Mortars

This standard is issued under the fixed designation C 109/C 109M; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval. This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.

Scanning microscopy techniques have emerged as powerful scientific tools for analysing materials of architectural or archaeological interest, since the commercialization of the first scanning electron microscopy instrumentation in the early 60s. This study is aimed at reviewing and highlighting the significance of several scanning microscopy techniques employed in the protection of built heritage. The diffusion of scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (SEM-EDX) is proven to be the widest among the available scanning microscopy techniques, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) applications are steadily present in the field of built heritage protection. The building material characterization, the weathering mechanism investigation, and the development of compatible and performing conservation materials are some major research areas where the application of the aforementioned techniques is discussed. The range of techniques, along with a...

Great differences exist in the composition and quality between the ancient mortars of the classical antiquity and those of Middle Ages, not only due to the different usage of the mortars, but also because of the progressive lost of knowledge about mortars' production techniques, from the time when Cato, in the 2nd Century BC, and Vitruvius, in the 1st Century BC, clearly stated how a good mortar should be prepared. These differences have been found also in the ancient mortars of the Medio Volturno River area, analyzed by several different mineralogical, chemical and microscopic (SEM/EDX, XRPD with Rietveld analysis, TGA, FT-IR, thin sections analyses) techniques. We characterized several ancient mortar samples, showing that, during the classical Roman period, the Vitruvius' suggestion of using "pure carbonate rock" was the standard practice, not only for the binder, but also for the aggregate part of mortars, in particular for public buildings, such as bridges and city walls. On the contrary, during the Middle Ages it was common to use other raw materials with lower percentage of carbonate rocks, such as feldspars and other volcanic minerals, typical of the region Campania areas, rich in volcanic sediments, and also some amorphous materials, such as ground bricks, and glassy volcanic stones. It is also frequent to find poor quality medieval mortars, because of the low quality of the raw materials from one side, and because of the often hurried binder preparation process, resulting in more friable mortars and, consequently, in less durable walls.

Excessive usage of sand in construction industries has generated many environmental issues. Silica aerogel, is able to minimise environmental issues while providing thermal resistance for building materials. Silica aerogel has properties such as lightweight, nano-porous and very low thermal conductivity compared to sand in the mortar matrix. This paper studied the compression and flexural strengths of mortar with silica aerogel as a sand replacement. Cement to sand ratio of 1:3 was used and sand was replaced with silica aerogel in the volumes of 15%, 20% and 25%. 15% volume of sand replacement with silica aerogel powder was the optimum ratio as it possessed the highest strength during experimental work. All the specimens were able to achieve the minimum strength for Type N non load bearing wall with the optimum ratio of 15% volume silica aerogel powder. In conclusion, silica aerogel mortar achieved the minimum strength of type N mortar.

Plaster and mortar samples from Arslantepe (Turkey) hold potential to provide unique information about the lime production and adhibition during the Late Chalcolithic period (4th millennium BCE). A multi-analytical approach including polarized light microscopy (PLM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) has been applied to characterize mortar samples from temple C and elite residences dated back to the late Chalcolithic 3–4 (3800–3400 BCE). A marly limestone has been identified as starting raw material for the lime production, probably coming from two different sources (local and brought from a different part of the Malatya plain). Moreover, different aggregate selection and the use of different production techniques were also detected in the samples, which are probably related to the function of the buildings. Evidence of a re-plastering process was also detected in the two elite houses, which probab...

Land is an accessible, easy-to-find, inexpensive natural resource and is used both in building simple or complex housing solutions.  Land can be manipulated on-site, it does not need to be transported, burned or heavily worked; with proper use and technique, traditional ancestral construction on raw land can maintain that intangible heritage that has endured to the present day.  This research proposes the study of the pathological process by which some examples of raw land masonry of the Ecuadorian Andean geography are going through, considering the constructive technique with which they were elaborated, their typologies and the peculiarities that affect these walls.  The methodology used is based on the systematization of the diagnosis of the building based on the visit to the site, technical file, diagrams, photographs, notes of the pathological state of the real estate, etc. of the selected samples. The paper presents an initial presentation of the traditional definitions of architecture on land such as adobe, tapial and bahareque; then, outlines a brief representation of traditional building systems on land for walls and the exhibition of examples drawn from the Andean zone. Some general guidelines that allow to offer answers to the pathologies evidenced in the cases studied are established, based on technical criteria and thus to find conservationist arguments to the pathological deteriorations.
https://editorial.ucsg.edu.ec/ojs-auc/index.php/auc-ucsg/article/view/69

With the development of China’s economy, the protection and conservation of ancient buildings were put on the agenda. However, the current understandings on Chinese traditional mortars are limited and rarely reported in the literature. In this article, the authors investigate seven ancient city wall sites built during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1841 AD) in situ, and subsequently the laboratory analysis were carried out on the collected mortar samples. The characterizations of
mortar samples were performed using digital microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), simultaneous thermal analysis (TG-DSC), as well as wet chemical analysis. The analytical results show that pure lime mortar was widely used in construction during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and it was also a common practice adding sticky rice soup into slaked lime to form sticky-rice lime mortar during preparations. This organic-inorganic composite material could effectively improve mechanical strength of the lime mortar. Moreover, it was first found that the sticky-rice lime mortar sample from Kaifeng ancient city wall contained very fine quartz aggregates, with an approximate binder/
aggregate ratio of 1:1. The appearance of this type of mortar probably indicates a great development of Chinese traditional mortars during the mid-19th century.

O revestimento em argamassa é um tema que vem sido estudado a bastante tempo e sua técnica construtiva incorporada em larga escala. Porém, ainda faltam estudos que determinem de maneira objetiva qual é a condição ideal de aderência que  cada substrato deve ter para aderência do revestimento. Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a influência do substrato na resistência de aderência dos revestimentos cimentícios, verificando diferentes tipos de substratos e chapiscos para avaliar as características do substrato, do chapisco e da argamassa que influenciam em sua capacidade de aderir o revestimento. Este estudo foi feito através de pesquisa bibliográfica, pesquisa em ensaios de aderência em obra e pesquisa experimental em painéis teste. A partir dos resultados obtidos foi possível concluir que as propriedades do substrato mais importantes são a rugosidade, porosidade e sucção de água e de que a argamassa de revestimento deve ter consistência e quantidade de cimento adequada, para um melhor espalhamento sobre toda área de superfície do substrato e máxima penetração de aglomerantes da pasta da argamassa nos poros do substrato, gerando um intertravamento adequado. Não sendo possível generalizar, de maneira absoluta, qual é o melhor o melhor chapisco para cada substrato, devido a outras muitas variáveis, sendo que apenas o chapisco comum apresentou resultados que atendessem aos requisitos normativos em todos os tipos de substratos ensaiados.

Definition of Heeresartillerie: This paper treats "firing" artillery as Heerestruppen/-troops (or also called heeresartillery) - the Operations Department in the General Staff of the Army defined the term "Heerestroops" on February 16th, 1945 as follows:
"Heerestroops are the means of the top leadership for the formation of focal points in a decisive position. They therefore always remain directly subordinate to the supreme command and are assigned by it to the combat requirements according to the individual command authorities. Assigned for specific tasks on a case-by-case basis".


I also use the term Armytroops or Armyartillery in the same context.
It always mean „Heeresartillerie“.
And i use „detachment“ instead of the english „division“ for translate the german „Abteilung“.

This elaboration cannot and does not intend to present a troop history of the respective units. The well-known reference book by Georg Tessin: "Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS im Zweiten Weltkrieg" (Associations and Troops of the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS in World War II) does mention various units of the army artillery. However, Georg Tessin omitted a comprehensive examination of the respective units. In addition, detailed information is lacking with regard to formation, equipment, deployment sites and subordination.

With the work presented here, an important part of the history of German artillery is examined in detail on the basis of archive material. A gap in the organizational history of German units is closed with this work and a study is presented which now makes it possible to take a closer look at the Wehrmacht's army artillery, which has so far received little attention. Now it is not only possible to prove and investigate the formation of the units in detail, but also to trace the way the units took in the course of World War II.
Precise subordination relationships enable the reader to determine where a unit was deployed and to whom it was subordinated. This makes this work indispensable in modern military historiography, in tracing personal military careers and ultimately in clarifying fates.
The relations of subordination are presented in the "chronologies", mostly based on artillery deployments at the beginning of major operations and, of course, according to primary sources available to me. The respective insinuations have been worked into the units themselves.

My 5-volume basic set treats "shooting" artillery as part of the army (Heeres) troops in the German Wehrmacht.
In addition to the independent artillery batteries, artillery divisions and artillery regiments as Heerestroops, I also deal with
- Artillery batteries and departments in reinforced infantry, mountain, mot and armored infantry regiments outside of a divisional unit as army troops
- Artillery Staffs, the Senior Artillery Commanders and the Artillery Commanders (although they were not exclusively Army troops)
- from the Army Coastal Artillery, the light turret howitzer platoons and units with caliber sizes of cannons from 17 cm and mortars from 22 cm, as well as the Army Coastal Artillery units constantly deployed as front artillery by the Army Groups North and South in the Russian campaign
- Railroad Artillery
- A-4 Units of Army and Waffen-SS
- Artillery Special Forces of the Waffen-SS

are not treated (to avoid double work):
- Divisional Artillery
- heavy artillery units already existing in peacetime until the beginning of the war
- „Sturm“-Artillery (Aussault Guns)
- the „Nebel- und Werfertruppe“ (Rocket launcher)
- Reconnaissance artillery (Aufklärende Artillerie)

The book series "Organizational History of German Army Artillery in World War II - Artillery as Army Troops" will be supplemented in the course of time by chronicles and illustrated books of individual units, but also by campaign depictions from the perspective of army artillery and other exciting topics.
As a supplement to my 5-volume basic set of the book series "Organizational History of German Army Artillery in World War II - Artillery as Army Troops", which only dealt with "shooting army artillery", I would now like to devote myself to the "non-shooting army artillery" units which were initially excluded:
- "Artillery weather units of the army" (already published)
- in work: "Artillery Auxiliary Units of the Army Artillery" (including light and heavy V.0. units, fire control batteries, power train squadrons, independent balloon flights and much more) and finally
- in work: 2 volumes on the organizational history of the "war mapping and surveying troops“ (Kriegskarten- und Vermessungstruppen)
Each book will first be published by our own publishing house without ISBN and with an individual cover. This edition is a test run in terms of printing and to be able to react to additions/corrections.
I publish the final version at Books-On-Demand with ISBN, different cover and possibly different page number. This version is then also available as e-book. When the remaining copies of the self-published edition are sold, there is only the Books-On-Demand edition to buy. The illustrated covers show the self-published edition.

thanks Uwe Kleinert/28.11.2020

Additive manufacturing is a fabrication technology that is rapidly revolutionizing the manufacturing and construction sectors. In this paper, a review of various prototyping technologies for printing cementitious materials and selected 3D printing techniques are presented in detail. Benchmark examples are provided to compare three well-known printing techniques; inkjet printing (binder jetting), selected laser sintering (SLS), and extrusion printing (extrusion based process). A comprehensive search in the literature was conducted to identify various mix designs that could be employed when printing cementitious materials. Aspects of concrete mix design are described, and some new experiments are conducted to analyse the printability of new mixes by the authors. Future research in the area of the rheology of cementitious materials and its relationship with the structural performance of finished concretes are highlighted.

In the fifteenth century the first primitive buildings where built in the current autonomous region of Madeira
(ARM) thus appearing the regional mortars. In the early seventeenth century there was the apogee of the
use of air lime mortars in ARM based on the exploitation of lime in Porto Santo in the late sixteenth
century. In the early twentieth century the mortars were mainly based on air lime, from Porto Santo, and
aggregates of volcanic origin, from the rivers and the ocean. Since the 40´s Portland cement becomes the
main binder used in regional mortars. However, in the twentieth century a new regional mortar, called
“brita lavada”, was developed whose application simulates a quarry stone masonry or stone cladding. The
mortar is constituted by cement, crushed basalt and black pigment. Once applied, its surface is washed to
leave the aggregate visible.
In the early twenty-first century a huge change occurs in the construction sector in ARM with the
emergence of new products, as industrial mortars, and new mortar application techniques. But although
the traditional method to prepare mortars in the construction site has come less frequent, the use of sitemade “brita lavada” has grown enormously in recent years and its initial application, to replicate stonework
evolved, expanded also to other types of application. Nowadays this mortar and application technology
has several applications, even as wall coating mortar.
This dissertation aims to perform an evaluation and characterization of the properties of “brita lavada” with
regard to its application on wall coatings, often side by side with current rendering mortars. Thus a study
was performed focusing on a mortar prepared in the laboratory using traditional materials of “brita lavada”
and its most common dosage. For comparison a similar mortar but without including pigment was
formulated, as well as mortars with identical dosages but in which the basalt aggregate was replaced by
another aggregate and also a current rendering mortar. The physico-mechanical behaviour of all mortars
was determined and the influence of the pigment and the aggregate was evaluated, in comparison with
the characteristics of the rendering mortar. It was also possible to conduct an assessment and
characterization of the natural basalt which originates the basaltic aggregate traditionally used in the “brita
lavada”.
The results of the laboratory trials showed that the “brita lavada” exhibits good physico-mechanical
characteristics when compared to a traditional rendering mortar and that the addition of the pigment
contributes, in general, positively. It was also possible to observe that the basalt exhibits good proprieties
for the application in view, contributing positively when added as aggregate in the “brita lavada”.

This is the second part of an abridged version of an article which will be published in a forthcoming issue of “The Ordnance Society Journal”. It covers export sales, patents, development difficulties in Finland, and the decline of the 160 Ntkr programme.

The purpose of this paper is to visit the various approaches developed on dimpled stones, or large rocky substrates with holes, which have been known as fixed mortars in the Argentine Northwest, from the traditional perspectives of the pioneers of the national archeology, at the late nineteenth century, to subsequent studies carried out around the first half of the twentieth century. At the same time, we take a look at the concepts used by these archaeologies, through their approaches to the grindstones. Early nomenclatures and subsequent derived terminology are revisited. Some continuities between current and previous works are highlighted. Finally, the value of early studies as sources of expectations for modern analysis of artifacts and milling practices, is sustained, within the framework of the current and future challenges of the theme.

Scanning microscopy techniques have emerged as powerful scientific tools for analysing materials of architectural or archaeological interest, since the commercialization of the first scanning electron microscopy instrumentation in the early 60s. This study is aimed at reviewing and highlighting the significance of several scanning microscopy techniques employed in the protection of built heritage. The diffusion of scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (SEM-EDX) is proven to be the widest among the available scanning microscopy techniques, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) applications are steadily present in the field of built heritage protection. The building material characterization, the weathering mechanism investigation, and the development of compatible and performing conservation materials are some major research areas where the application of the aforementioned techniques is discussed. The range of techniques, along with aspects of instrumentation and sample preparation are, also, considered.

Bu çalışmada, görsel veriler üzerinden Ayasofya’nın Fossati onarımları (1847-1849) sırasında geçirdiği değişimler sırasında yok edilmiş bazı izler üzerinde durulmuş ve Osmanlı yazmalarında Ayasofya’da kullanıldığı nakledilmiş harcın tanımıyla ilgili etimolojik ve deneysel bir araştırma yapılmıştır.

This paper examines previous understandings of bullauns, using ethnographic and archaeological evidence to re-evaluate the function(s) of bullauns in the past. In particular it considers the use of bullauns in the production of metals and metal objects. The possibility of a metallurgical function for bullauns has long been recognised,2 but generally overlooked. Recent research by the author,3 focused on early iron production in Ireland, suggests that many bullauns may have been mortars used in the smithing of metals, particularly iron.

Additive construction by extrusion (ACE), also known as construction-scale 3-D printing, is becoming a new paradigm for concrete construction. While significant cost and manpower savings are projected, many issues remain to be solved before ACE can be viewed as a mainstream technology. Among these is the formulation of a robust and sustainable binder that meets the demanding rheological and mechanical performance requirements of an ACE application. This paper investigates the development of such a binder by exploring pastes prepared from binary blends of cement with limestone powder at various proportions , supplemented with the incorporation of a retarder/accelerator admixture combination. Performance is chiefly characterized by applying a Bingham fluid model to characterize the rheological parameters of yield stress and plastic viscosity and by assessing hydration via isothermal calorimetry measurements. Matching the surface area of the limestone powder to that of the cement that it is replacing affords the opportunity to regulate rheology via water content adjustments, while engineering the cement:limestone powder ratio to provide the desired mechanical properties. The utilization of the retar-der/accelerator combination produces a paste with a long pot life (stable rheology) that can be quickly stiffened via the injection of the accelerator (and retarded paste) into a static mixer just prior to the prin-ter's exit nozzle. Thus, these pastes demonstrate the potential to provide a robust and sustainable binder for ACE applications. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

The most common type of artifact described from the 110 prehistoric underwater sites recorded in the Southern California Bight is a small, portable mortar/bowl. Manufactured from water-worn cobbles that underlie beaches and erode from wave-cut terraces, the source materials include felsitic and scoriaceous volcanics, plutonics, and sandstones, depending on island or mainland locality. Methods of production are evidenced by partially worked specimens and manufacturing tools. Hammerstones, picks, and abraders were used for pecking, percussion flaking, and grinding to create the mortar interior concavity and shape the exterior. The relatively great labor investment in manufacture from dense materials and the large number of mortars at some sites suggest that mortars were important elements of subsistence strategies. Although mortars are often considered plant-processing tools, the proveniences of these nearshore artifacts suggest a different use. Mortars are found in shallow rocky reefs, kelp beds, and along the rims of submarine canyons. Since the Middle Holocene, these habitats have supported the most diverse and accessible fisheries of the Bight. We propose that the mortars described here were part of prehistoric fishing strategies, possibly involving chumming and/or fish trapping in conjunction with the use of watercraft.

Andriake is the port settlement of the ancient city of Myra in Demre District of Antalya Province. The port was established in
Çayağzı area, where the stream currently called Kokarçay (Andriakos) flows into the sea. Excavations in the Andriake port are
being carried out by a large team since 2009. The subject of this study comprises 12 terracotta mortars unearthed in the
excavations in the Wine Workshops, 2015 Workshop Excavation Soil, Horrea Hadriani/Granarium, Synagogue, Front of Horrea
Hadriani/Granarium, and Harbor Buildings. Known by many different names in different languages, mortars are indispensable
tools of kitchens of the archaic period. Mortars have been used in many areas in the kitchen, such as making bread, cake,
porridge, puree, soup, and cheese, crushing/grinding various grains, herbs and spices, and marinating meats. Other than these,
they have been used in many different areas, in sacred ceremonies, measurement of dry foods, medicine and cosmetics, crushing
glass and certain metals, making paint, as urns in burial rituals, as grave gifts, as pithos and amphora covers.
Roman mortars unearthed from Andriake were analyzed in six different types according to their mouth profiles. Of these
types, Type 1 and Type 4 were called Italian mortars. Type 2 mortar is unique. This mortar type is believed to be a local type
manufactured in Myra. Although a type similar to Type 3 mortar was found in Syria, its origin is unknown. Type 5 and Type 6
mortars are known as Syrian mortars. But it is yet unclear whether these two types were manufactured in Syria or in Myra. There
are inscriptions in Greek on two of the Type 5 mortars. While the inscription on one of the specimens was a good luck wish, the
other one probably indicated the name of the factory/manufacturer or the gift giver. Mortars evaluated in the study belong to a
wide date range, between the end of the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. It is seen that the mortars unearthed from
Andriake have a wide range of different types. The results of this study, in which Andriake mortars were analyzed, provide new
contributions to the provincial and regional mortar typology and ceramic works.
Keywords: Myra (Lycia), Andriake Port, Roman Period, Mortar/Mortarium, grinding bowl

The work done in this study was devoted to the development of PFA masonry mortars and the investigation of their fresh properties, hardened properties and durability characteristics.

The work can be divided into three distinctive parts.  The first part was aimed at the development of a mix design method of masonry mortars including PFA, to achieve a specific 28 day compressive strength, instead of the conventional volume proportioning technique.  Five types of PFA and four different sand gradings were used.  Design charts of PFA masonry mortars were produced.  The proposed mix design method was examined using a set of strength results published in the current literature.  The guidelines for the design of air entrained PFA mortars was also included.

The second part of the investigation was concerned with the determination of the characteristics of the designed PFA mortars in terms of their fresh properties, hardened properties and durability.  The studied fresh properties included water requirement, consistence and water retentivity, stiffening rate, fresh density and air content.  The investigated hardened properties were compressive, flexural and tensile strength.  Four different curing regimes were employed.  Bond strength was also studied.  Different types of clay and concrete bricks were used.  As there is no direct British bond test, the ASTM crossed-brick couplet test was used in the investigation.  Scanning Electron Microscope and Thin Section photographs were used to study the interfacial zone between brick and mortar.  The frost and sulphate resistance of the control and the designed PFA mortars were also investigated in this stage.  Further, extensive study was included about the fresh, hardened and durability characteristics of air entrained mortars.

The final part of the investigation was concerned with comparing and evaluating the effect of PFA on the studied properties of the mortars.  From the obtained results, it was concluded that the introduction of PFA into masonry mortars improved their fresh and engineering properties.  With regard to durability, the use of PFA enhanced the mortar resistance to sulphate attack, while slightly reducing its ability to resist frost.