Bilingualism: language policy in modern Kazakhstan
Tulebike Kulgildinova – Aigul Zhumabekova – Kuralay Shabdenova – Laila
Kuleimenova – Perizat Yelubayeva
DOI: 10.18355/XL.2018.11.01.28
Abstract
The creation of a fair language policy acts as one of the main tasks in multiethnic
society. Sociopolitical realities of Kazakhstan as sovereign state demand new
language policy that would have to meet needs of the multiethnic population of the
country and consider features of a language, demographic and political situation.
Today in Kazakhstan works the Concept of language policy directed to expansion of
the functioning sphere of a state language and defines Russian as the main source of
information and as the mode of communication. The existing model of languages
functional development defined in the Concept also assumes the creation of an
optimum language space of the state, in this connection, an accurate definition of a
functional ratio of languages, at which the state language had to take the worthy place,
is required. The goal gives to Kazakh language function of international
communication language, demands adoption of the new legislation and accurate state
programs of functioning and development of languages. According to the Concept,
interests of the economic, scientific, and technical development of the country define
demand for knowledge and education received in Russian. Preservation of the
functioning sphere of Russian is provided with the aspiration of Kazakhstan to
integration processes, preservation of uniform cultural and educational space with the
CIS countries.
Key words: bilingualism, the state language, minority language, language situation,
the Republic of Kazakhstan
Introduction
The creation of a fair language policy acts as one of the main tasks in multiethnic
society (Appel, Muysken, 2005). The feature of modern language policy is, on the one
hand, the aspiration to keep ethnic language and culture, with another – the necessity
of development of the world for adaptation to new realities of modern society. The
question is about the necessity of further improvement of younger generation
language education in consideration of the integration processes happening in the
Republic of Kazakhstan and the world.
By the standard definition teaching of the native language pursues the creation of
conditions for the child to master the first (native) language, which subsequently acts
as the dominating mean of communication. Incidentally, crucial importance has the
legal, socio-economic and cultural status of the native language. When the native
language coincides with national language of the state, i. e. performs all social
functions (it is used in the administrative sphere, media, education, and culture), then
there are all conditions for the teaching of the native language. In these conditions,
cultural and communicative motivations of the child’s family coincide with
motivations of the national community. When the language situation develops
differently, and the child’s native language the has only the status of local or regional
spread, then relationship of native and national language can be problematic
(Adamson, Feng, 2014, pp. 29-44). The language of independent ethnos is taught as
native and holds a dominant position in education while national language takes the
place of the second language in the curriculum.
If we consider a language situation in the European countries, then we will see that it
becomes complicated due to a language variety. In the modern world in the epoch of
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globalization, it is quite difficult to define the dominating language in an educational
context. The important factor influencing the choice of language is the legal status of
a minority language in this country. In case if minority language has the clear legal
status at the national or regional level, then the main problem will be to move this
status in a row of socio-economic and cultural behavioral models of the associates
wishing to be identified according to the values presented by minority language
(Hoffmann, 1991).
Due to the lack of standardization, maintenance of minority languages becomes
complicated that leads to inevitable language changes even in spite of any decisionmaking in education (Mehisto, Genesee, 2015). In times in society, there can be a
certain socioeconomic and demographic imbalance that can lead to 'memorization' of
one or several national and/or official languages. The conflict, which can arise
between the minority language community and the majority and prepotent language
community, is defined by three major factors: the legal status of the language
involved in the conflict, geographical allocation of native speakers within the country,
communicative functions.
Reasoning from the listed facts it is supposed that the international language policy
has to protect the rights of languages irrespective of native speakers’ number and
estimate them as a part of the cultural heritage that requires protection. Within modern
European language policy, most of the researchers offer training programs in three
languages: national language of the country; the local language which gained
distribution at the local level; the international foreign language (Marschark, Knoors,
Tang, 2014). The international policy in the languages sphere requires multilateral
agreements on exchange of teachers, training programs.
The proper language policy and the elaborated measures for the arrangement of
language life can promote peaceful co-existence of the people in the multiethnic
country, preservation and development of national cultures and languages, linguistic
and cultural diversity in the world. This problem is especially urgent in the modern
multipolar world in conditions of the deep social changes connected with the adoption
of language statutes, the concept of languages development for the revival of language
traditions and expansion of languages social functions of the title peoples in the epoch
of globalization, communication and information technologies.
Active processes interethnic and, respectively, cross-cultural and interlingual
interaction characterize the modern language situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Considering the broad definition of language policy as practical measures of the state,
concerning the status of a state language, its functions, protection of exclusive use of a
state language in the most important social spheres, a regulation of 'local' languages
use (García, Wei, 2015, pp. 223-240), then it is necessary to inquire into bilingualism
as in aspect of formation and development of basic competencies, and functionally
itself in relation to different types of speech activity and different fields of
communication.
The Aim of the Research is an examination of the concept 'bilingualism', analysis the
main theories and aspects of bilingualism, the study of a language situation of
bilingualism in the Republic of Kazakhstan, based on the existing language policy.
Views on various aspects of bilingualism
Research interest in bilingualism arose at the end of the 19th century, was related to
the development of linguistics and allied sciences (Hoffmann, 1991; Appel, Muysken,
2005). The linguistic aspect of bilingualism is related to the analysis of a ratio of
structures and structural elements of two languages, their interferences, interaction
and interpenetration at the different levels. Y. Desheriyev and I. Protchenko note that
the research of an interference demonstration peculiarity is most important for this
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aspect in the course of both languages use (Desheriyev, Protchenko, 1972, pp. 2642).
Extraordinary versa, the utility of bilingualism as science object generated a set the
linguistic theories. Each of them developed based on the solution of those tasks,
which were set by researchers when studying one or another aspect of bilingualism –
linguistic, psychological, sociological, pedagogical, artistic-literary.
From the linguistic point of view, according to U. Vaynraykh, the problem of
bilingualism lies in description of those several language systems which complicate
simultaneous possession of them, and, thus, predict the most probable interference
demonstrations which results from languages contact and, at last, specify in behavior
of bilingual speakers those aberrations of each of languages which are connected to
their bilingualism (Vaynraykh, 1979). А. Shayakhmetova believes that the linguistic
aspect of bilingualism deals with the analysis of a ratio of structures and structural
elements of two languages, their interferences, interaction and interpenetration at
different levels, sections of a language system: phonologic, morphological, syntactic,
lexical-semantic and stylistic (Shayakhmetova, 2002, pp. 6-10). Scientists note that
the research of an interference demonstration peculiarity is most important for this
aspect in the course of both languages use.
If the linguistic aspect of bilingualism is generally connected with the effect of the
linguistic phenomena generated by language contact, then psychological aspect
reflects, according to scientists, specifics of speech psychophysiological mechanisms
of the person who uses two language systems in communication. The research of
psychological aspect of bilingualism helps to give the correlative characteristic of
linguistic categories, the concepts 'postponed' in language consciousness of bilingual
speakers; memorization peculiarity, perception, comprehension, acoustical (in the
speech) and visual (on the letter) perceptions by bilingual collective or individual of
the signs, features, categories and concepts specific to the second language and absent
in their language consciousness as the first language native speakers. The
considerable attention in the psycholinguistic aspect of bilingualism is paid to
studying of bilingualism impact on the individual thinking. It is known that from the
point of view of relationship of language and thinking L.Shcherba allocated two types
of language systems coexistence in consciousness of the person in a bilingual
situation – independent connection at a pure bilingualism when the contacting
languages form two separate systems of associations in consciousness of the
individual and dependent connection at the mixed bilingualism type when the
contacting languages form only one system of associations (Shcherba, 1958).
According to N. Lyubimova, the psychological typology of bilingualism is formed in
consideration of four criteria:
1) Types of speech activity;
2) Correlation among themselves the speech mechanisms providing knowledge of
different languages;
3) A way of connection of the speech in each language with thinking;
4) The way of language proficiency (Lyubimova, 1991).
The psychological aspect of bilingualism includes studying, both speech production
mechanisms, and speech perception. For example, there are experimental data that at a
bilingual person has a uniform system of perception and two separate speech
production systems in native and non-native languages.
The psychological aspect of bilingualism has an extensive perspective in modern
researches: foreign-language abilities as psychological prerequisite of bilingualism
formation; connection of psycholinguistic problems of a bilingualism with a technique
of non-native language teaching; motivational conditions of bilingualism formation
(Suleymenova, 2011); interference of speech development in native and foreign
languages (Baziyev, Isaev, 1973), etc.
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The sociological aspect of bilingualism studying consists in defining the public
functions and scopes of each of two languages that the bilingual population uses
(Kurmanova, 2002).
Social researches of bilingualism are intended to define:
1) Allocation of bilingualism among various social, professional groups of
multinational labor collectives;
2) Use of bilingualism in the main spheres of public life (production, spiritual, family,
and everyday life);
3) Impact on bilingualism of extralinguistic factors: class, ethnic, demographic, etc.;
4) Channels of bilingualism formation;
5) A ratio of national language and language of international communication in the
course of bilingualism, etc. (Rakisheva, 2003).
Clarification of social factors role in the development of a mass or group bilingualism,
the influence of a scientific and technical revolution on the development of public
functions of languages in the conditions of bilingualism also refer to problems of
sociolinguistic studying of bilingualism. A sociolinguistic approach to bilingualism
found its reflection in the concept of the scientists considering bilingualism as the
coexistence of two languages within the same speaking collective using these
languages in the respective communicative spheres depending on a social situation
and other parameters of the communicative act.
The pedagogical aspect is based on linguistic, psychological and sociolinguistic
aspects. Its task consists of development and application of methods of teaching two
languages, methods of studying of language acquisition, possession of two languages
in the conditions of bilingualism. The didactic aspect of bilingualism is developed on
the basis of natural processes of the second language acquisition (Altynbekova, 2003).
The pedagogical aspect of bilingualism includes as questions of passive (reading and
hearing), and active knowledge of the language (speaking and writing).
The artistic-literary (literary) aspect of bilingualism is connected with studying of
speech characteristics of characters in works of art, with the analysis of the fiction
created by writers – bilinguals and perceived by bilingual societies.
Each of bilingualism aspects as М. Mikhaylov fairly believes, sometimes acts as the
interdisciplinary problem demanding efforts of a number of allied sciences as the
linguistic aspect inevitably intertwines in it with psychological, and psychological –
with pedagogical, artistic-literary with linguistic (Mikhaylov, 1988).
Interest in various aspects of bilingualism and other types of multilingualism does not
weaken in connection with a significant role of language policy in modern society. In
a practical manner, there is no country in the world where would be no various
questions of a language situation, language contacts.
As a material for the analysis served data of censuses, materials of the Agency of the
statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the data of mass questioning of 2005
received during the implementation of the INTAS project No. 04‐79‐7292 'New
language identity in transforming societies served: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan', and results of questioning of 2009 executed on the project
of Committee on languages of the Ministry of Culture and information of the
Republic of Kazakhstan 'The Ethnolinguistic situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan:
present and future.
Representation of the development of bilingualism in Kazakhstan
The description of a language situation of Kazakhstan during the different periods of
its development is submitted in works of Suleymenova (2011), Altynbekova (2003).
As the republic’s sovereignty was recognized, Kazakh language was given the status
of the state language, to Russian – the status of the language of the international
communication. In new Post-Soviet conditions a question of languages nationalization
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when the law interferes in national-language relations, it is important to raise the
steppe, without humiliating the mountain (Zhanalina, 1998). Otherwise, negative
processes in national-language life are inevitable.
Acceptance of language of the title nation in the national republics as state language
caused necessity of studying it by representatives of all peoples living in the territory
of this republic that promoted the formation of a new type of bilingualism. As the
ground for emergence and functioning of bilingualism served transition of Kazakhs to
settled life, multinational structure of the northern areas of Kazakhstan, proximity of
borders with Russia, territorial contact of one people with another or joint resettlement
of the different peoples in one territory, demographic factor: resettlement and
migration of peoples to Kazakhstan (Rakhimzhanov, 2005).
According to К. Rakhimzhanov formation of the Kazakh-Russian bilingualism was
promoted by the demographic factor: resettlement and migration of peoples to
Kazakhstan (Rakhimzhanov, 2005). As the academician B. Kurmanova notes, since
the end of the 30th Kazakhstan began to turn into 'Stalin prison of peoples'
(Kurmanova, 2002). This conclusion is drawn on the basis of the fact that there was a
large number of special immigrants in the Republic (every fifth resident of
Kazakhstan was a special immigrant) (Zhanalina, 1998).
B. Khasanov in work 'Languages of International Communication' published 1976,
gives full characteristic of the language situation in Kazakhstan. Interaction of
languages of peoples of Kazakhstan and also level of language possession of
consumers, spheres of use and the main functions in society with concrete statistical
data are analyzed in work (Khasanov, Desheriyev, 1976).
In 1982-1984 were published works of М. Kopylenko and S. Saina 'Functioning of
Russian language in various layers of Kazakh language', 'A phonetic interference in
the Russian speech of Kazakhs' (Kopylenko, Saina, 1982), and in 1987 was issued the
second part of this work under the name 'Lexical and Morphological Interference in
the Russian Speech of Kazakhs'. In works were considered phonetic, lexical and
morphological mistakes made in the speech of Kazakhs when using Russian. The
interference phenomena from the sociolinguistic point of view were considered in the
following directions:
• Comparative analysis of Kazakh-Russians interference phenomenon;
• Definition of potential interferences area;
• Forwarding observation of informants;
• The analysis and the description of concrete interferences from the linguistic point of
view;
• The analysis and the description of interferences phenomenon by questioning and
testing;
• A sociolinguistic analysis of the interferences phenomenon.
In 1987-1989 were published scientific works of B. Khasanov (1989). Also in this
work were explored experience and levels of proficiency in languages of all ethnic
groups living in Kazakhstan in consideration of concrete statistical data. For the first
time were given definitions of concepts of a monolingualism, bilingualism, three, four
and polylingualism and also provided sociolinguistic descriptions. Two, three and
four lingual representatives of ethnic groups meeting on the Kazakhstan experience
are described on concrete examples.
In the 1990s in the Kazakhstan sociolinguistics are widely discussed questions of a
two-multilingualism and a diglossia and appeared a number of scientific works. For
example, in А. Karlinsky work 'Theory bases interaction of languages' (Karlinsky,
1990) are analyzed questions of languages interaction, the emergence of bilingualism,
its place in society, natural and artificial bilingualism, were given definitions of
concepts language collective, an interference and its types, a typology of
intercalations.
336
In 1990 was published the collection 'Language Policy in Kazakhstan and a Way of
Its Realization' devoted to questions of language policy of Kazakhstan (Language
policy in Kazakhstan and a way of her realization, 1990).
In 1992 in B. Xasanulı 'Anatili heritage' (Xasanulı 1992) category of the native
language was for the first time studied from the point of view of sociolinguistics. The
author gives linguistic, sociolinguistic, psychological, pedagogical, historical and
ethnic characteristics of the native language and also defines differences and
similarities between concepts the native language and the law, the native language and
economy, assimilation and knowledge of the native language, analyzes the language
situation of bilingualism, social and communicative system of the country component
languages and their functional load, a typology, questions of the state language,
requirement of knowledge of Kazakh, need of studying Kazakh within world
development of languages. In the monograph B. Khasanov defines the native
language as the language isolated by an internal system from all existing languages, it
is the language which is historically living with certain people in a certain space and
continuously transmitting culture of these people from generations to generations, it is
a mean of communications functioning within one nation equally to all men of these
people (regardless of age, sex, religion, the social status). The author, during the
analysis of bilingualism nature, gives the following definition: The bilingualism is
variable or parallel use of two languages (usually native language and the second
language) by representatives of the certain ethnic group entering the international
(interethnic) relations in an area of certain territories of all community (society) in
different situations. B. Khasanov, as follows, describes the Kazakh-Russian
bilingualism as typical for this country: "The Kazakh-Russian bilingualism is variable
or parallel use by Kazakhs of native and Russian languages inside and international
communication in multinational society, use of two languages in different situations
as necessary" (Xasanulı, 1992).
B. Khasanov in work during the analysis of spheres of the use, development, and
functioning of Kazakh as the state language, marks out the following principles of a
state language development:
• The first principle – use of the state language in all organizations, the enterprises and
institutions for office and business communication and creation of all conditions for
the solution of the matter;
• The second principle – use of the state language in all organizations, the enterprises
and institutions in office-work and workflow and creation of all conditions for the
solution of the matter;
• The third principle –solution of all financial questions concerning development of
the state language;
• The fourth principle – full personnel and educational methodological support for
teaching the state language;
• The fifth principle – creation of a state language promotion system in Russian and
other languages;
• The sixth principle – the introduction of the annual progress report on the
implementation of provisions of the Law on languages to higher bodies and the
public.
So far in polylingual Kazakhstan as Z. Akhmetzhanova marks out, was
created the set of bi-and polylingualism types which differ in regions of allocation,
coverage of different spheres of the functioning of languages, specifics of the
influence of the first language on the second, etc. (Akhmetzhanova, 2005). B.
Khasanov allocates 126 types of bilingualism consisting of 125 national and Russian
languages, about two dozens of Russian-national and national-Kazakh bilingualism,
not less than ten types of the national-national bilingualism, and also a trilingualism
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presented by Trinity of the Kazakh, Russian and national components (Xasanulı,
1992).
E. Suleymenova considers the Russian language in Kazakhstan as the major
component, on the one hand, Kazakh-Russian, Uigur-Russian, German-Russian and
so forth bilingualism, from another, – Russian-Kazakh, Russian-Uigur, RussianGerman and so forth bilingualism (Suleymenova, 2011). Types and the nature of mass
bilingualism, a ratio of the Kazakh-Russian and Russian-Kazakh bilingualism are of
great interest as well. The scientist speaks about distinctly arising a tendency to the
formation at the youth of an equal share of the Kazakh-Russian and Russian-Kazakh
bilingualism: 69,7% of respondents Russians are bilinguals with the second Kazakh
and 72,6% of Kazakh respondents – bilinguals with the second Russian.
In the Aktyubinsk region according to О. Altynbekova researches (Altynbekova,
2003), developed the Kazakh-Russian and national-Russian bilingualism, to a lesser
extent – the national-Kazakh bilingualism. On the whole, in the Aktyubinsk region,
67,9% of Kazakhs knew Russian, including city Kazakhs – 77,7%, rural population –
58,2%. Nearly 100% of representatives of all ethnic groups knew Russian. List of
students of the Kazakh schools is generally monoethnic. School students of other
ethnic origin chose Russian as study language at school.
In Aktobe, despite a high number of the Kazakh population, the choice of Russian for
studying among a part of Kazakh students is rather high. This research of features of
the distribution of bilingualism in the student's environment showed that students
widely use the Kazakh-Russian bilingualism in different communicative situations,
generally with ease carry out switching of a language code, i.e., are real bilinguals. All
students found a certain extent of knowledge of Russian as the second; however, the
level of their language competence was exclusively different and depended on many
extralinguistic factors.
N. Zhanpeisova claims that most of the population of Kazakhstan are bilinguals.
However, the extent of knowledge of Russian as the second is not identical
(Zhanpeisova, 2006). The scientist considers that in Kazakhstan was created the
national type of bilingualism (the Kazakh-Russian bilingualism): knowledge of
Russian is widespread among the title population of the republic. The scientist
assumes that in the city and areas with motley ethnic structure exists a quite big
stratification in the language relation. Often in communication with representatives of
other nationalities Kazakhs should use Russian as an intermediate language that
influences the expansion of its functioning sphere. Bilinguals are intermediaries
between multilingual national groups. Most of Kazakhs are bilingual therefore
switching to another language, as a rule, is peculiar to persons of the Kazakh
nationality.
Analyzing a language situation in Kazakhstan, О. Altynbekova (2003) comes to a
conclusion that in the Republic of Kazakhstan the language situation is formed, first
of all, due to functioning of the Kazakh-Russian bilingualism (75% of representatives
of the title nation know Russian), in the second, Russian speaking (Russians,
Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Germans, Koreans, Greeks, Moldavians, a mordva,
Chuvashs, etc.), the national-Kazakh-Russian bilingualism (Uzbeks, Uyghurs, Turks,
Kurds, Azerbaijanians, Tajiks, Chechens, Kyrgyz, Tatars, the dungena, Bashkirs,
etc.). It is important to notice that in percentage terms in this multilingualism of
different ethnic groups, excepting Tajiks and Uzbeks, Russian dominates.
In this regard, exclusive relevance is acquired by necessity of a complex and
comprehensive research of real functioning not only state language, but also Russian
at the present stage of economic and political development of Kazakhstan, definition
of population readiness to adapt to new state language policy, dependence of the
linguistic environment from geographical, ethnic, demographic and other
extralinguistic factors. On the basis of the analysis of new ethnolanguage processes
and balance of language priorities, it is necessary to try to reconsider traditional
338
concepts of language policy and a language situation which developed in recent years
of the independence.
Conclusion
The efficiency of realization of language policy in the Republic of Kazakhstan within
the State program of functioning and development of languages is impossible without
understanding of a real linguistic situation in the country and the language planning
based on this analysis in consideration of the actual role and socio-communicative
functions of Russian in language space of Kazakhstan. A clear idea of a language
situation peculiarity in the Republic and its dynamics under the influence of new
language policy will allow making practical offers on the creation of such formula of
tolerant interethnic interaction which will allow the peoples living in multiethnic
Kazakhstan to keep the language rights and cultural orientations.
Sociopolitical realities of Kazakhstan as sovereign state demand new language policy
which would have to meet needs of the multiethnic population of the country and
consider features of a language, demographic and political situation. The
characteristic of a language situation needs an interpretation of language processes by
political scientists, sociologists, jurists and linguists as the need of development of
effective public language policy assumes adequate assessment of a real language
situation.
Today in Kazakhstan works the Concept of language policy directed to expansion of
the functioning sphere of a state language and defines Russian as the main source of
information and as the mode of communication. The existing model of languages
functional development defined in the Concept also assumes the creation of an
optimum language space of the state, in this connection, an accurate definition of a
functional ratio of languages, at which the state language had to take the worthy place,
is required. The goal gives to Kazakh language function of international
communication language, demands adoption of the new legislation and accurate state
programs of functioning and development of languages. The Сoncept also guarantees
to Russian language preservation in full of those social functions which it possessed in
the mid- 90s years of the 20th century in already independent Kazakhstan. According
to the Concept, interests of economic and scientific and technical development of the
country define demand for knowledge and education received in Russian.
Preservation of the functioning sphere of Russian is provided with the aspiration of
Kazakhstan to integration processes, preservation of uniform cultural and educational
space with the CIS countries.
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Prof. Tulebike Kulgildinova
Department of international communications
Kazakh Ablai khan University of international relations and world languages
200 Muratbayev str.
Almaty
Kazakhstan
aigzhum@mail.ru
Prof. Aigul Zhumabekova
Department of Oriental Languages and Translation Study
Abay Kazakh National Pedagogical University
25 Zhambyl Str.
Almaty
Kazakhstan
aigulzhumabekova@yahoo.com
Kuralay Shabdenova
Department of Kazakh language
Karaganda State Technical University
Stepnoy 4 str,8-65
Karaganda
Kazakhstan
adal310501@gmail.com
Laila Kuleimenova
Department of Kazakh language
Karaganda State Technical University
Stepnoy 4 str,8-65
Karaganda
Kazakhstan
layla_k70@mail.ru
Perizat Yelubayeva
Department of foreing languages for specific and academic purposes
Kazakh Ablai Khan University Of International Relations And World Languages
200 Muratbayev str.
Almaty
Kazakhstan
perizat_fmo@mail.ru
XLinguae, Volume 11, Issue 1, January 2018, ISSN 1337-8384, eISSN 2453-711X
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