Ecology and elimination of cockroaches
and allergens in the home
Peyton A. Eggleston, MD,a and Luisa Karla Arruda, MDb Baltimore, Md, and São Paulo,
Brazil
Cockroach infestations have been indicated as a major contributor to asthma throughout the world. Several studies have
shown that large numbers of asthmatic patients are sensitized
to cockroach allergens. Eliminating this pest from homes,
schools, and public buildings involves a long-term commitment
to a rational extermination process. This article covers the
characteristics of the major cockroach species that invade
homes, assesses the role of environmental exposure to cockroaches in asthma, and provides an intervention program for
their extermination. (J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:S422-9.)
Key words: Cockroach, cockroach allergen, environmental exposure, asthma, intervention, integrated pest management
Among the 3500 known species of cockroaches, only 5
commonly inhabit homes and have the potential to contribute
to indoor allergens. These include the American (Periplaneta americana), German (Blattella germanica), Oriental
(Blatta orientalis), smokey brown (Periplaneta fuliginosa),
and brown-banded (Supella longipalpis) varieties.1
ANATOMIC AND LIFE-CYCLE
CHARACTERISTICS
All the cockroach species that inhabit homes are quite
similar in appearance (Fig 1), but there are enough distinguishing anatomic and life-cycle characteristics
among them to permit ready identification. The German
cockroach is about 16 mm in length and brown in color,
with 2 dark longitudinal streaks on the protonotum. The
female is slightly darker brown, with a broader rounded
posterior. The American cockroach is larger, 38 mm in
length, with fully developed reddish brown wings; it flies
short distances. The Oriental cockroach is 25 mm in
length and is dark brown to black, hence the common
name black beetle. The male has rudimentary wings, but
neither the male nor female can fly. The smokey brown
cockroach is approximately 2 cm in length, with wings
that are larger than the abdomen. The brown-banded
cockroach is smaller, rarely larger than 1 cm, and is easily distinguished from the German cockroach by the
lighter bands that cross at the base of the abdomen.
From athe Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore; and
bDepartmento de Parasiologia, Microbiologia y Immunologia, Faculdade
de Medicina De Ribeirao Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
Reprint requests: Peyton A. Eggleston, MD, Professor of Pediatrics, CMSC
1102, Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600 N Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21287.
Copyright © 2001 by Mosby, Inc.
0091-6749/2001 $35.00 + 0 1/0/113671
doi:10.1067/mai.2001.113671
S422
Abbreviations used
ED: Emergency department
GST: Glutathione-S-transferase
ECOLOGY
Although cockroaches are found throughout the world,
the American, brown-banded, and Oriental cockroaches
tend to predominate in tropical and subtropical regions.1
German cockroaches gather or aggregate in dark,
warm (21°C), humid crevices around water and food
sources, such as heaters, laundries, bathrooms, appliances, and plumbing fixtures. They prefer narrow cracks
(5 mm) that touch the abdomen and carapace, and rarely
leave this harborage, except to feed and drink at night.
They feed on almost anything with nutritive value,
including grease, soap, glue, and toothpaste. Although
they require freestanding water, they can live for days
without food and water. Adults and nymphs cluster
together. They move widely and rapidly within structures
but uncommonly move across open spaces between
structures, and they rarely fly. When these insects are
seen during the day, it is an indication that large hungry
populations are present.
Brown-banded cockroaches prefer to live in the higher temperatures generated by appliance motors, clocks,
timers, television sets, and shower stalls. These roaches
are quite active, and both males and females fly. Both
adults and nymphs are found at high elevations within
homes, such as on ceiling fixtures and the upper areas of
walls. They do not require as much moisture as German
cockroaches and can exist without freestanding water
sources. They prefer feeding on starchy materials but will
eat anything. In northern climates they are generally
found in the warmest parts of buildings.
The Oriental cockroach (water bug, black beetle, or
shad roach) is slower than the other species, and neither
males nor females fly. They tend to aggregate in damp
areas, such as basements, plumbing, and sewers. They
are seldom found on walls or in the upper floors of buildings. They demonstrate marked seasonality; peak numbers of adults are found outdoors in late spring and early
summer, and indoor populations increase during
droughts and in cold weather. They feed on decaying
organic matter wherever they colonize. Outdoors they are
commonly found in refuse piles and landfills and beneath
leaves and mulch. They are more dependent on water
than other species and will die within 2 weeks without
water. However, they can live for a month without food.
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
VOLUME 107, NUMBER 3
FIG 1. Common cockroaches found in homes. From Joseph
Kalisch, Entomology Department, University of Nebraska (ianrwww.unl.edu/ianr/pat).
The American cockroach (water bug, flying water bug,
or palmetto bug) aggregates in dark humid places, such
as boiler rooms, heated steam tunnels, sewer manholes,
floor drains, water heaters, clothes hampers, and bathtubs. In basements they are usually found in ceiling corners. They may migrate between freestanding buildings,
traveling in the open or through steam tunnels; they can
fly short distances in warmer areas. They may also live
outdoors in the warmer climates in leaves, woodpiles, or
pools; they are mostly outdoors in spring and early summer. Adults can live for a month without food or water.
They eat any organic food but are especially attracted to
sweets, beer, and other alcohol products. They may coexist with German cockroaches.
The smokey brown cockroach is another species that
migrates in and out of buildings with weather. In homes
it is found in attics, typically at the roof line. It generally
eats decaying vegetation, but when it enters a building, it
can feed on anything that other roach species eat.
The several species implicated in human disease have
similar life cycles (Table I). Eggs are contained in egg
cases, holding between 10 and 50 eggs each. These cases
are usually deposited on objects in the environment. The
exception is the German cockroach; its egg cases are
attached to the female abdomen until a day or two before
hatching. Nymphs are anatomically similar to adults and
pass through 6 to 12 molts to reach maturity. Mature
insects live from 3 to 15 months. Females lay numerous
egg cases each year, with the highest number laid during
optimal living conditions.
ALLERGENS
Cockroach allergens are derived from several sources,
such as saliva, fecal material, secretions, cast skins,
debris, and dead bodies. Significant amounts of allergen
can be recovered from cockroach washings and from the
secretory debris called frass that accumulates in jars
where cockroaches are kept in the laboratory. Several
allergens from both B germanica and P americana, the
most common domiciliary cockroach species, have been
Eggleston and Arruda S423
purified, sequenced, cloned, and produced as recombinant proteins (Table II).2-15
Most cockroach allergens appear to be species specific. The only cross-reactive allergens that have so far been
sequenced from both B germanica and P americana are
the group 1 allergens Bla g 1 and Per a 1.8,9,16 Natural
Bla g 1 and Per a 1 have been previously identified by
using immunochemical techniques and were shown to
elicit IgE responses in 30% to 50% of patients allergic to
cockroaches.10,11 Bla g 1 has an unusual structure consisting of a series of up to 7 tandem repeats, each approximately 100 amino acid residues in length,8 and includes
an allergen originally reported as Bla g bd90K.12 cDNAs
encoding Bla g 1 show 70% to 72% sequence identity to
Per a 1.9 The cross-reactive group 1 cockroach allergens
show 30% homology to a mosquito (Anopheles gambiae)
protein precursor, ANG12, which is secreted only in the
female insect after a blood meal. This finding may suggest that these proteins have a digestive function.8,14
Bla g 2 is a 36-kd allergen that shows homology to
aspartic proteases, including pepsin, cathepsins, and chymosin.4 High concentrations of Bla g 2 have been found
in cockroach digestive organs, particularly in the esophagus, proventriculus, and gut. Bla g 2 can also be recovered in high levels from cockroach washings. Levels of
Bla g 2 and Bla g 1 can be measured in house dust and
airborne samples and have been widely used to assess the
role of environmental exposure to cockroaches in asthma.17 The prevalence of IgE to Bla g 2 among patients
allergic to cockroaches ranges from 60% to 80%.
Bla g 4 was the first B germanica allergen to be cloned
and belongs to a super family of ligand-binding proteins
(also known as calycins or lipocalins).5 This family
includes other important allergens, such as mouse and rat
urinary proteins18,19; dog, cow, and horse epithelial allergens20-23; and β-lactoglobulin from cow’s milk.5,23 The
lipocalins are extracellular proteins that bind hydrophobic molecules with high affinity and selectivity. The
rodent urinary allergens are pheromone-binding proteins.
It is tempting to speculate that Bla g 4 may have a similar function in the cockroach.19 Although the overall
sequence homology is only approximately 20%, members of the calycin family share similar 3-dimensional
structure. Models of the tertiary structure of Bla g 4 were
obtained on the basis of the homology to butterfly bilinbinding protein and predicted a similar structure to other
members of the calycin family. Recombinant Bla g 4
expressed both in bacteria and yeast has excellent allergenic activity.5,7 Serologic studies suggest that the prevalence of IgE to recombinant Bla g 4 is 60%. Bla g 5 is a
member of the glutathione-S-transferase (GST) family of
enzymes,6 showing 40% to 50% homology to other
insect GSTs and 28% homology to house dust mite GST
allergen (Der p 8). GSTs are enzymes involved in the
detoxification of endogenous and xenobiotic toxic compounds, and their production in insects is associated with
resistance to insecticides. Therefore it is possible that
GST allergen production could be upregulated by the use
of insecticides.
S424 Eggleston and Arruda
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
MARCH 2001
TABLE I. Life cycle of cockroaches
Incubation (d)
Nymph (d)
Lifespan (d)
28
30-60
50-75
60
180-400
160
30-60
100-500
100-200
100-500
113-136
318-533
191-586
German
American
Brown-banded
Oriental
Smokey brown
Egg cases
Cases per yr
13-16 mm; female carries
8-10 mm; cracks, crevices
8-10 mm; behind appliances
5-8 mm; surfaces
12-16 mm; black, attached to objects
5-6
12-24
14
16
24
Eggs per case
18-50
14-16
13-18
1-8
17
TABLE II. Immunochemical properties of cockroach allergens
Species
Allergen
Blatella germanica
Bla g 1
Bla g 1 (Bd90K)*
Bla g 2
Bla g 4
Bla g 5
Bla g 6
Per a 1†
Per a 3
Per a 7
Periplaneta americana
Prevalence of IgE
antibody (%)
30%-50%
77%
60%
40%-60%
70%
50%
~50%
>80%
50%
Molecular weight
20-25 kd
90 kd
36 kd
18 kd
23 kd
18 kd
20-25 kd
72 kd
33 kd
Function
Unknown
Unknown
Aspartic protease
Lipocalin (calycin)
GST
Troponin C
Unknown
Arylphorin-hemocyanin
Tropomyosin
*The Bla g 1 allergen shows 94% homology to the nucleotide sequence previously termed Bla g Bd90K,11 now designated as Bla g 1.0102, according to the
World Health Organization/International Union of Immunological Societies nomenclature. The Bla g 1 clones presently identified comprise the isoforms Bla g
1.0101 and Bla g 1.0102 and the isoallergen Bla g 1.02 (75% sequence identity).7 Group 1 cockroach allergens (Bla g 1 and Per a 1) consist of a number of
tandem amino acid repeats of approximately 100 amino acid residues.7,8,14
†Per a 1 clones comprise 4 isoforms, Per a 1.0101, Per a 1 0102, Per a 1.0103, and Per a 1.0104, and one isoallergen, designated as Per a 1.02 (78.2%
sequence identity).8,14
Bla g 5–specific IgE antibodies are found in 70% of
the patients allergic to cockroaches. The cDNA for Bla g
6 encodes a protein of an estimated molecular weight of
21 kd, which shows homology to troponin-C.2
Two Per a 1 isoallergens (amino acid sequence identity ≥67%) have been cloned, and the Per a 1.01 sequence
comprises 4 variant isoforms (amino acid sequence identity ≥93%). Recombinant Per a 1 has been expressed in
yeast (Pichia pastoris) and bacterial systems.9,15,24 Allergens from P americana reactive with sera from patients
living in Taiwan have been reported,13-15,24,25 including
Per a 3, an insect storage protein related to arylphorin
(20.1%-36.4%).15 Skin tests with natural Per a 3 elicited
positive reactions in 83% of the patients; however, only
47% of the patients showed reactivity to recombinant Per
a 3 produced in bacteria.24
Per a 7, a major cockroach allergen that reacts with
approximately 50% of sera from patients allergic to cockroaches, has been recently identified. It shows high a degree
of sequence identity to tropomyosins from invertebrates,
particularly from mites (80% identity), shrimp (82% identity), and snails.3,26 Tropomyosins had been previously identified as important allergens in mites (Dermatophagoides
pteronyssinus Der p 10 and Dermatophagoides farinae Der
f 10) and shrimp.27-32 It is possible that tropomyosin may be
the basis for cross-reactivity among mites, cockroaches, and
shrimp and that the high degree of sequence identity has
clinical significance.32 Recombinant cockroach proteins
could potentially be used to standardize extracts, used in
cocktails as skin test reagents, or used in a modified form for
immunotherapy.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
The initial observations by Bernton and Brown33 in New
York showed that approximately 40% of their patients with
asthma were sensitized to cockroach allergens. In Chicago,
Kang et al34 identified up to 60% of patients with cockroach allergy among those with asthma. A similar prevalence of cockroach sensitization has been found in several
other US cities, including Boston; Detroit; Washington,
DC; New Orleans; Atlanta; Louisville; Tampa; and Kansas
City.2 Emergency department (ED) asthma studies carried
out in Charlottesville, Virginia, and Wilmington, Delaware,
confirmed that sensitization to cockroaches was an important risk factor associated with asthma admissions to the
ED for both adults and children. In each of the ED studies,
the prevalence of IgE antibodies to cockroach, ranging
from 18% to 33%, was comparable with the prevalence
seen to mite, cat, or pollen allergens.35-37
Cockroaches are an important cause of asthma in many
other regions of the world, including Taiwan, Japan, Thailand, and Singapore in the Pacific Rim; Costa Rica and
Puerto Rico in Central America; India; South Africa; and,
more recently, Europe.2 In France 24.5% of patients with
asthma, rhinitis, or both, have been deemed sensitive to
cockroach allergen on the basis of skin test reactions to B
germanica.38 A study from Italy showed that 12.7% of
children with allergies had positive skin test responses to
cockroach extracts, including patients with asthma, rhinitis, urticaria, and atopic dermatitis.39 A recent study from
Brazil showed that 55% of children and young adults with
asthma, rhinitis, or both had positive skin prick test
responses to B germanica or P americana.3
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
VOLUME 107, NUMBER 3
DISTRIBUTION IN HOMES, SCHOOLS, AND
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
ELISAs have been developed for assessing allergen
exposure to cockroach allergens, including Bla g 1, Bla g 2,
Per a 1, and Per a 3,2 which provide a quantitative test for
measuring allergen in house dust. The primary site of cockroach accumulation is the kitchen, where levels of cockroach allergens are highest. However, somewhat lower
allergen levels can also be found in dust samples from
sofas, bedding, and bedroom floors.35,40 Levels as high as
14,000 U of Bla g 1 per gram of dust have been reported in
homes in the United States and elsewhere. Approximately
20% to 48% of homes without visible cockroaches contain
detectable cockroach allergen in dust samples.35,41
Cockroach allergen Bla g 1 was detectable in bedding
and bedroom floor samples of 85.3% of homes of innercity children with asthma, and levels of Bla g 1 of 8 U/g
of dust or greater, which are considered high and proposed as a disease-induction threshold, were found in
50.2% of those bedrooms. On the other hand, only 12.6%
and 9.7% of the bedrooms had high levels of cat and mite
allergens, respectively, indicating that cockroach exposure is very important in this group of asthmatic children.42 Heavy cockroach infestations in homes may create reservoirs of allergen in carpets and rugs, as well as
in inaccessible spaces around appliances and furniture.
In the inner-city schools of Baltimore, 69% of the dust
samples were shown to contain detectable levels of the
cockroach allergen Bla g 1.43 Levels were reported higher in food-related areas (median, 5.8 U/g; maximum, 591
U/g) compared with levels in the classroom (median, 2.4
U/g; maximum, 186 U/g). It is likely that current infestation was the problem on the basis of visual evidence of
cockroach infestation in those schools. In British schools
65% of the classrooms sampled had levels of the cockroach allergen Bla g 2 of greater than 2 U/g of dust.44
These results indicate that schools may be an important
source of exposure to cockroach allergens. In day nurseries in Marseille, France, levels of Bla g 1 and Bla g 2
in mattresses, pillows, soft toys, and on floors were mostly undetectable or very low.45 No cockroach allergen
(Bla g 2) was detected in dust and air samples from hospitals in England.46
Seasonal variation in cockroach infestation has been
found in a study of 6 inner-city apartments in Blacksburg, Virginia, where samples were taken monthly for a
period of 1 year. In the kitchen the number of cockroaches captured in sticky traps peaked in June, whereas
the highest levels of Bla g 2 allergen did not peak until
August. Allergen levels remained elevated several
months after the drop in the number of detected cockroaches in the apartments.47
AIRBORNE ALLERGEN
Cockroach aeroallergen particles have properties similar to those of mite allergens: they are relatively large
(>10 µm in diameter), are detectable mainly after distur-
Eggleston and Arruda S425
bance, and fall to the ground and settle rapidly.40,48 For
cockroaches, 74% to 80% of aeroallergens are associated
with particles larger than 10 mm, which is in contrast to
animal allergens, which are carried on small airborne
particles. Patients are usually not aware of being allergic
to cockroaches and do not report symptoms of asthma on
entering a house that is infested with them.
Recently, intranasal and air samplers and a sensitive
immunostaining system were used to investigate the
behavior of cockroach allergen–carrying particles in
Australia.48 Bla g 1–carrying particles could be detected
during quiet domestic activity or even under no disturbance both in the air and in nasal filters in houses containing low levels (geometric mean, 1.5 U of Bla g 1/g of
dust) of allergen. In agreement with previous studies, airborne particles containing cockroach allergens were
associated with particles greater than 10 mm in diameter.
These particles, described as flakes or fibers, may contain sufficient allergen to induce sensitization and chronic inflammation on inhalation.
RELATIONSHIP TO SENSITIZATION
Bernton and Brown33 were the first to report positive
skin test responses to cockroach allergen in 44% of 755
allergy clinic patients in New York. Subsequently, many
authors recognized that patients with asthma living in
cities were commonly sensitized to this insect.2 Kang et
al34 established the causal relationship between cockroach allergy and asthma by showing early-phase, latephase, and dual bronchoconstriction after inhalation of
cockroach extract by sensitized asthmatic patients. These
studies have clearly demonstrated that asthma caused by
cockroaches is antigen specific and is similar to other
types of atopic asthma.
Several studies2,35,49 have demonstrated that most
patients sensitized to cockroaches were exposed to high
levels of cockroach allergens in their homes and that
cockroach allergy is an important risk factor for emergency department (ED) visits for asthma and hospital
admissions. A clear relationship has also been demonstrated between current exposure to Bla g 1 and current
sensitization to cockroaches in asthmatic children living
in the inner-city environment. Although the highest levels of cockroach allergens were detected in the kitchen,
the best correlation was found between sensitization and
allergen concentration in the children’s bedroom.50
These studies provided the basis to propose threshold
levels of cockroach exposure above which susceptible
individuals would be at an increased risk of having sensitization or asthma symptoms. These levels have been
defined as 2 U/g and 8 U/g of allergen, respectively.
A recent prospective study51 has demonstrated a significant association between exposure to cockroach allergens in the first 3 months of life and the development of
repeated wheeze in the first year among children in metropolitan Boston. The presence of cockroach allergen in
the family room and repeated wheezing continued to be
significant after adjustments for socioeconomic factors,
S426 Eggleston and Arruda
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
MARCH 2001
TABLE III. Insecticides for cockroach control
Preparations
Mechanism
Effectiveness
Organophosphates Diazinon
chlorpyriphos
(Dursban)
Cholinesterase
inhibitor
Diazinon
40%-98%
kill in 1 mo
Carbamates
Cholinesterase
inhibitor
Pyrethrins
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Avermectins
Miscellaneous
Growth regulators
Inorganics
Carbaryl (Sevin),
propoxur
(Baygon)
Permethrin,
deltamethrine,
fenvalerate
sumethrine
Chlordane,
lindane
Abamectin
(Avert, Raid)
Inhibit ATP
formation
Sumethrine
50%-85%
kill in 2 wk
CNS inhibitor
Toxicity
LD50 135 mg/kg,
CNS, flu-like GI
symptoms, short
residual time
LD50 500 mg/kg,
CNS, flu-like GI
symptoms
LD50 4000 mg/kg,
tremor,
choreoathetosis
Preparations
Liquid spray
1%-2% dust
Granules, wetable
powder emulsion
Microencapsulated
Wetable powder
LD50 400 mg/kg
GI, neurotoxin,
Abamectin 92%
ovulation
kill 1 mo
inhibitor
Fipronil,
Fipronil blocks
92% kill in
hydromethylnon GABA-gated
1 mo
(Combat, MaxCl channel
Force), sularais an ATP inhibitor
mide
Methoprene,
Molting hormone
90% kill
hydroprene,
inhibitors; chitin
4-5 mo
fenoxycarb;
synthase
biflubenzaron,
inhibitors
alsystin
Boric acid
ATP inhibitor
25%-50%
kill in 2 wk
LD50 5000 mg/kg
LD50 15005000 mg/kg
Comment
Also added for
quick kill,
flushing of
insects
Long residual
0.05% gel
granules, bait
stations
Gel, bait stations
LD50 10,000 mg/kg 0.125% liquid
aerosol
LD50 2500 mg/kg
1% spray,
30%-50% baits
LD50, Dose causing death in 50% of test animals; CNS, central nervous system; GI, gastrointestinal; ATP, adenosine triphosphate.
such as income and race. One study52 has reported an
increased risk of sensitization to cockroaches among asthmatic children born during the winter months in Chicago.
RELATIONSHIP TO MORBIDITY
Distinctive characteristics of asthmatic subjects with
cockroach allergy compared with those of asthmatic subjects sensitive to other allergens, particularly ragweed,
have been identified by analyzing patients living in
Chicago.53 Cockroach sensitivity affected more female
subjects, except in the age group under 15 years. Patients
allergic to cockroaches had year-round symptoms of
asthma, with winter exacerbations requiring ED visits or
hospitalization. In addition, they had a longer duration of
asthma, were sensitive to fewer other allergens beside
cockroach, and showed a higher proportion of steroid
dependency, suggesting a more severe disease. Patients
with cockroach allergy also had high levels of serum IgE
antibodies compared with other asthmatic subjects and a
higher prevalence of elevated total IgE compared with
patients allergic to ragweed. Most patients with cockroach-induced asthma also had allergic rhinitis. Cockroach sensitization is specifically associated with the
severity of inner-city asthma caused by exposure to high
levels of cockroach allergen in the home.
More recently, the National Cooperative Inner City
Asthma Study42 has confirmed that the association of
sensitization and exposure to cockroach allergens is a
major risk factor for morbidity caused by asthma in children from large cities in the United States. Children with
asthma who were sensitized to cockroaches and exposed
to high levels of cockroach allergen in their bedrooms
had more clinical symptoms, greater effects on daily
activities, increased missed school days, more nights
with lost sleep, and more frequent use of health care services than asthmatic children not sensitized to cockroach
or not exposed.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS RELATIONSHIP
Cockroach allergy is strongly linked to socioeconomic factors, and it occurs wherever living conditions favor
cockroach infestation.2,17,54 In the early 1970s, the close
association between cockroach sensitivity and low
socioeconomic status of patients was already appreciated.55-57 It has become apparent that this association is a
result of increased exposure to cockroach allergens, particularly in the indoor environment, and it appears to be
independent from age, sex, and race. In southeast San
Diego cockroaches are a significant cause of IgE-mediated sensitization among Hispanic children with asthma.58
J ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL
VOLUME 107, NUMBER 3
Most of these socioeconomically disadvantaged children
were exposed to levels of the cockroach allergens Bla g
1 and Bla g 2 that were above those reported as threshold
levels for increased sensitization, particularly in dust
recovered from bedroom carpet samples.
Studies in Charlottesville, Virginia, and Wilmington,
Delaware, both medium-sized cities, have emphasized
that cockroach sensitization is not confined to inner-city
populations but occurs wherever substandard housing or
apartment buildings sustain cockroach infestation.35-37
An association between higher frequency of cockroach
sensitization in individuals living in houses valued at less
than $60,000 compared with those living in houses valued at more than $100,000 has been reported.2
INTERVENTIONS TO ELIMINATE COCKROACHES AND ALLERGENS
Inspection is an important first step in cockroach
extermination. Not only can the species be identified, but
their likely hiding places and travel routes can also be
identified. The inspection should be conducted with an
understanding of the ecology of the insects and with the
idea that insecticides will be most effective and least
toxic to human residents if they are targeted to hiding
areas. In addition to seeing living insects, evidence of
cockroach habitation should be sought, including body
parts, feces (black specks the size of sand grains), and
stains from regurgitated digestive juices that appear as
brown stains in the edges of cabinets or inside drawers.
The inspection should also target food sources that harbor insects. These food sources include grease and other
cooking debris in the kitchen, garbage cans kept inside,
pet food, and open snack food containers. Water sources,
which provide another living requirement and determine
migratory patterns, should also be identified to provide
targets for baiting and pesticide spraying.
Available insecticides are listed in Table III. Although
the pesticides may be applied in almost any form, the
preferred method is to use selected placement of gels or
baits. This approach is termed integrated pest management, and it has become a widespread practice used in
inhabited buildings to avoid risk from the pesticides.
In kitchens, for example, it is possible to apply the 5to 15-mm gel spots widely to cracks, crevices, and the
junctures of cupboards or walls with floors and of counters with walls without making them accessible to children and pets. Neither the materials nor the application
methods are more expensive than the older spray methods. Because the gels contain sugars and other attractants
for roaches, the pesticides are carried back to harborage
and provide a more effective population reduction that
lasts longer than previously used methods.
Bait traps have been developed with narrow openings
that limit access to the attractant and pesticide; these
products are just as effective as the gel baits if used properly. One of the important conditions for successful use
of enclosed or gel baits is to provide enough coverage for
large populations. Be aware that hungry roaches may
Eggleston and Arruda S427
clean out the traps before the whole population is controlled. Most technicians will recommend a second treatment within a week or two to overcome this problem.
Typically, successful treatments will provide significant reduction within 2 weeks, will demonstrate maximal
effect by about a month after application, and will keep
populations under control for 3 to 6 months. The time
frame can be extended by changing cleaning practices to
remove grease and other food debris from the kitchen, by
storing food in plastic containers or in a refrigerator, and
by eliminating food debris from other areas of the home
(the television room or bedroom).
Household cleaning is an essential adjunct to successful allergen removal. Before applying insecticide, a good
general cleaning should remove additional food sources
so that the insects are more likely to eat the gels or baits.
After the application of insecticides, cleaning should be
delayed for a week to avoid removal of the insecticides.
After that time, begin with a thorough vacuuming, concentrating on places such as the tops, bottoms, and
insides of kitchen cabinets and the spaces behind stoves,
refrigerators, and other kitchen appliances that are likely
to harbor dead cockroaches and frass. Hard surfaces in
the kitchen and the rest of the house should be scrubbed
thoroughly with detergent and water to remove allergen
in sticky secretions. Adding liquid bleach to wash water
can facilitate this cleaning. In the rest of the house, attention should be turned to furniture and cracks that have
been identified as likely harborages by the initial inspection. Rugs should be vacuumed thoroughly, although this
is unlikely to be completely successful and must be
repeated several times a week for months to remove most
of the contaminating dust. Allergen is likely to be left
adherent to walls, floors, appliances, counter tops, and
woodwork; these areas should be scrubbed with water
and detergent. Bedding, curtains, and clothing are usually contaminated and should be washed as well.
CLINICAL TRIALS OF ALLERGEN REDUCTION
METHODS
Field trials of allergen reduction methods have shown
that extermination is much easier than allergen
removal.59,60 The best one can expect is to reduce settled
dust allergen concentrations by 95% with repeated cleaning for 6 months after successful extermination.61 In lesscontaminated environments this may mean that allergen
is completely eliminated from settled dust. However, in
heavily contaminated areas, with Bla g 1 or Bla g 2 concentrations greater than 100 U/g of settled dust, treated
rooms still contain allergen at levels that have been associated with disease. The only reported clinical trial of the
health effects of allergen reduction is the National Cooperative Inner City Asthma Study.60 In that trial cockroach
allergen treatment was only one part of a global intervention. Disease activity was significantly improved, but
median cockroach allergen concentration in treated
homes was not reduced; therefore the improvement of
disease activity could not be attributed to allergen reduc-
S428 Eggleston and Arruda
tion. Other trials are currently underway, but outcomes
are not yet available.
CONCLUSIONS
Severe cockroach infestations are not easily eliminated within homes, schools, and buildings. However, when
general cleaning practices, proven extermination techniques, and consistent maintenance methods are adhered
to, infestations can be brought under control.
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