Shading

During investigations into the control of insect damage to maize crops in subsistence farming in Kenya, which involved intercropping with repellent plants, the fodder legumes silverleaf (Desmodium uncinatum) and greenleaf (D. intortum) were also found to reduce dramatically the infestation of maize by parasitic witchweeds such as Striga hermonthica. This effect was confirmed by further field testing and shown to be significantly greater than that observed with other legumes, e.g., cowpea, as were the concomitant yield increases. The mechanism was investigated, and although soil shading and addition of nitrogen fertilizer showed some benefits against S. hermonthica infestation, a putative allelopathic mechanism for D. uncinatum was observed. In screenhouse studies, a highly significant reduction in S. hermonthica infestation was obtained when an aqueous solution, eluting from pots in which D. uncinatum plants were growing, was used to irrigate pots of maize planted in soil seeded with high levels of S. hermonthica. Growth of the parasitic weed was almost completely suppressed, whereas extensive infestation occurred with the control eluate. Laboratory investigations into the allelopathic effect of D. uncinatum, using samples of water-soluble chemical components exuded from cleaned roots, demonstrated that this involved a germination stimulant for S. hermonthica and also an inhibitor for haustorial development.

The acclimation responses of walnut leaf photosynthesis to the irradiance microclimate were investigated by characterizing the photosynthetic properties of the leaves sampled on young trees (Juglans nigraQregia) grown in simulated sun and shade environments, and within a mature walnut tree crown (Juglans regia) in the field. In the young trees, the CO2 compensation point in the absence of mitochondrial respiration (G*), which probes the CO2 versus O2 specificity of Rubisco, was not significantly different in sun and shade leaves. The maximal net assimilation rates and stomatal and mesophyll conductances to CO2 transfer were markedly lower in shade than in sun leaves. Dark respiration rates were also lower in shade leaves. However, the percentage inhibition of respiration by light during photosynthesis was similar in both sun and shade leaves. The extent of the changes in photosynthetic capacity and mesophyll conductance between sun and shade leaves under simulated conditions was similar to that observed between sun and shade leaves collected within the mature tree crown. Moreover, mesophyll conductance was strongly correlated with maximal net assimilation and the relationships were not significantly different between the two experiments, despite marked differences in leaf anatomy. These results suggest that photosynthetic capacity is a valuable parameter for modelling within-canopies variations of mesophyll conductance due to leaf acclimation to light.

Under low latitude conditions, minimisation of solar irradiance within the urban environment may often be an important criterion in urban design. This can be achieved when the obstruction angle is large (high H/W ratio, H=height, W=width). Solar access to streets can always be decreased by increasing H/W to larger values.It is shown in this paper that the street canyon orientation (and not only the H/W ratio) has a considerable effect on solar shading and urban microclimate. The paper demonstrates through a series of shading simulation and temperature measurements that a number of useful relationships can be developed between the geometry and the microclimate of urban street canyons. These relationships are potentially helpful to assist in the formulation of urban design guidelines governing street dimensions and orientations for use by urban designers.

To assess the spatial distribution of photosynthetic capacity within an isolated 20-year-old walnut tree (Juglans regia L.) crown, the distribution of relevant leaf characteristics was measured. Variations in leaf dry weight per area (Wa), and nitrogen concentration on a weight (Nw) and area basis (Na), were studied in relation to solar irradiance along one vertical and two horizontal transects, on July 30 and September 3. In addition, the concentrations of total nonstructural carbon on a weight (TNCw) and area basis (TNCa) were measured on July 30. Concurrently, the spatial distribution of daily integrated leaf irradiance within the crown was simulated by a three-dimensional radiation transfer model over a one-week period before sampling at each date. Within the crown, high spatial heterogeneity was observed for Wa (from 50 to 140 g m−2), TNCa (from 4 to 17 g m−2) and Na (from 1.2 to 3.6 g m−2). Although TNCw and Nw were not correlated and only weakly correlated to daily leaf irradiance, respectively, Wa, TNCa and Na were strongly correlated to daily leaf irradiance. The relationship between observed Na and simulated daily leaf irradiance was used to assess the spatial distribution of Na within the crown at each date. Total leaf nitrogen in the foliage was estimated to be 339 g in late July and 317 g in early September. For the whole crown (i.e., 1729 current-year shoots), Na increased strongly with basal shoot diameter (an index of shoot ‘‘vigor’’), highlighting the fact that large shoots were mainly located in sunlit locations and exhibited high photosynthetic capacity.

The biochemically based leaf photosynthesis model proposed by Farquhar et al. (1980) and the stomatal conductance model proposed by Jarvis (1976) were parameterized for walnut. Responses of photosynthesis to CO2 and irradiance were used to determine the key parameters of the photosynthesis model. Concurrently, stomatal conductance responses to leaf irradiance (Q), leaf temperature (Tl), water vapor pressure deficit at the leaf surface (D), and air CO2 concentration at the leaf surface (Cs) were used to parameterize the stomatal conductance model. To test the generality of the model parameters, measurements were made on leaves from a 20-year-old tree growing in the field, and from sunlit and shaded greenhouse-grown seedlings. The three key parameters of the photosynthesis model (maximum carboxylation rate Vcmax , electron transport capacity Jmax , and dark respiration rate Rd) and the key parameter of the conductance model (reference stomatal conductance, gsref) were linearly correlated with the amount of leaf nitrogen per unit leaf area. Unique relationships could be used to describe nitrogen effects on these parameters for leaves from both the tree and the seedlings. Our data allowed separation of the effects of increasing total photosynthetic apparatus per unit leaf area from the effects of partitioning nitrogen among different pools of this apparatus for foliage acclimation to leaf irradiance. Strong correlations were found between stomatal conductance gs and Q, D and Cs , whereas the relationship between gs and Tl was weak. Based on these parameterizations, the model adequately predicted leaf photosynthesis and stomatal conductance when tested with an independent set of data obtained for the tree and seedlings. Total light-driven electron flows derived from chlorophyll fluorescence data obtained at different leaf temperatures were consistent with values computed by the model. The model was also tested with branch bag data acquired from a three-year-old potted walnut tree. Despite a relatively large variance between observed and simulated values, the model predicted stomatal conductance and photosynthesis reasonably well at the branch scale. The results indicate that the photosynthesis-conductance model developed here is robust and can be applied to walnut trees and seedlings under various environmental conditions where water is non-limiting.

Photosynthetic light acclimation of leaves can result from (i) changes in mass-based leaf nitrogen concentration , Nm , (ii) changes in leaf mass:area ratio, Ma , and (iii) partitioning of total leaf nitrogen among different pools of the photosynthetic machinery. We studied variations in Nm and Ma within the crowns of two peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) trees grown in an orchard in Portugal, and one peach tree grown in an orchard in France. Each crown was digitized and a 3-D radiation transfer model was used to quantify the intra-crown variations in time-integrated leaf irradiance, <PAR i >. Nitrogen concentration, leaf mass:area ratio, chlorophyll concentration , and photosynthetic capacity were also measured on leaves sampled on five additional peach trees in the orchard in Portugal. The data were used to compute the coefficients of leaf nitrogen partitioning among carboxylation, bioenergetics, and light harvesting pools. Leaf mass:area ratio and area-based leaf nitrogen concentration, Na , were nonlinearly related to <PAR i >, and photosynthetic capacity was linearly related to Na. Photosynthetic light acclimation resulted mainly from changes in Ma and leaf nitrogen partitioning, and to a lesser extent from changes in Nm. This behavior contrasts with photosynthetic light acclimation observed in other tree species like walnut (Juglans regia L.) in which acclimation results primarily from changes in Ma .

The behavior of forage species (Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk, Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu, Panicum maximum cvs. Tanzânia, Aruana and Mombaça, Hemarthria altissima cv. Florida; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola, Axonopus catharinensis, Cynodon sp. hybrid Tifton-85; Arachis pintoi cvs. Alqueire and Amarillo) submitted to different radiation levels produced by Pinus taeda trees (open sky, 9 meters between tree rows and 3 meters within the row and 15 meters between tree rows and 3 meters within the row) was evaluated in this trial. Variables such as forage biomass production, leaf to stem ratio, plant height, flowering rate, nutritional value of leaves, meteorological and soil variables under the tree canopy and between rows were evaluated. The forage production was negatively affected by shading, but forage crude protein increased with shading compared with open sky. Besides the decrease in radiation under trees, lower wind speed and soil temperature were observed when compared to open sky plots. The NDF (neutral detergent fiber) of leaves was not affected by the radiation levels, although leaf to stem ratio was greater in the middle of the 9 × 3 m plot when compared to open pasture. The most productive species and those that showed potential yield to grow in silvipastoral system were Axonopus catharinensis and Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu.

We present a method for volume rendering of regular grids which takes advantage of 3D texture mapping hardware currently avail- able on graphics workstations. Our method produces accurate shading for arbitrary and dynamically changing directional lights, viewing parameters, and transfer functions. This is achieved by hardware interpolating the data values and gradients before soft- ware classification and shading. The method