Psychological Contracts

Psychological contracts are dynamic, continually developing through authoritative encounters. They fundamentally highlight people convection structures of what is relied upon to happen in the association and what is anticipated from them. They give a feeling of control and can impact the worker's future in an association, since representatives are a gathering to the agreement, and can pick to make their commitments. It builds the assurance by making in workers - a feeling of consistency, professional stability and control. It spins around the value impression of the effort–reward relationship, in this way concentrating on correspondence.

The aims is to consider the political and ethical challenges involved in conducting ethnographic managerial/organisational behaviour research within the highly regulated health and social care context, in light of the emergence of more stringent "ethical approval" policies and requirements set by Local Research Ethics Committees in the United Kingdom. In the attempt and requirement to protect "vulnerable" employees, this paper aims to present an unintended paradox of consequences when participants voluntarily revealed themselves. The authors briefly review literature on research ethics and present an understanding of the ethical regulations currently existing within the British National Health Service. Within an ethnographic case study exploring the psychological contract, the authors consider the issues that arose during one stage of data collection: a qualitative questionnaire survey with 13 participants, including members of the lead author's team. Incorpo...

Reconhecido como um conceito central para a compreensão do campo de estudos do comportamento organizacional, o contrato psicológico de trabalho é um tópico de ampla tradição de pesquisa no cenário internacional, mas ainda pouco estudado no Brasil. O presente artigo discute o conceito de contrato psicológico e comenta a produção acadêmica nacional sob a forma de teses de doutorado, monografias e dissertações disponíveis no portal da CAPES, bibliotecas e nos currículos do CNPq. Os resultados obtidos indicam que a produção em relação aos contratos psicológicos no Brasil é recente, embora a expressão tenha sido cunhada desde a década de 1960. Além disso, as investigações se iniciam com a combinação do contrato psicológico com outros temas correlatos, de maneira que só nos últimos quatro anos o construto aparece como tema principal de pesquisas. O crescimento tem sido evidenciado particularmente entre autores da Administração, acompanhando a tendência internacional de perceber os contratos psicológicos como poderosa ferramenta e suporte às ações de gestão.

Recognized as a central concept for understanding in the field of organizational behavior, the psychological contract at work is a topic of broad research tradition on the international scene, yet little studied in Brazil. This article discusses the concept of the psychological contract, and critiques Brazilian academic production on this theme, focusing on doctoral theses, monographs, and dissertations available from internal sources. The results indicate that production covering psychological contracts in Brazil is recent, although the term was coined as far back as the 1960's. In addition, earlier investigations undertook to combine the psychological contract with other related topics, so that only in the last four years has the construct appeared as a main theme of research. This growth has been particularly evident in the field of Management, so it is assumed that, similar to what is happening in the international arena, psychological contracts will soon be seen as a powerful tool and support for management activity.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand the psychological contract from the employers’
perspective, by examining violations where the employer rather than employee is the victim, an issue
that has so far seldom been addressed in extant psychological contract research.
Design/methodology/approach – Small business owners are studied using qualitative interviews,
incorporating critical incidents technique. Interview transcriptions have been analysed using template
analysis.
Findings – The analysis reveals the significant disruption and damage caused by these incidents,
with employers involving other employees in their response as they set about the essential repair work
required. Employers actively mobilised shared understandings at the normative level of the group,
reinforcing and sometimes renegotiating the employee obligations, as they seek to reaffirm their
authority in the eyes of all of their employees. This response reflects the collective psychological
contracts the employer holds with each of their employees and their concerns to limit the
fall-out/damage when one employee commits a violation.
Research limitations/implications – The focus on small firms limits the generality of the findings
with further research needed both in smaller and larger organisations to explore how organisational
size impacts upon the processes identified, and the effect such incidents have when the organisation is
represented by agents such as supervisors or managers. This calls for more in-depth qualitative
research in order to explore the highly nuanced experiences of employers and their representatives.
The implications of the findings suggest the value of more explicit communication of employee
obligations to prevent future psychological contract violation, and the role other employees may
usefully play in this process.
Originality/value – This paper contributes to the much-neglected study of employers’ experiences
of psychological contract violations committed by their employees

[ The original PhD dissertation may be read and authenticated from the website of the University of Newcastle, NSW, at http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/804346 ]

This thesis argues that foreign and second language teaching productivity can only reach its proper potential when it is accorded priority, second only to language learner productivity, amongst the many competing productivities which are always asserted by stakeholders in educational institutions.

A theoretical foundation for the research is established by examining the historical concept of productivity, and its more recent manifestation as knowledge worker productivity, especially as applied to teachers.

The empirical basis of the thesis is sourced from a chronological series of twenty biographical case studies in language teaching venues in Australia, New Zealand, Oceania and East Asia. The biographical case study methodology, although rare in applied linguistics, is justified by reference to its wide and growing application in other fields of qualitative research. The case studies are analysed for common patterns of productivity, as well as teaching productivity inhibition or failure.

It was affirmed across all of the case studies without exception that external parties could not control or even reliably predict what individual students might learn, and how well, from instances of instructed language teaching. This was regardless of the power of institutional players, external resources, curriculums or the teacher. Student belief in the immediate value of what was to be learned in a given lesson, and personal confidence in an ability to learn it were the most critical factors.

Teaching productivity was found to turn, ultimately, on the teacher's ability to influence the probability of student learning. The teacher could best influence learning probability by enhancing student motivation. The most effective environments for teaching productivity were seen to be those where the teacher was professionally equipped and politically enabled to exercise judgements which maximized opportunities for student language learning productivity. A negotiated pact concerning both curriculum and method often proved effective, especially with mature students, and at times required some deception of institutional authorities.

Empirically, the encouragement of reciprocal learning relationships between teacher and students was found to be powerfully enabling for language teaching productivity in the case studies.

In many venues a small but effective minority of 'intimate learners' were also able to leverage their language learning productivity by forging more personal relationships with the teacher.

The wider cultural paradigm within each of the countries represented in the case studies sanctioned different paths and limitations for both language learners and teachers, and hence was seen to influence teaching productivity in critical ways. It was found that under certain conditions, notably (but not exclusively) those prevailing in many East Asian educational institutions, that certification of foreign language skills had a higher cultural, employment and monetary value than the actual ability to exercise foreign language skills.

A negative influence on teacher productivity in many of the case studies was an ignorance about language learning and teaching amongst institutional players. The disregard of language teacher professionalism was fed by a belief that being able to speak a language was all that was necessary to teach it, and reinforced by misinterpreting the meaning of test results. Related to this, an imbalance of power relationships between teachers or students with other institutional interests was consistently found to interfere with teaching and learning productivities. Overall, the model of productivity understood in institutions instanced by the case studies tended to reflect a 19th Century economic paradigm of capital, raw materials (students) and labour (dispensable classroom workers) rather than any more sophisticated grasp of knowledge worker productivity.

It was demonstrated in the context of the case studies that productivity, and in particular knowledge worker productivity, is a complex concept whose facets require detailed analysis to arrive at a proper understanding of the role that foreign and second language teachers play in educational institutions.

The first part of the title of this paper refers to a comment Lord Mark makes to Milly Theale, the heroine of Henry James’ novel, The Wings of the Dove. Lord Mark’s remark aptly summarizes one of the central themes of the story: exchange. Rather than purely economic transactions, exchanges occur within the context of (personal) relationships. Nobody performs a good deed without the expectation of receiving a benefit. The characters act out of self-interest instead of mutual friendship. The notable exception is Milly, who willingly shares her fortune and herself. Although Milly knows that exchange predominates among her acquaintances as a method of establishing and of maintaining relationships—indeed, as relationships—she refuses to behave similarly. Her refusal to join in this tactic becomes a powerful form of resistance. Ultimately, the mercenary tendencies of Merton Densher yield to the unselfishness he sees in Milly. This lesson prevents the pairing of Kate and Densher from succeeding.

This study aims to explore the contribution of psychological contract and psychological empowerment towards employee engagement with in Indian IT sector. Research hypotheses were evaluated using multiple regression analysis. Findings indicated that both the variables i.e. psychological contract and psychological empowerment are crucial drivers for employee engagement in IT sector with employees feeling more connected with the organization when drawing a positive psychological contract from it and believed to be empowered from it and its members. In the end, managerial implications for fostering psychological contract and psychological empowerment are provided and suitable avenues for future research are suggested.

In recent years, scholars have increasingly recognized that the theoretical underpinnings of employee-organization relationships (EOR) are in need of further extension in light of recent organizational changes. In prior research, the study of EOR has been based on social exchange theory, and the psychological contract (PC) has played a central role in understanding this crucial aspect of organizational life. The main objective of this paper is to provide an integration of the existing literature by adopting a multiple-foci exchange relationships approach. Specifically, we looked at identification; the quality of relationships and exchanges with the leader, coworkers, and other organizational agents; justice perceptions involving several organizational sources; and perceived organizational, leader, and coworker support to expand our understanding of the PC. Overall, we advocate a multiple-foci exchange relationships approach that will ultimately enable us to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the complex nature of PCs in 21st century organizations.

This research study aims to explore the effects of the psychological contract on organizational citizenship behaviour. Specifically, whether there is a relationship between the psychological contract (transactional and relational) on organizational citizenship behaviour among employees. The objective of this study is to identify whether there is a difference between employees perceiving a relational contract or transactional contract and if their orientation affects the behaviour they exhibit towards the organization. The importance of organizational citizenship behaviour has been well documented in relation to organizational effectiveness.
This research was conducted with the use of primary data. Questionnaires were given to 75 respondents, male and female, in managerial and non-managerial positions. The questionnaire was designed to identify employee’s orientation of their psychological contract and in general to explore if they exhibited organization citizenship behaviour. The questionnaire contained 20 questions, of which 15 questions tapped into both transactional and relational items as well as organizational citizenship behaviour.
The hypothesis was statistically tested with the use of several tests in order to decide whether the null hypothesis would be rejected or accepted. Findings suggest that there is a significant relationship in terms of psychological contract orientation and organizational citizenship behaviour. The study revealed that the relational psychological contract had a large and significant relationship with the exhibition of organizational citizenship behaviour. Whereas the transactional orientation of the psychological contract had a non-significant, low contribution towards organizational citizenship behaviour. Thus the null hypothesis was rejected, accepting the alternative hypothesis, which states that there is a significant relationship in the psychological contracts on organizational citizenship behaviour.

The definition and descriptions of "house" and "house society" introduced by Claude Lévi-Strauss are not as straightforward and unproblematic as he might have believed, as subsequent scholarship has shown.  His failure to develop this model in any detailed case study left nagging questions unresolved.  Furthermore, his intention to utilize the house as a new social structural "type" alongside clan, lineage, and family reveals a notable flaw in his conception, for in his own discussions he eschews the simple classification of societies according to rules that arrange people into corporate descent groups, and the "house" is considered too variable a category to serve classification purposes.  Nevertheless, aspects of his notions of house and house societies have proven so intriguing as to tempt other ethnographers to develop and clarify them.  In the process, his definition of the house as an organizational institution found in some societies at a certain level of political-economic complexity has been increasingly abandoned, while the symbolic or fetishistic portions of his model have tended to be highlighted in studies that see in the house a new means for elucidating social group relations that may have universal applications.  These critiques and the subsequent reconceptualizing of the Lévi-Straussian house are reviewed in this chapter, but it concludes with a call to return to his original formulation (although not the static notion of a classificatory type).  Lévi-Strauss's definition and characterization emphasized the materiality, locality, and duration of the house along with the use of the "language of kinship and affinity" to bind its members and to perpetuate the estate from which their identity was derived.  In addition to focusing on kinship in terms of practice, discourse, and negotiation rather than as rules to be obeyed, and on the long-term outcomes of strategic decisions and actions rather than idealized characterizations of social groupings, Lévi-Strauss recognized in the house a societal configuration probably common in the past but now on the verge of extinction.  This distinction should not be lost; indeed, comparing the role of kinship past and present adds immeasurably to our understanding of social organization.

In a comprehensive examination of whether the Big Five personality traits could be used to predict transactional and relational contracts, the current study aimed to investigate the moderating effects of uncertainty avoidance on the relation between the personality traits of employees and their formed psychological contracts with respective employers. Time-lagged data were obtained from 469 respondents representing the public and private sector employees of Pakistan in order to ensure theoretical generalizability. Transactional contracts were found to be positively predicted by Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness and Neuroticism whereas these contracts were negatively predicted by Extraversion and Agreeableness. On the other hand, relational contracts were positively predicted by Extraversion and Agreeableness and negatively predicted by Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness and Neuroticism. Uncertainty avoidance was found to affect the relation between Agreeableness and relational contracts. Implications, limitations and future directions are also discussed.

This paper grew out of the observation that there is little evidence as to whether the changes happening within the New Public Management paradigm and entrepreneurial orientation adversely or positively affect Portuguese academics’ work and careers. Using Psychological Contract as a framework to characterize and explain the relationship between employer and employee, we have conducted six exploratory interviews with academics working in a public higher education institution. According to the interviewees, the university is not fulfilling its side of the deal. They describe the main perceived breached contents and report episodes of organizational (in)justice, as well as an unprecedented degree of peer competitiveness and increasing individualism.

Purpose:  To explore the implications for employees’ psychological contracts of a forced change from permanent to temporary employment status within an organisation.

Methodology/Approach:  A random sample of 30 employees, stratified by employment status was selected.  Each employee undertook a structured card sort of possible emotional responses followed by an in-depth interview to explore and explain their categorisation of these responses. 

Findings:  The nature of psychological contracts and organisational attachments for both permanent employees and forced temporary workers is complex.  Permanent employees generally continue to exhibit relational forms of attachment to the organisation.  These, they believe, are reciprocated by the organisation.  Reactions from forced temporary workers are more varied.  After a period of denial, some develop a more calculative approach to their interactions.  Others maintain aspects of their previously developed relational attachments.  Only some temporary workers appear to recognise that their future direction is no longer a concern of the organisation. 

Research limitations/implications:  Although only based upon one organisation, the findings suggest that the process of psychological contract adjustment is likely to emerge through gradual re-interpretation, rather than through re-negotiation.

Practical implications: Management actions need to be recognised as important in re-defining the nature of psychological contracts.  The transitional nature of this process may be prolonged where management imposes transactional contracts and where communication and negotiation to create clear expectations is lacking.

Originality/value of paper:  The findings provide new insights into the implications of forcing employees from permanent to temporary contracts for the psychological contract.

Reconhecido como um conceito central para a compreensao do campo de estudos do comportamento organizacional, o contrato psicologico de trabalho e um topico de ampla tradicao de pesquisa no cenario internacional, mas ainda pouco estudado no Brasil. O presente artigo discute o conceito de contrato psicologico e comenta a producao academica nacional sob a forma de teses de doutorado, monografias e dissertacoes disponiveis no portal da CAPES, bibliotecas e nos curriculos do CNPq. Os resultados obtidos indicam que a producao em relacao aos contratos psicologicos no Brasil e recente, embora a expressao tenha sido cunhada desde a decada de 1960. Alem disso, as investigacoes se iniciam com a combinacao do contrato psicologico com outros temas correlatos, de maneira que so nos ultimos quatro anos o construto aparece como tema principal de pesquisas. O crescimento tem sido evidenciado particularmente entre  autores da Administracao, acompanhando a tendencia internacional de perceber os contra...

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This study aims to determine the effect of psychological contracts as a mediator in the relationship between supervisor support, organizational trust and workplace deviant behaviour. For this purpose, a total of 350 lecturers in seven Private Higher Education Institutions (IPTS) around Selangor and Kuala Lumpur were selected as research respondents. The questionnaire was distributed to respondents using instruments taken from the original source. This study found that organizational trust influences workplace deviant behaviour, while supervisor support does not affect workplace deviant behaviour. The study also found that supervisory support and organizational trust influence psychological contracts and psychological contracts influence workplace deviant behaviour. Finally, for mediation analysis, psychological contracts significantly influence the relationship between supervisor support, organizational trust and workplace deviant behaviour at work. This study concludes that supervisory support and organizational trust increase psychological contracts and thus reduce the workplace deviant behaviour among lecturers.

Słowa kluczowe: praca, kariera, kapitalizm, kontrakt psychologiczny, odpowiedzialność.

Key words: labour, career, capitalism, psychological contract, responsibility.

Streszczenie: Celem refleksji prezentowanej w niniejszym artykule jest zasygnalizowanie, 
w kontekście zagadnienia eksternalizacji odpowiedzialności w obszarze kariery zawodowej, silnej społecznej orientację na karierę. Orientacja ta wynika ze zmiany modelu kariery zawodowej,
tj. z tradycyjnego na planowany. Jest ona również efektem dynamicznych przeobrażeń rzeczywistości społecznej, w tym zwłaszcza rozwoju tzw. kapitalizmu zdezorganizowanego. W artykule autorka sygnalizuje również wybrane niebezpieczeństwa wynikające z nadmiernego zaangażowania
w aktywność zawodową.


Summary: The aim of the paper is to indicate that there still exists strong social orientation towards career, based on the concept of the externalization of responsibility. The orientation results from the changes within the professional career’s model, i.e. the transition from the traditional model to the planned career. It is also the result of dynamic transformations of social reality, including the so-called disorganized capitalism. The Author also signalizes the dangers of the excessive involvement in professional activity.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine how frequency of change (FC) in organizations
and impact of change (IC) influence the employee behaviors, i.e. exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect
(EVLN) through psychological contract fulfillment (PCF) as a mediator. The moderating role of
successful past changes (SPC) is also assessed with direct and indirect relations of FC, and IC alongside
employees’ behaviors.
Design/methodology/approach – Hypotheses were tested among a sample of 398 financial
services-oriented non-managerial-level employees in Pakistan. Bootstrapped moderated mediation
analyses (using PROCESS macro) were conducted to test the main and moderated mediation effects.
The authors ran series of confirmatory factor analyses to validate the distinctiveness of variables and
their items in this study.
Findings – The results largely supported the hypotheses. Findings showed that FC is negatively
related to loyalty but positively related to exit, voice, and neglect behaviors via contract fulfillment. IC
is also found to have negatively related to loyalty but positively related to exit, voice, and neglect via
PCF. SPC was found to moderate the relation between FC, IC, and contract fulfillment, as well as the
indirect relationship with exit, voice, and neglect through contract fulfillment and negatively between
FC, IC, and loyalty through contract fulfillment. The authors found direct interaction effects of FC via
SPC in relation to exit and loyalty and also found direct interaction effects of IC via SPC to exit, voice,
and loyalty.
Research limitations/implications – The use of cross-sectional research design does not allow
conclusions with respect to causality. The most important implication of the study is that employee
behaviors following organizational change can best be understood via a psychological contract
framework. A future suggestion is to include more organizations based on longitudinal research design
with focus on both employee and employer perspective.
Practical implications – This study highlights the importance of employees’ behavioral responses
and their sensemaking of PCF in a post-organizational change period.
Originality/value – This study empirically investigated the effects of FC, and IC on fulfillment of
psychological contract and behavioral responses of employees using a sample of non-managerial
employees, and provides new insights into employee behaviors following organizational changes.
Keywords Sensemaking, Psychological contract, Organizational change, Employee behaviours,
Frequency of change, Impact of change, Successful past changes

The modern conceptualisation of the psychological contract recognises a tacit mental representation or schema, spanning all aspects of an employee’s perception of work.  Reciprocity is a normative force in contract functioning.

For over 500 years, the Czech Republic was subject to the rule of other nations. The failed totalitarianism of the most recent Soviet hegemony precipitated the Velvet Revolution and Czech adoption of the market economy in 1989.  Some commentators have argued that unproductive work attitudes remain as a legacy of the command system.

Following the phenomenological paradigm and constructivist epistemology, the research uses concepts from Personal Construct Psychology to compare the work constructs of Czech and non-Czech staff within the Czech and UK subsidiaries of the same company, examining antecedent effects of culture and individual experiences on psychological contract formation and development.

The findings show that the two nationalities construe work along broadly similar lines, prioritizing its social qualities.  Czech constructs seem to be simpler than those of non-Czechs, apparently lacking the value placed on personal ambition and achievement by the comparator group.  Czechs do, however, appear to value independence much more than non-Czechs, with young Czechs also seemingly expecting social justice and the right to self-determination.  The findings make a strong case for suggesting that these values have their origins in Czech culture and history, implying that both influence the work dispositions of Czechs and may plausibly be psychological contract antecedents.

The conclusions call for a wider conceptualisation of the psychological contract, specifically in its anticipatory (pre-work) form, and suggest that existing theory might benefit from giving greater consideration and prominence to the social properties of work.  Suggestions for further research and business applications are included

Abstract:
Deviant workplace behavior is not something unusual and is prevalent in organizational dynamics. It is found in all types of organizations and in all levels of positions. This deviance is costly not only in financial, but also in social and psychological terms. This research aims to reveal whether there is any association between organizational justice perception and engagement in deviant workplace behavior since so many scholars argue that organizational injustice can serve as one of the causes to workplace deviance. Three forms of organizational justice are used in this research; they are: Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional justice. Additionally, two dimensions are used to classify deviant workplace behavior, which are severity and target. Putting these two dimensions into low-high continuum, it helps to develop a typology of deviant workplace behavior into four classifications: production, political, property, and personal aggression. Result findings show us that organizational justice perception play important role in the occurrence of deviant workplace behavior. However, it is not the sole predictor since only one deviant workplace behavior (out of twelve) which correlates significantly with one form of organizational justice.

Keyword: Deviant workplace behavior, organizational justice, distributive justice,
Procedural justice, Interactional justice, production deviance, political deviance, property deviance, personal aggression

This article explores the expanded and transformed nature of the psychological work contract for forms of cultural and artistic labour in precarious conditions. The forms of passionate work found within cultural production are argued to form a new model for governing our subjective involvement in and attachment to work. This more expansive and demanding relationship with work has become generalized beyond the specific area of cultural production into employment relationships more generally. In doing so the expanded psychological contract of work comes to operate as a form of logistical media and infrastructural governance, connecting the micropolitics of governing labour with larger structural conditions of precarity and instability. Thus, while work today is less stable in what it offers, it demands even greater psychological investment despite increased uncertainty.

Psychological contracts are dynamic, but few studies explore the processes driving change and how employees influence them. By adopting a process approach with a teleological change lens, and drawing upon the sensemaking and coping literatures, this study positions individuals as active and adaptive agents driving contract change. Employing a mixed methodology, with a four-wave longitudinal survey (n = 107 graduate newcomers) and qualitative interviews (n = 26 graduate newcomers), the study focuses on unfolding events
and develops an “adaptive remediation” process model aimed at unraveling contract dynamics. The model demonstrates how breach or violation events trigger sensemaking, resulting in initially negative employee reactions and a “withdrawal” of perceived contributions, before individuals exercise their agency and enact coping strategies to make sense of, and adapt and respond to, these discrepancies. A process of contract “repair” could then occur if the coping actions (termed “remediation effects”) were effective, with individuals returning to positive exchange perceptions. These actions either directly addressed the breach and repaired both it and the psychological contract (termed “remedies”) or involved cognitive reappraisal of the broader work environment and repaired the contract but not the breach (termed “buffers”). The results highlight the unfolding, processual nature of psychological contracting.

The number of call centre businesses and workers has increased considerably over recent years and has become one of the sectors with the highest growth rate in Portugal. In this cross-sectional study, covering 363 call/contact centre (C/CC) workers in a Portuguese firm,we confirm that the relationship between employees and the organization, namely their psychological contract, is influenced by their employment conditions, that is, their status and work premises. We perform multiple regression analyses and results show that: (1) temporary employees perceive fewer relational and balanced and more transactional organizational obligations than permanent employees; (2) employees working at the client’s premises perceive more balanced obligations of the organization; (3) the psychological contract has a relationship with the attitudes and behaviours of employees with a higher general relational orientation to their work, who are more satisfied and present more civic virtue behaviours. This study provides a discussion of the practical implications and future research.

Research in relevant fields considers psychological contracts primarily from an individualisticrational point of view. However, psychological contracts are embedded in a socio-cultural context which influences the motivations for action of the parties engaged and the exchange processes between them. Therefore, in our research, we pursue two objectives: firstly, we wish to investigate the socio-cultural conditions which influence the exchange behaviour in psychological contracts; and secondly, we wish to examine the motivations behind these exchange processes. In a qualitative study we gathered data of 54 German expatriates by means of interviews and examined the data elicited with the aid of the grounded theory. With respect to the research results, we were able to show that psychological contracts are embedded in a complex socio-cultural context. When we looked closely at this socio-cultural context it became clear that, apart from individualistic calculations of action, moral and prosocial motivations were also relevant in psychological contracts. On the basis of these results, we generated two dominant types of reciprocity as the basis of the psychological contracts of the expatriates: the utilitarian exchange reciprocity and the solidary gift reciprocity

The violation and breach of a psychological contract and trust often results in a decline in employees’ willingness to
contribute and intentions to stay in an organization. Hence, this paper aims to understand the psychological contract
and trust and their role in employee retention. It focuses on employee and organizational expectations and the
importance employees attach to these and assesses issues of trust, job satisfaction and intentions to leave. Data was
collected using an established questionnaire whose psychometric properties of validity and reliability were assessed
using Factor Analysis and Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha respectively. Data was analyzed using descriptive and
inferential statistics. The findings reflect that mutual trust and, meeting expectations and having their expectations met
by the organization are important to employees. Based on the results of the issues of the psychological contract and
trust, recommendations are tabulated, which when implemented, have the potential for enhancing employee retention and reducing intentions to leave the organization.

For organizations and their employees, change is often argued to be a way of life.  Text books such as Balogun and Hailey’s (2008) Exploring Strategic Change emphasise the ubiquitous nature and ever increasing pace of change for organisations and those working within them.  Within organisations change may  relate to the strategic development of the organisation or be or more restricted in scope and operational in nature (Thornhill and Saunders, 2003).  It may occur incrementally, continuously or in the form of punctuated equilibrium, periods of stability being interspersed by significant changes (Burnes, 2009).  The management of strategic change has been argued invariably to create uncertainty and, where such change involves people, often to be problematic (McCalman and Paton, 1992).  Where change is perceived as threatening, it is likely to meet with resistance and require careful implementation to overcome fears (Mabey and Salaman, 1995). This is helped where trusting relationships exist throughout the organisation (Hope-Hailey et al., 2010).  Human resource practices can therefore play an important role in the management of such change whether it is incremental, continuous or punctuated equilibrium through the creation and maintenance of trust. 

The primary focus of this chapter is to explore the nature of trust in relation to employees’ treatment during strategic change.  In particular the impact employees’ treatment during change can have on their trust and the relative importance of the institutional and personal (calculative and relational) aspects of that trust and the are considered.  Recent research has argued that organisational justice theory offers a means through which to explain and understand employees’ trust reactions to change more fully (Mishra and Spreitzer, 1998; Saunders and Thornhill, 2004). Through integrating perceptions about the outcomes of organisational decisions, the processes through which they were made, and the treatment of those affected (Colquitt et al., 2005), it provides a means of exploring employees’ trust reactions and their reasons for these. 

In this chapter the strength of employees’ self categorized feelings of trust and the relationship between these and their perceptions of treatment during organisational change is considered.  Following a discussion of the nature of trust in which institutional and personal aspects are explored briefly, organisational justice is conceptualised in relation to the management of strategic change. Using a case study drawn from a United Kingdom (UK) public sector organisation undergoing incremental change following a strategic reorganisation, these trust reactions are explored using organisational justice as an explanatory theory.  The chapter concludes with a discussion regarding the nature of trust and the implications of this for the management of human resources during strategic change.  As part of this the limitations of this study and directions for future research are reflected upon.

In today's fast changing competitive business world, the management approach that focus on employee performance leaps forward and this situation affect the attitudes and behaviors of the employees in the organization structure. Particularly, when an employee experience organizational exclusion or psychological contract violation, it also effects the performance of the organization. At the same time, a decrease in the job satisfaction leads to an increase in the employee turnover and it brings additional cost to the organization. The process of departure of trained staff and recruitment of new personnel generates a cost element. In this study, a questionnaire was applied to 220 white-collar workers from 5 high-performance companies operating in the production sector in Turkey in 2017. The data obtained has been analyzed by SPSS statistical software package and the results show that organizational exclusion and psychological contract violations have an impact on organizational justice, and also the organizations that provide organizational justice increase the job satisfaction level.

The human side of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) – with focus particularly on resistance - has puzzled scholars for decades. Still, there is little discussion as regards to how the concept should be defined or understood. Often expressions of resistance, rather than its actual content, are described. What do personnel actually oppose? In this dissertation, the content, process, and context of resistance are explored in a broad and integrative approach. A personnel perspective is adopted. Observations from a longitudinal real-time case study on the merger of two national audit institutions in Sweden are reproduced. Analysis indicates that more attention needs to be directed to the moral side of M&A, in order to understand resistance. In the case study, management took the merger as an opportunity to increase organizational control, thereby breaking a psychological contract with personnel and turning to utilitarian values. Opposition to this united professionals in the two organizatio...

Purpose - This exploratory study investigates the human resource practices that influence employee retention, employing the case study of Albukhary International University (AIU). Design/methodology/approach- Using a non-probability sampling technique, particularly, convenience sampling, the researchers conducted six intensive individual depth interviews (IDIs) from the academics of AIU, Kedah, Malaysia.Finding - Employing content analysis of rich qualitative data, the results from the intensive IDIs led to some revelations, that in order to encourage employee retention, six recommendations should be considered; organisational strategy, career development, benefits (indirect and non-financial), convenience, organisational commitment, work experience, and fit with Job. The study also proposes that University should place emphasis on psychological contract which can directly lead to improvement in employee engagement.Implications - Several implications from the research were discussed...