Foundlings (History)

Hospital de Todos-os-Santos [All Saints Hospital] received since 1504 - the year the Regimento [rules of procedure] were approved - the abandoned or orphaned children of the city. Minors were placed in the Hospital wheel so this institution would foster, support, and educate them. Since 1564 the Hospital administration was entrusted to the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa. Some years later, in the aftermath of the devastating earthquake on November 1, 1755, that Confraternity took on the direct responsibility for assisting unprotected children, creating the Hospital dos Expostos [Foundling Hospital].
Therefore, a considerable collection of documents (almost 200 linear metres) relating to the assistance of foundlings, covering a period dating back to the 17th century, is preserved in the Historical Archive of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa (AHSCML). This collection includes different archival series, with common and complementary information.
Some of these series are rare, such as the foundling tokens, which consist in handwritten notes that were left with some children when they were placed on the wheel. Sometimes these documents were accompanied by other pieces of various types.

This study analyses the high-risk situations facing children and young people during the 18th and the 19th centuries. They were various and different from those of today. Different as well were the perception of risk, and the way in which problems were dealt with. The theme is a vast one, and the period one of great change, all of which implies the need for a mastery of a great deal of information and a familiarity with many historical areas. I do not claim to have been exhaustive, but I have tried to look at a varied range of risks that children and youth experienced in this period, as well as at the discussion of the elite classes on the subject, and the institutional response which Portugal came up with for the different situations. I fit the Portuguese reality into the European context, discovering that our country clearly integrated itself within the models of the age, as much in terms of how it dealt with concrete risks, as in its reflection on them, and the legislative and institutional solutions that resulted.
Nous analysons les situations de risque où pouvaient se trouver les enfants et les jeunes des XVIIIème et XIXème siècles: situations multiples et différentes de celles que nous connaissons aujourd'hui. Tout autres étaient aussi la perception et la gestion de ces problèmes. Notre thème est vaste et l'époque concernée correspond à celle des grandes mutations, ce qui implique la maîtrise d'une quantité considérable d'informations et la familiarité avec diverses aires historiques. Sans viser à l'exhaustivité, je m'efforcerai de recouvrir les risques menaçant les enfants et les jeunes de cette époque, de prendre en compte le discours des élites sur le sujet et la réponse institutionnelle apportée par le Portugal aux différentes situations. J'ai eu le souci d'insérer la réalité portugaise dans le contexte européen, ayant constaté que notre pays s'intégrait pleinement dans les modèles de l'époque, aussi bien sous l'aspect des risques concrets qu'au regard de la réflexion dont ils étaient l'objet et des solutions législatives et institutionnelles par lesquelles on tentait d'y porter remède.
Este estudo analisa as situações de risco das crianças e jovens dos séculos XVIII e XIX que eram múltiplas e diferentes das actuais. Distintas eram, também, a percepção dos riscos e a gestão dos problemas. O tema é vasto e a época de grandes mutações, o que implica o domínio de muita informação e familiaridade com várias áreas históricas. Não pretendo ter sido exaustiva, mas procurei abarcar um variado leque de riscos que as crianças e jovens viviam nessa época, o discurso das elites sobre o assunto e a resposta institucional que Portugal encontrou para as diferentes situações. Preocupei-me em inserir a realidade portuguesa no contexto europeu, verificando que o nosso país se integrava plenamente nos modelos da época, tanto no que respeita aos riscos concretos, como à reflexão sobre eles, como ainda às soluções legislativas e institucionais.""

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the first female educational institute, founded under Catherine II, had also a branch for non-noble girls who were supposed to become teachers. By no means, this institution could solve the problems of education and formation of certain cultural skills even within the nobility. In the noble families, home upbringing and education therefore remained for a long time the prevailing form of education, especially for girls. On the contrary, the authorities considered the non-institutional forms of education to be suspicious both from the ideological and moral point of view. Nevertheless, they could not completely eliminate this type of education. The female teachers class established by the Empress Maria Fedorovna in the early 19th century in the Moscow Foundling Home emerged essentially from the desire to control this very important area. For their part, the provincial nobility considered the teachers who graduated this program as bearers of metropolitan education and the "right" knowledge and skills. The program  ensured the transfer of a certain educational model from the capital to the province, though under the strict control of the authorities. The article focuses on the class’s program, educational staff, the course of education and examinations, and the life trajectories of the girls who graduated the class and worked as teachers in the first decades of the 19th century. On the other hand, the requests of the provincial nobility bolstered by their economical ability to provide "metropolitan" education for their children at home are also analyzed here.

In a world dominated by poverty, a central
characteristic has been the plight of orphans and
abandoned children. Over the centuries, State, Church
and individuals have all attempted to tackle the issue,
but can we trace any change over the course of time
when it comes to the welfare system intended for
these disadvantaged children and acts of
philanthropy? What kind of social policies did States
follow and what were the main differences between
countries and regions? Drawing on historical evidence
across several centuries and a range of European
countries, the contributors to this volume provide a
transnational overview.

The historiography of central and northern Italy produced several studies on the care of abandoned children, thanks to the good condition of the sources. Instead, the historiographical framework of the Sicilian cities is extremely poor. In the case of Palermo, the absence of works dedicated to the topic of the foundlings can be explained by the dispersion of the documents stored in the historical archive of the Ospedale Grande (Great Hospital). So focusing on the welfare policy of this institution is very difficult, especially for Middle Ages. The essay intends to investigate on the policies about abandoned children chosen by the city of Palermo and the Ospedale Grande at the end of the Fifteenth Century by using unpublished documents, i.e. the chapters about the care of abandoned children presented in 1480 by the rectors of the Ospedale Grande of Palermo to the city authorities for approval.

"The «Human Material». Notes on Teaching Obstetrics and Midwifery, Vaccination and Baby Food Testing in the Foundling Hospital of Milan from the Eighteenth to the Nineteenth Century".

From the end of the Eighteenth century, pregnant women and children who were sheltered in foundling hospital were regarded, to some extent, as «human material» for the public interest, as the history of the foundling Hospital of Milan reveals. This idea, which was related to the increasingly important role played by doctors in charities, sometimes resulted in a subordination of women’s and children’s health considerations to educational or collective ones. From the foundation of the schools for obstetricians and midwives (1760; 1767), pregnant women admitted for free in the Major Hospital and then (1780) in the Pia Casa di Santa Caterina in Milan were used in teaching and training, especially in case – frequent in Milan (until 20-30%) – they had conditions that made natural childbirth difficult or impossible. Until to the introduction of antisepsis (1877), the spreading of infections, often fatal, was favoured by a low number of pregnant women submitted to a high number of visits. Furthermore, foundlings were used to perform public demonstrations of smallpox inoculation in 1778, then (1801) to test the cow-pox vaccination and finally – until 1885 – to produce humanized vaccine. Artificial feeding was also tested (unsuccessfully) on infants with the main purposes of avoiding the transmission of syphilis from babies to wet-nurses and of overcoming the lack of internal wet-nurses. In the late Nineteenth century, food testing on foundlings was carried out mainly at request of baby food manufacturers.
However, even when sterilized and humanized cow milk started to give positive results, its use was not encouraged by the medical directors of the Milan foundling hospital. They preferred to promote maternal breastfeeding, not only to protect the health of the newborns, but also to induce mothers to legally recognize them, in order to ensure future citizens a more respectable status.

Il contributo studia il sistema onomastico in uso nelle "ruote" dei diversi enti preposti all'assistenza ai trovatelli (o "esposti") nella Torino fra la metà del XVIII secolo e il 1927, sulla base della documentazione custodita all'Archivio di Stato del capoluogo piemontese.

Abbandonato in una cesta per via della persecuzione dei maschi ebrei ordinata dal Faraone d'Egitto, Mosè viene trovato in un afoso giorno estivo sulla riva del fiume proprio dalla figlia del Faraone, che essendo sterile e desiderosa di donare un erede al padre, decide seduta stante di adottarlo, facendone l'unico erede di chi in realtà lo avrebbe voluto morto. Lo affida pertanto a una balia (inconsapevole che si tratti della sua madre naturale)  per il periodo fino allo svezzamento e,  come racconta Filone Ebreo, finge nel frattempo "con donnesca astuzia" una gravidanza per rendere agli occhi della società questo figlio avuto in dono pari a uno effettivamente partorito. Il tema del ritrovamento di Mosè  incarna dunque un nodo centrale per le società di ogni tempo, quello della maternità e della nascita (o della designazione) di un erede. L'iconografia mette bene in evidenza la declinazione al femminile del soggetto e in particolare Veronese sa come rendere con estrema intelligenza figurativa il peso di una gravidanza non portata eppur ricevuta in dono. Pur essendo l'archetipo di tutti i trovatelli, Mosè rappresenta anche tutti quei figli d'anima che nelle società di Antico Regime venivano adottati  per surrogare la sterilità di coppia, come nel caso di Francesco Pisani e di sua moglie Marietta Molin, che adottarono la cugina di lei, allevandola e crescendola in casa propria dall'età di sei mesi, elargendole anche la dote e organizzandole il matrimonio, nonostante la fanciulla fosse figlia di un Procuratore di San Marco. Questo non significa che ad ogni adozione simile a quella di Elena Molin corrispondesse una raffigurazione di un ritrovamento di Mosè, quanto piuttosto che l’auspicio dell’arrivo di un erede in una famiglia del patriziato potesse essere raffigurato naturalmente anche in questo modo. Grazie alla sua rocambolesca nascita, la storia di Mosè era adatta a scongiurare apotropaicamente sia le eventuali difficoltà legate al parto che la sterilità. Yochebed mise alla luce suo figlio in circostanze avverse e pur costretta a metterne a repentaglio la vita, con fede lo abbandonò al suo destino, garantendogli di fatto la sopravvivenza . La figlia del Faraone, d’altro canto, consapevole della sua incapacità riproduttiva, riuscì inaspettatamente a riscattarsi grazie all’impossibilità di un’altra madre di tenere il proprio figlio e poteva benissimo indossare abiti moderni per poterlo raccontare.

[RO] Rezumat. Confruntată cu primele eforturi de modernizare, societatea românească din prima jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea a încercat să-și prezerve mecanismele culturale tradiționale, atitudinile și cutumele pe care și-a clădit imaginarul. Modul maniheist și intransigent de a percepe realitatea a afectat și mamele, cu practici care le plasau fie în lumea onoarei, fie în cea a păcatului. Catalogat de vocile masculine ale epocii drept o practică maternă reprobabilă, abandonul copilului nou-născut este perceput de comunitatea tradițională ca indicator al absenței iubirii materne. Prin urmare, lucrarea de față își propune să reevalueze factual și cât mai obiectiv această ipoteză, prin analiza singurelor surse istorice directe care ne pot indica rațiunile din spatele practicii abandonului, biletele cu care au fost părăsiți copiii, regăsite în arhivele Institutului copiilor sărmani din București. Corelate cu realitățile socioeconomice, cu expresiile culturale, legislative și instituționale ale maternității, cu perspectivele statului și ale Bisericii, concluziile cercetării de față pot fi edificatoare chiar pentru descoperirea modului în care societatea percepe primele încercări de modernizare din secolul al XIX-lea românesc.

Cuvinte-cheie: maternitate, abandon, copii aflați, practici materne, modernizare

[EN] Not knowing how to prove to the world... Maternity and child abandonment in the early to mid-19th Romanian century. Challenged by the efforts of modernisation in the first half of the 19th century, the Romanian society tried to preserve its traditional mechanisms, cultural attitudes and customs. The manichaeism and intransigence in perceiving the world also affected the mothers, whose practices could place them either in the world of honour or in that of the sin. Depicted by the masculine voices of the era as a damnatory maternal practice, the recourse to the abandonment of infants was perceived as the absence of maternal love. Therefore, the article attempts to reevaluate this claim based on facts and as objective as possible, by analyzing the only direct historical sources that could indicate the reasons behind the practice of abandonment: the mothers’ notes that accompanied the abandoned newborns, now in the archives of the former Institute of the poor children of Bucharest. Correlated with the socioeconomic realities, with the cultural, legislative and institutional norms of motherhood, with the perspectives of the State and the Church, the conclusions of this research could be relevant also in order to understand better how the Romanian society perceived the efforts of modernization at the beginning of the 19th century.

Key words: maternity, abandonment, foundlings, maternal practices, modernisation

"Maintenance, marriages and dowries of Milanese female foundlings in early modern Lombardy (Italy)"
Around the middle of the Seventeenth century, the General Hospital of Milan, for economic reasons, changed its welfare policy for foundlings. Instead of being re-admitted at a certain age, children were left with their foster families, with the prospect of being permanently inserted in the rural environment in which they grew up. One of the key points of this strategy was the adoption of a dowry-giving system that was not wholly dependent on the work of the girls before marriage. The analysis of archival documents (1776-1778) reveals that this strategy was successful. Furthermore, the minority of female foundlings (Colombe) returning to the city managed to accumulate, in a variety of ways, a trousseau to add to the dowry payed by the Hospital. This property guaranteed a city-marriage and in some cases a social ascent as well.

As Rodas dos Expostos de exposição livre foram encerradas em Portugal entre finais dos anos 1860 e 1888 (e não em 1867, como se continua a ler), sendo substituídas por Hospícios distritais de admissão justificada. Em Coimbra aboliu-se em 1872. A mudança assustava, pois ninguém tinha memória de não haver rodas de enjeitados. O que se passaria agora? Subida em flecha da mortalidade infantil? Recurso ao infanticídio? Surto de crianças abandonadas por montes e caminhos? Pretende-se neste artigo responder precisamente a isto: o que aconteceu no distrito de Coimbra quando a Roda dos Expostos foi encerrada e, ainda, quando e como começaram as autoridades a responsabilizar-se com as crianças maiores de 7 anos.

Women were the mainstay of assistance to foundlings, but not always this obvious reality is emphasized. This article focuses on them, trying to figure out who were the wet nurses of the Wheel’s Foundlings of Coimbra. To this institution travelled thousands of women coming from an extensive territory to receive and take with the babies, who assured them a monthly income. But the Wheel, because it did not meet the salary obligations, burdened with children, whose creation did not pay, the poorest farmers and their families. Thus, after characterizing the Portuguese legal system for help foundlings, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and typify the nurses, what this article is intended to highlight is the role of these women and their families as true care agents, not only as indispensable instruments of the beneficial and charitable public system, but also as redeemers of this system, since they corrected gaps and ineptitudes, including in financial terms

Monografia que tem como objetivo geral efetuar uma caraterização institucional e orgânico-funcional das entidades que, na cidade de Lisboa, entre os primeiros anos de Quinhentos, até ao último quartel do século XVIII, tiveram como competência assegurar a função assistencial de acolhimento, sustento, encaminhamento e educação das crianças expostas: o Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, a Confraria da Misericórdia de Lisboa e a Mesa dos Enjeitados.
Existe em Portugal uma já considerável produção historiográfica em torno da temática da assistência e da caridade, dos seus modelos organizativos e paradigmas mentais, das práticas assistenciais e de algumas entidades responsáveis pela sua concretização. Os estudos e a investigação neste campo encontram-se particularmente desenvolvidos no que respeita aos períodos medieval e moderno. Porém, neste último caso, a produção científica tem-se concentrado, sobretudo, no século XVI (primeiras décadas) e no século XVIII.
Para além destes aspetos temos de sinalizar a carência de estudos orgânico-funcionais de âmbito arquivístico, no quadro das Ciências da Informação e Documentação, que permitam delimitar e representar o contexto de produção dos documentos, relacionando-os com as funções de cujo cumprimento resultava a criação, utilização e acumulação de documentos por parte das instituições.

The 'Mesa dos Enjeitados' and the assistance to the foundling children in early modern Lisbon (1657-1768): an institutional history study
Abstract: This monograph has the general objective of carrying out an institutional and organic-functional characterization of the entities that, in the city of Lisbon, between the first years of the 15th century, until the last quarter of the 18th century, were responsible for ensuring the care function of reception, support, referral and education of foundling children: the 'Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos', the 'Confraria da Misericórdia de Lisboa' and the 'Mesa dos Enjeitados'.
There is already a considerable historiographical production in Portugal around the theme of assistance and charity, its organizational models and mental paradigms, assistance practices and some entities responsible for their implementation. Studies and research in this field are particularly developed with regard to the medieval and modern periods. However, in the latter case, scientific production has been concentrated, above all, in the 16th century (first decades) and in the 18th century.
In addition to these aspects, we must point out the lack of organic-functional studies of an archival scope, within the framework of Information and Documentation and Archival Sciences, which allow delimiting and representing the context of document production, relating them to the functions whose fulfillment resulted in the creation, use and accumulation of documents by institutions.

La 'Mesa dos Enjeitados' y la función asistencial de la creación de los expuestos en la Lisboa moderna (1657-1768): un estudio orgánico-funcional
Resumen: Esta monografía tiene como objetivo general realizar una caracterización institucional y orgánico-funcional de las entidades que, en la ciudad de Lisboa, entre los primeros años del siglo XV, hasta el último cuarto del siglo XVIII, fueron responsables de asegurando la función asistencial de acogida, apoyo, derivación y educación de los niños expuestos: el Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, la Confraria da Misericórdia de Lisboa y la Mesa dos Enjeitados.
Ya existe una producción historiográfica considerable en Portugal en torno al tema de la asistencia y la caridad, sus modelos organizativos y paradigmas mentales, las prácticas asistenciales y algunas entidades responsables de su implementación. Los estudios e investigaciones en este campo se desarrollan especialmente en lo que se refiere a las épocas medieval y moderna. Sin embargo, en este último caso, la producción científica se ha concentrado, sobre todo, en el siglo XVI (primeras décadas) y en el siglo XVIII.
Además de estos aspectos, debemos señalar la carencia de estudios orgánico-funcionales de ámbito archivístico, en el marco de las Ciencias de la Información y la Documentación, que permitan delimitar y representar el contexto de producción documental, relacionándolos con las funciones cuyo cumplimiento resultó en la creación, uso y acumulación de documentos por parte de las instituciones.

La 'Mesa dos Enjeitados' et la fonction d'assistance aux enfants trouvés à la Lisbonne moderne (1657-1768): une étude organique-fonctionnelle
Résumé : Cette monographie a pour objectif général de réaliser une caractérisation institutionnelle et organique-fonctionnelle des entités qui, dans la ville de Lisbonne, entre les premières années du XVe siècle et le dernier quart du XVIIIe siècle, étaient responsables de assurer la fonction de soins d'accueil, de soutien, d'orientation et d'éducation des enfants exposés ou trouvés: l'hôpital Real de Todos-os-Santos, la 'Confraria da Misericórdia de Lisboa' et la 'Mesa dos Enjeitados'.
Il existe déjà une production historiographique considérable au Portugal autour du thème de l'assistance et de la charité, de ses modèles d'organisation et de ses paradigmes mentaux, des pratiques d'assistance et de certaines entités chargées de leur mise en œuvre. Les études et recherches dans ce domaine sont particulièrement développées en ce qui concerne les périodes médiévales et modernes. Cependant, dans ce dernier cas, la production scientifique s'est surtout concentrée au XVIe siècle (premières décennies) et au XVIIIe siècle.
En plus de ces aspects, il faut souligner le manque d'études organiques-fonctionnelles de portée archivistique, dans le cadre des Sciences de l'Information et de la Documentation, qui permettent de délimiter et de représenter le contexte de production des documents, en les rapportant aux fonctions dont l'accomplissement a résulté dans la création, l'utilisation et l'accumulation de documents par les institutions.

La 'Mesa dos Enjeitados' i la funció de cura de criar nens abandonats a la Lisboa moderna (1657-1768): un estudi orgànic-funcional
Resum: Aquesta monografia té l'objectiu general de realitzar una caracterització institucional i orgànic-funcional de les entitats que, a la ciutat de Lisboa, entre els primers anys del segle XV, fins al darrer quart del segle XVIII, van ser responsables de vetllar per la funció assistencial d'acollida, suport, derivació i educació dels infants exposats: l'Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, la Confraria da Misericòrdia de Lisboa i la Mesa dos Enjeitados.
A Portugal ja hi ha una considerable producció historiogràfica al voltant del tema de l'assistència i la caritat, els seus models organitzatius i paradigmes mentals, les pràctiques assistencials i algunes entitats responsables de la seva implantació. Els estudis i investigacions en aquest camp es desenvolupen especialment pel que fa als períodes medieval i modern. Tanmateix, en aquest darrer cas, la producció científica s'ha concentrat, sobretot, al segle XVI (primeres dècades) i al segle XVIII.
A més d'aquests aspectes, cal assenyalar la manca d'estudis orgànic-funcionals d'àmbit arxivístic, en el marc de les Ciències de la Informació i la Documentació, que permetin delimitar i representar el context de la producció documental, relacionant-los amb les funcions el compliment de les quals va derivar. en la creació, utilització i acumulació de documents per part de les institucions.

La 'Mesa dos Enjeitados' e la funzione di cura dell'educazione dei bambini abbandonati nella Lisbona moderna (1657-1768): uno studio organico-funzionale
Riassunto: Questa monografia si pone l'obiettivo generale di effettuare una caratterizzazione istituzionale e organico-funzionale degli enti che, nella città di Lisbona, tra i primi anni del Quattrocento, fino all'ultimo quarto del Settecento, furono responsabili garantendo la funzione di cura di accoglienza, sostegno, rinvio ed educazione dei bambini esposti: l'Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, la Confraria da Misericórdia de Lisboa e la Mesa dos Enjeitados.
Esiste già una notevole produzione storiografica in Portogallo sul tema dell'assistenza e della carità, dei suoi modelli organizzativi e paradigmi mentali, delle pratiche assistenziali e di alcuni soggetti responsabili della loro attuazione. Gli studi e le ricerche in questo campo sono particolarmente sviluppati per quanto riguarda il periodo medievale e moderno. Tuttavia, in quest'ultimo caso, la produzione scientifica si è concentrata soprattutto nel Cinquecento (primi decenni) e nel Settecento.
Oltre a questi aspetti, va segnalata la mancanza di studi organico-funzionali di portata archivistica, nell'ambito delle Scienze dell'Informazione e della Documentazione, che consentano di delimitare e rappresentare il contesto di produzione dei documenti, rapportandoli alle funzioni il cui adempimento ne è derivato nella creazione, uso e accumulazione di documenti da parte delle istituzioni.

«Indicibile peso» per i bilanci, infermiere ribelli, serve fuggitive, spose da dotare, ma anche abili tessitrici ed esperte levatrici, le migliaia di figliole affidate all'Ospedale Maggiore milanese costituirono una variabile decisiva nella costruzione di una strategia assistenziale, che, misurandosi con i mutamenti sociali, rappresentò per secoli un efficace strumento di governo cittadino.
Grazie a un capillare scavo archivistico, il libro indaga l'evolversi - dagli esordi dell'Età moderna agli anni della Restaurazione - delle relazioni fra i padri ospedalieri milanesi e le loro assistite, le Colombe.
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Indice:
1. Parentele artificiali (XV-XIX secolo)
1. Bambini scambiati (p. 25); 2. Le «differentissime circostanze» dei brefotrofi (p. 30); 3. Esiti sociali (p. 36); 4. La svolta settecentesca (p. 42); 5. Senza tetto né legge? (p. 47).

2. Padri e figliole istituzionali. Il venerando Capitolo dell’Hospitale Grande e le Colombe (XVI-XVIII secolo)
1. Abusi, frodi e «singulare cura» (p. 53); 2. Il metodo «più atto alla maggior possibile conservazione de’ bambini» (p. 59); 3. Le figliole dell’Hospitale: «un indicibile, et continuo peso» (p. 64); 4. Avventizie, dozzinanti, allieve: «infiniti fastidij, et incommodi» (p. 75); 5. «Mandate a servire»: una soluzione controversa (p. 81); 6. Come un monastero (p. 87); 7. Ordini spirituali (1612) e divieti (p. 93); 8. Trasgressioni e fughe (p. 99); 9. «Scaricare» le figliole dell’Hospitale (p. 104); 10. Un nuovo orientamento assistenziale (p. 108); 11. «Ridurre alla dovuta obbedienza» donne e figliole (1671-1711) (p. 114); 12. Nel Quarto delle donne. «Disordine della porta» e «ornamenti vani» (p. 122); 13. Figlie di lavorerio (p. 129); 14. Figlie-serventi nell’Hospitale Grande (p. 140).

3. La famiglia assistenziale tra Ospedale e Stato (1780-1818)
1. Un nuovo profilo istituzionale (p. 169); 2. «La massima più vantaggiosa mai stabilita» (1784) (p. 174); 3. «Petenti reingresso oltre l’età prescritta» (p. 179); 4. «Figlie ribelli e scostumate» (p. 187); 5. Colombe in fuga (p. 192); 6. Libere di eleggere il proprio stato» (1806) (p. 198); 7. Sposare una figlia dell’Ospedale (p. 204); 8. «Utili a loro stessi, e alla società» (1785) (p. 214); 9. Il «piano» di Costanzo Gallarati Scotti per i figli «da pane» (1793-1795) (p. 223); 10. Un tentativo di «interno buon ordine»: Carlo Arconati (1805-1806) (p. 232); 11. Il ministro Vaccari e il sistema «disconveniente» (1813) (p. 243).

4. Il cavalier Carlo Bellani e le figlie-serventi dell’Ospedale (1819-1829)
1. «Un’insubordinazione resa ormai generale» (p. 265); 2. «Giovinastri», osterie, fughe, seduzioni, abusi (p. 275); 3. «Stringere le cose al loro nerbo» (p. 284); 4. «I veri padroni sono i poveri infermi» (p. 292); 5. «Importanti risultamenti» (1819-1829) (p. 299); 6. La «surroga di estere alle figlie del Luogo Pio» (1822) (p. 307); 7. Epilogo (p. 313).

5. Riconsiderando un percorso

ENGLISH
The social discussion regarding foundlings and baby corpses regularly refers to the numerous baby hatches provided by Dutch churches and convents in the distant past. This is one of the most important arguments in the public justification of the modern foundling rooms. Based on historical and contemporary sources concerning the 1500-1900 period, the current article argues that this is in fact a double myth. Firstly, there has never been a large-scale system of baby hatches in the Netherlands
from the middle ages on; at the time of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, they were mainly situated in the area which is modern-day Belgium. And secondly, those baby hatches which did exist were not linked to said religious institutions. The most probable explanation for the origin of this myth is the fact that religious buildings and baby hatches were popular locations for mothers to abandon their new-borns in the past. In the folklore on baby hatches, these elements became falsely united. This study interprets the function of this mythologisation process to be the formation of a moral compass in the quest for a solution for women not able, willing or allowed to keep their babies, and thereby shunning the formal channels.
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DUTCH
In de maatschappelijke discussie over de vondelingen en babylijkjes wordt regelmatig gerefereerd aan de vele vroegere, aan Nederlandse kerken en kloosters verbonden vondelingenluikjes. Deze vormen een van de belangrijkste argumenten in de maatschappelijke rechtvaardiging van de hedendaagse vondelingenkamers. Dit artikel betoogt aan de hand van historische en moderne bronnen over de periode 1500-1900 dat dit een tweeledige mythe betreft. Ten eerste was er vanaf de middeleeuwen geen grootschalig aanbod van vondelingenluiken in Nederland; tijdens het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden lagen zij vooral in het gebied dat het huidige België vormt. En ten tweede hadden de vondelingenluiken die er wél waren, geen binding met de genoemde religieuze instellingen. De meest voor de hand liggende verklaring voor deze mythevorming is het feit dat zowel religieuze gebouwen als vondelingenluiken plekken zijn waar mensen in het verleden hun jonggeborenen weggelegd hebben. In de volksverhalen over vondelingenluiken zijn deze elementen een valse eenheid gaan vormen. De functie van deze mythologisering wordt in dit onderzoek geïnterpreteerd als de vorming van een moreel kompas in het zoeken naar een oplossing voor vrouwen die hun kind niet kunnen, mogen of willen houden, en daarbij niet de formele kanalen gebruiken.

Este estudo debruça-se sobre dois procedimentos administrativos de índole repressora/assistencial: as intimações às mulheres grávidas não casadas e os subsídios de lactação a mães solteiras. Se estes últimos têm suscitado alguma atenção por parte dos investigadores, as primeiras são em geral negligenciadas, embora os dois procedimentos estejam intimamente ligados. E o mesmo se deve dizer de um terceiro processo que também abordarei: a extinção das Rodas dos Expostos, acompanhada pela imediata e acentuada diminuição da prática de abandono dos filhos.

Public health and social reforms in Portugal (1780–1805) presents an innovative analysis of a unique period for social and public health policy in Portuguese history. With a firm basis in archival research, the book examines a lesser-known facet of one of the most fascinating and controversial figures in the late Ancien Regime in Portugal: Diogo Inácio de Pina Manique, the Intendant-General of Police from 1780 to 1805. By combining the resources of the Intendancy with those of the Casa Pia, an institution for welfare provision and social control that he set up just a month after being appointed, Pina Manique attempted to introduce a variety of projects designed to create a prosperous, healthy, well-educated, informed, clean and hard-working country less inclined to vice and immorality, in which the people would be obedient and the upper classes more magnanimous. One of his greatest achievements was perhaps to understand the link between ill health and poverty and therefore to regard public health as a key area of governance.

Between the Seventeenth and the Eighteenth centuries, Milanese foundlings with physical and intellectual impairments or «insanity» were assisted by the Hospital of San Vincenzo in Prato, administrated by the Ospedale Maggiore, a general hospital, which took care of all foundlings of the city and of the Ducato. Conflicting attitudes emerge from related documents. They suggest that, in the Eighteenth century, even the poorest families would keep impaired children, as long as they could provide for them. «Incurable» children were refused by orphanages and occasionally rejected by peasant foster families. However, the Ospedale Maggiore had very flexible rules of admission and discharge, especially for girls, and, when possible, offered impaired boys, which were labelled with allusive nicknames, an artisan training.

It is undeniable that the rise of the novel was an international phenomenon. In spite of the developments and movements related to national contexts, the rise and subsequent triumph of a new form of narration to which Ian Watt dedicated his fundamental book simultaneously affected Spain, England and France. It is to the study of this transnational aspect of the phenomenon that our analysis of The Happy Orphans desires to contribute.
The triptych that consists of The Fortunate Foundlings by Eliza Haywood (1744), Les Heureux Orphelins by Crébillon-fils (1753) and The Happy Orphans by Edward Kimber (1759) is an exemplary illustration of the intense interaction between the French and English novelistic domains during a period that was characterised by anglomania in France. Josephine Grieder distinguishes between three phases: the interest in all things English that appears from the 1750s onwards becomes ‘a maladie épidémique of imitation of the English’ in the 1760s. This epidemic phase is then followed by a real appropriation of English models – in the fields of politics, ideology, fashion,... – that begins in the 1770s and lasts until just after the French Revolution: ‘The frequency with which it appears in literature of all sorts – private and public, from diaries and memoirs to periodicals and pamphlets – testifies to the vitality of the phenomenon.’  However, it would be overly simplistic to declare that Haywood’s English novel was translated into French by Crébillon and then simply returned to England in the retranslation by Kimber. In reality, the translation into French and the retranslation into English only concern the first part of Haywood’s novel. It is remarkable that the section translated by Crébillon is exactly the section that Kimber retranslated into English. The triptych, in other words, is based on a truncus communis and offers three different versions of this common root to bilingual readers. Starting from the basis of this truncus communis, each of the three works develops in its own way. There are but few corpora that have the advantage of displaying similarities and differences simultaneously and on this scale.
The section which the three novels have in common develops the theme of the foundling/orphan, which is a commonplace of the sentimental novel made fashionable by S. Richardson’s Pamela or Virtue Rewarded in 1740. This Richardsonian sentimentalism would later be satirised by H. Fielding in Shamela (1741) and Joseph Andrews (1742). Fielding, however, is also the author of The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749). Both in France and in England, the motif is a surprisingly constant presence throughout the century.

A lo largo del siglo XIX, las altas cifras de mortalidad de expósitos pusieron en evidencia la necesidad de emprender una serie de reformas dirigidas a mejorar las condiciones sanitarias de las inclusas y la implementación de medidas de apoyo a la maternidad. Conforme a ello, los médicos es-pañoles plantearon un proyecto de medicalización de la Inclusa, cuya materialización asistencial se vio seriamente marcada por el peso del viejo prejuicio que valoraba al niño expósito como  "hijo del vicio ", privilegiando un modelo de reforma en el que el cuidado de las condiciones morales de los niños siguió teniendo un carácter prioritario con respecto a la obtención de asistencia material.

Throughout the nineteenth century the high mortality rates of foundling, highlighted the need to undertake a series of reforms aimed to improve the sanitary conditions in the foundling asylums and to implement measures for the maternity support. Accordingly, Spanish doctors raised a draft medicali-zation of the Foundling, whose implementation was seriously marked by the weight of the old prejudice that valued the foundling child as "son of vice" , privileging a reform model in which the care of the moral conditions of children continued to be a priority with respect to obtaining material assistance.

O presente artigo tem como objetivo apresentar a evolução da assistência aos expostos em Leiria, durante o século XIX, tendo como estudo-caso o município de Porto de Mós. É conhecido que este fenómeno adquiriu contornos peculiares em Portugal. Deste modo, assume-se como objetivo trazer novos elementos para o seu conhecimento, a partir de um distrito menos assumido pela historiografia atual: Leiria
This article aims to analyse the evolution of foundlings' assistance in Leiria, in the ninetheenth century, having Porto de Mós as a study-case. It is known that this phenomenon acquired peculiar characteristics in Portugal. It is objective to presente new elements concerning his knowledge, from a lesser known district of the current historiography: Leiria

ENGLISH
The post-war political and public debate on the foundling issue concentrates on whether or not to provide special arrangements for children (such as baby hatches) and mothers (such as anonymous births). In this article, I explore three research questions to establish the present positions within the Netherlands in this respect. Firstly, which actors and factors gave substance to the foundling debate. Secondly, how public, political and other actors relate(d) to these factors and each other. And thirdly, how these positions and possible position changes can be explained. The results show the number of actors to have increased over the years. Initially, four key factors were identified, which mark certain periods and positions. These are the risks for children and mothers (from 1967 on), the importance of family descent information (1984), the establishment of baby hatches in neighbouring countries (1999), and the introduction of foundling rooms (2011). Following more extensive analysis, abortion legislation has been shown to be a crucial, fifth factor in the early days of the debate as well (1967-1984). Based on these developments, it is not unthinkable that the Dutch situation might come to resemble the German model: against the law but permitted in practice.

Met de opening van de eerste particuliere vondelingenkamers in Nederland eind 2014 hebben onder meer politiek, media en maatschappij naast inzicht in juridische kaders een groeiende behoefte aan bredere relevante informatie over het hedendaagse te vondeling leggen.  Er is echter niet eerder breed contemporain onderzoek in het vondelingendomein uitgevoerd. De officiële instanties die bij vondelingenzaken zijn betrokken, kunnen en mogen dossiers niet beschikking stellen. Wetenschappelijke publicaties uit aanpalende kennisdomeinen binnen Nederland of het
vondelingendomein in Europese context leveren geen geschikte data op. De nieuwe dataset die in deze studie is beschreven is op dit moment enig in zijn soort en geeft derhalve het meest actuele en accurate inzicht in het naoorlogse te vondeling leggen in Nederland.

Our results highlight the scant importance assigned to foundlings in Spanish society during the Ancien Régime. They also indicate that legal and regulatory factors are more relevant to explain the evolution of abandonment in the mid and long term and its dynamic than economic, moral and cultural factors. The new legislation adopted at the end of the 18th century intended to address the social problems generated during this period by the presumed increase in foundlings. In practice, it changed very quickly the social and demographic behavior that traditionally surrounded abandonment. The new laws permited a certain form of legal renounciation to motherhood by unmarried mothers, but the social disapprobation of abandonment and foundlings remained high in the Spanish society during all the Early Modern period.

[EN] The Care for Foundlings in Eighteenth-Century Vilnius
This article examines the phenomenon of child abandonment and the patterns of care for foundlings in eighteenth-century Vilnius. Western European social historians have produced many studies on the history of foundlings, thus revealing a problem of enormous proportions. However, there have been only limited efforts to examine the history of foundlings in early modern Vilnius, usually concentrating on the activities of the foundling hospital, while important questions about the number of foundlings and the patterns of care prior to the foundation of the institution are left unanswered. Research in the records of the parishes of SS Johns and SS Joseph and Nicodemus revealed steady growing numbers of illegitimate births and abandoned children in the second half of the eighteenth century (see appendices no. 1–3), which could be attributed to immigration and the rise of city’s population. This shift challenged traditional mechanisms of care and made the clergy, who were the first to confront infants left at the steps of their churches,
convents and hospitals, to look for other ways to care for abandoned children. The first known institution – foundation to support several wet-nurses – was founded by the bishop of Vilnius Ignacy Jakub Massalski in 1771. It seems that it was a short-lived initiative, and since the late 1780s the hospital of St Roch emerged as the leading institution in the care of foundlings. The hospital acted not only as a place to leave unwanted infants, but also as institution supporting a network of wet-nurses living in the city as well as in the suburbs. Without a doubt, the foundation of the hospital of Infant Jesus for foundlings and orphans by Jadwiga Teresa Ogińska née Załuska in 1786 represented a turning point in providing institutional care for abandoned infants. Situated in the Subocz suburb beyond the city walls, the hospital under the management of the Sisters of Charity and the Congregation of Mission, was opened on 17 October 1791. In the first decade, 438 infants, mostly female (see appendix no. 3), were baptised and accepted to the hospital. In contrast, there were 307 baptisms of abandoned infants in the aforementioned parishes through the whole of eighteenth century. The author argues that the founding of the hospital was the main factor behind the significant decline in the number of foundlings, as well as illegitimate children, baptised in the two parishes after 1791 (see appendix no. 3). Without a doubt, the foundling hospital has helped to save more infants, however, the opportunity to safely and anonymously leave the unwanted progeny at the institution, arguably, encouraged mothers and/or parents to abandon their infants, instead of baptising them as illegitimate.