent chapters in Part 2 thus underline sport’s signiicance as a remarkably rich ield of nation-based representations, exploring its impact on both the ‘high’ and ‘popular’ cultures of Europe, from
the ine arts, through print and audio-visual media, to the contemporary
communications and information industries. he national sporting narratives explored here range from Jef frey Hill’s analysis of the class-bound
Englishness of the ‘Tough of the Track’ comic series (Chapter 4), through
Paul Dietschy’s survey of the Italian sporting press under Fascism (Chapter
5), to the mediation of Spanish social values in the sports ilms discussed
by Álvaro Rodríguez Díaz (Chapter 6).
As Richard King and David Leonard comment, in the introduction
to their edited volume on Visual Economies of/in Motion: Sport and Film
(2006), the representational economies of sport serve ‘to simultaneously
fashion magical spaces and to unfold metaphors for the social’.10 In terms
of cinematic representations, the ‘sports ilm’ has become one of commercial cinema’s most recognizable products. While Hollywood has largely
deined and popularized the form since at least Harold Lloyd’s he Freshman (Fred C. Newmeyer and Sam Taylor, 1925), through classics such as
Rocky ( John G. Avildsen, 1976) and Raging Bull (Martin Scorsese, 1980),
and the more recent Oscar winner Million Dollar Baby (Clint Eastwood,
2004), there have also been important European contributions to the
genre. Moreover, while sport has played a crucial role in the articulation of
10
C. R. King and D. J. Leonard (eds), Visual Economies of/in Motion: Sport and Film
(New York: Peter Lang, 2006), p.3.
Introduction
9
local, regional and, particularly, national identities, this role has similarly
been identiied by scholars with regard to cinema, with Susan Hayward
noting that ‘ilm functions as a cultural articulation of a nation’.11 European sports ilms have included work from Britain (he Loneliness of the
Long Distance Runner, Tony Richardson, 1962; his Sporting Life, Lindsay
Anderson, 1963; Chariots of Fire, Hugh Hudson, 1981); Norway (Flåklypa
Grand Prix [Pinchclif fe Grand Prix], Ivo Caprino, 1975); Germany (Die
Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter [he Goalkeeper’s Fear of the Penalty],
Wim Wenders, 1972; Das Wunder von Bern [he Miracle of Bern], Sönke
Wortmann, 2003); France (Les Triplettes de Belleville [Belleville RendezVous], Sylvain Chomet, 2003); and Ireland (he Boxer, Jim Sheridan, 1997),
as well as the many Spanish examples Rodríguez Díaz discusses. Indeed, as
King and Leonard further contend, ‘sport cinema matters because sport
matters and because popular culture matters in the creation, construction,
dissemination, and articulation of dominant tropes and discourses of race,
gender, class, sexuality and nation’.12
Located at the interface of the individual and the social, such sporting
representations of fer valuable insights into the creation and circulation of
identities, particularly as regards their articulation with collective memory.
Part 3 of the volume foregrounds such magical spaces and such social metaphors, especially as illuminated by the creative application of feminist
critical paradigms to the analysis of conventionally gendered masculinity,
the constitutive ambivalence of which is again very much in evidence. his
is variously revealed by the relevant chapters: in the hyper-masculinity of
boxing, as read both textually and visually by David Scott (Chapter 7); in
the consciously ironic suring culture of Mediterranean France, as explored
by Cathal Kilcline (Chapter 8); and in the confected Ireland and Irish-ness
communicated by the Irish media through its conf licting representations
of the former Manchester United football star Roy Keane, as decoded by
Marcus Free (Chapter 9).
11
12
Susan Hayward, French National Cinema (London: Routledge, 1993), p.x.
King and Leonard, Visual Economies of/in Motion, p.237.
10
PHILIP DINE AND SEÁN CROSSON
Contested and reinvented identities remain to the fore in Part 4 of
the volume, with the initial focus being on the oten traumatic complexities of Northern Ireland’s historical, political and cultural status as both a
part of the island of Ireland and a ‘province’ of the United Kingdom. A
recognized specialist in the area, Alan Bairner delves into the individual
negotiations and representational ambiguities resulting from the selection of Catholic players for Northern Ireland’s (Protestant and Unionist
dominated) association football team (Chapter 10). he very dif ferent
engagements with personal and cultural displacements experienced by
elite Hungarian footballers playing in the professional leagues of Western
Europe are then explored by Gyozo Molnar (Chapter 11). In contrast, in his
own study of another contested Celtic identity, that of Cornwall, Dilwyn
Porter reveals that objectively insigniicant sporting competitions (such
as English rugby union’s traditional county championship, a competition
ef fectively superseded by professionalism and its media-dependent league
and cup tournaments) may actually be reinvested and even reinvented, albeit
temporarily, by self-conscious and media-aware supporters, as a means of
af irming cultural continuity and, indeed, political will (Chapter 12).
In the inal section of the book, which focuses on the new sporting
Europe, our contributors examine the changes which have occurred in two
of the continent’s sports superpowers, under the combined impacts of the
political, economic and social restructuring that has taken place in Central
and Eastern Europe since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the
Soviet Union. Two acknowledged experts in the ield, and long-time pioneers of European sports history, Arnd Krüger and James Riordan, ref lect
here on developments since 1989, providing fresh insights into sport and
identity in Germany since reuniication (Chapter 13), and into sport and
politics in Russia and the former Soviet Union (Chapter 14). Finally (in
Chapter 15), John Bale, the respected sports geographer and cultural historian, brings the volume back to the issues of dif fusion and representation
raised by Sébastien Darbon in Chapter 1, drawing attention to Europe and
its Others, speciically as regards Europeans writing (about) the African
Olympian, of this and earlier generations.
By investigating a selection of particularly signiicant practices, locations and representations, the work as a whole seeks to assess the contribution of modern sports, both as participatory activities and sporting
Introduction
11
spectacles, to the ongoing construction of identities. It explores both ‘traditional’ identities (conceived as unitary and ixed) and the emergence of
eclectic and unstable forms of identiication. he study consequently draws
on familiar sociological paradigms (such as age, class, gender and ethnicity),
but also seeks to foreground processes of negotiation and reinvention, and
the consequent emergence of various forms of hybridization in the sporting and broader public spheres. his includes particularly the emergence
of multicultural and trans-national identities in sport and closely related
issues of citizenship, empowerment and social inclusion. While sporting
practices, locations and representations are prominent concerns throughout
the work, individual chapters focus on the moral and material investment
made by European citizens, and very oten European states, in targeted
events, institutions and igures.
his last point highlights the signiicance both of intra-European and
extra-European sports exchanges and inf luences, as regards both individual
practitioners and communities with a shared sporting identity, as well as
competitive models imported from outside Europe and most obviously
from the United States of America. Examples of such patterns analysed
in this volume include the elite Hungarian footballers studied by Gyozo
Molnar (in Chapter 11), the case study of Greek national readings of the
supposedly universal symbolism of the Olympics at the 2004 Athens Games
presented by Eleni heodoraki (in Chapter 3) and David Scott’s semiotic
approach to European intellectual and artistic engagements with American constructions of masculinity in and through boxing (in Chapter 7).
he last of these contributions is particularly suggestive of the attention to
issues of representation that informs the present volume, as well as being
exemplary in its broadly conceived, inherently interdisciplinary and consciously inclusive approach to issues of ‘European-ness’ in modern and
contemporary sport. While the concept of ‘Europe’ itself may be destined
to remain a weak marker of sporting identity in the face of more deeply
entrenched, and periodically re-imagined, local, regional and national
af iliations, there can be no doubting sport’s broader contribution to the
construction of evolving European identities. he goal of this collaborative study is precisely the scholarly elucidation of those identities and their
sports-related interactions.