Eurasian Lynx

We report on topographical and vegetational characteristics of 13 sites where Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) killed its prey in the Dinaric mountain range in Slovenia. The results suggest that lynx does not necessarily need dense vegetation and rugged terrain to successfully hunt its prey, however, it may influence its hunting success. A large part of the successful hunts took place on steep slopes and rugged terrain. 39% of kill sites were located in dolines, implying the potential importance of these karst structures for the hunting of large carnivores on ungulates in karst areas such as Dinaric Mountains.

Influence des interactions avec les ours, les loups et les lynx sur les perceptions des chasseurs et des éleveurs de République de Macédoine.
La nature conflictuelle des relations entre les hommes et les prédateurs conduit à s’interroger sur l’origine des perceptions négatives liées à ces animaux ainsi que sur l’articulation entre processus d’identification et processus relationnels. Cette étude, basée sur des enquêtes ethno-éthologiques menées en République de Macédoine, souhaite montrer que les comportements des ours, des loups et des lynx ont un impact sur la fréquence et la nature des interactions avec l’homme et influencent ainsi les perceptions qui leurs sont associées.

In 13 cases (ten roe deer, two red deer, and one chamois), the prey remains were found early enough for the bite marks to be studied. In all the cases lynx killed their prey with a bite in the neck region. In eight (62%) instances, the bite was from the ventral side of the neck only, in three (23%) cases only from the dorsal side, and in two (15%) cases bite marks could be distinguished on both sides of the neck. In nine cases we performed a more detailed autopsy of the region with the bite marks. In five out of the six cases (83%) where the bite was delivered from the ventral side, we could find injuries in the region of the common carotid artery (a. carotis communis) and the truncus vagosympathicus (Fig. 1). In three out of these five cases the laryngeal cartilages and/or windpipe were damaged. In only one case the injuries inflicted by teeth were restricted to the windpipe. Our observations indicate that, when biting from below, the bite into the throat causing suffocation might ...

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is probably one of the most studied species in Europe. To date, despite the large number of projects that have been addressed to it, few studies have actually been carried out in the Romanian Carpathian. This pioneering study, entirely developed within the WOLFLIFE project (LIFE13 NAT/RO/000205), aimed to assess the ecological role of the predator in Romania, studying its winter feeding ecology and the spatial interaction with the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Accomplished during the winter 2014/15, the collection of signs of presence was achieved by performing transects, both standard and occasional, over an area of 1.200 km2. In total, from 270 excrements collected, 135 were selected and analysed to assess the wolf diet. Out of all food types found (n=12), wild boar (Sus scrofa) represented the main preyed species throughout the winter, accounting for 57,9% of biomass ingested, followed by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) at 20% and 13,6%, respectively. Dog (Canis familiaris) ranked fourth accounting for 5,2%. Regarding the species interaction, the overlap of the signs of presence for both species was compared, based on snow tracking data and considering variables such as land cover and elevation. Despite a similar use in habitat and altitude, the species share their territory spatially but not temporally, suggesting that both carnivores share the same trails but use them at different times.

The year-round food habits of lynx were studied using radio-telemetry and snow-tracking in the boreal forest of southeastern Norway. The main objectives of the study were to clarify the importance of domestic sheep and small prey species in the diet of lynx in an area with a very low density of roe deer. During the period 1995–1999, we found 193 scats and 358 kills made by lynx. Our results indicate that roe deer were the most common prey species (contributing to 83 and 34% of the biomass consumed in winter and summer, respectively), although a wide range of other species were also found, including mountain hares, tetranoids, red foxes, domestic sheep, wild reindeer, and even moose. Most of the diet was obtained by predation, although we did document several cases of scavenging. Roe deer were more important in the diet in winter than in summer, perhaps because they were easier to locate in winter as they clustered around feeding sites. In summer, domestic sheep and small prey increased in importance. Despite the very low density of roe deer in this study area, lynx seemed to still specialise on them, although domestic sheep did constitute a significant amount to their diet, especially for males and yearlings. However, the contribution of sheep to summer diet was far from that expected if their relative density was considered.

Current studies on Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the wild rarely include behavioural traits of this species.
Moreover, being a cryptic species, its behaviour is very difficult to be studied in the wild. In order to record
and analyse the lynx behaviour during the breeding season, a cameratrap was put in a lynx enclosure
in Sofia Zoo for 64 days to follow the reproductive period of the lynx pair. A total of 2972 video clips were
collected and analysed in order to define the frequency and duration of the social/ non-social behaviour,
the influence of the temperature, time of the day and the moon phase. The analysis of behavioural acts, 28
non-social and 20 social, showed a high frequency of the social behaviour during the day. There was no
significant difference between the number of exhibited behavioural acts in males and females, although
the male showed more pronounced marking behaviour, mating calls and approaches to the female. Totally,
29 acts of head-tossing were observed as part of the lynx courtship behaviour. Six copulations were also
recorded, followed by successful pregnancy and birt

Since 1970, global vertebrate populations have declined by around 30% (McRae et al., 2012), with mammals declining by 25% (Baillie et al., 2010). In 2013, the IUCN (International Union
for Conservation of Nature) Red List (http://www.iucnredlist.org/) categorized 25% of the assessed extant mammal species as threatened. Nevertheless, some species are reclaiming parts of their historic ranges across Europe (Deinet et al., 2013).

We cannot track the gains and losses of most of the animals found in European woods and forests; for example, what changes in shrew distributions might there have been over the last 10,000 years? However, we have a considerable amount of information about such changes for the larger mammals. These
larger mammals are important for the functioning of forests; and apart from the trees themselves, have been the species group most directly influenced by human activities, such
as hunting.

In this chapter, I explore how and why selected species that have a particular significance in the character of the European forest, have declined or increased. My focus is on: the aurochs (the wild ox) (Plate 4), which would have been important in creating openness in the early Holocene landscape; large carnivores, such as wolves, that affect the abundance and behaviour of deer and other herbivores; beavers as important shapers of the riverine environments; and squirrels and
deer that currently have major effects on woodland regeneration and management.

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Estonia is a part of the large fragmented Eurasian population, constituting a piece of its north- westernmost branch. The large forested region in northeastern Estonia has been a core area for bears since the Holocene. Although half of the country is covered by forest, suitable habitats for bears are limited. Extensive forest clearance

Raubtiere üben bereits durch ihre bloße Anwesenheit so genannte nicht-letale Effekte auf ihre Beutetiere aus, denn diese ändern ihr Verhalten, um möglichst nicht getötet zu werden. Internationale Forschungsergebnisse z. B. von Wölfen aus dem Yellowstone Nationalpark zeigen, dass diese Effekte stärker sein können als die, die durch das Töten der Beutetiere hervorgerufen werden. Doch trifft das auch für Luchs und Reh in Mitteleuropa zu?

This paper is about Lynx sp. in Spain during XIXTh century from Ecohistoy. Historical studies about fauna are usually carried out from a biological perspective. Biologists understand that ancient biogeography, behavioral data, or environments are key issues for conservation biology. Therefore, they conducted studies concerning past times. Sometimes we find that these historical studies are not as productive as they should be. This happens because of the nature of the historical documents, the meaning of the language or the historical context. We get more than 300 references about Lynxes. 254 of the references are related with Lynx locations. We made a proposal for evolution of Linx population from Ecohistory. Work with historical documents It´s very important for Ecohistory and future works of Conservation Biology.

Semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are the main prey for lynx (Lynx lynx) in northern Scandinavia. This causes large, but poorly documented, losses of reindeer. Although the compensation schemes differ between Norway and Sweden, there is a legal requirement in both Scandinavian countries that losses of semi-domestic reindeer to large carnivores should be fully compensated. The current level of compensation payment

Conservation shortcuts such as umbrella species have been long used for regional protection of species whose distributions are poorly known. Although the European large carnivores—brown bear, gray wolf, and Eurasian lynx—might seem to be robust candidates as umbrella species, their actual effectiveness has been challenged. We used 10-km resolution distribution maps of mammals (n = 10) and birds (n = 55) of European conservation concern in the Romanian Carpathians, and a temporal sequence of land cover maps (1990, 2000, and 2006) to examine: (1) the spatial overlap in distribution between large carnivores and bird and mammal species of conservation concern, (2) changes in forest cover for the Romanian Carpathians during the post-communist period in relation to the distribution of species, and (3) priority conservation areas using carnivores as umbrella species. Approximately 55% of the bird and 80% of mammals species included in this study would potentially benefit from using large carnivores as conservation surrogates. The changes in forest cover during 1990–2006 were concentrated in the Eastern Carpathians, where up to 45% of the forest per mapping unit was clearcut during the study period. Implicitly, the areas of occupancy of the background species were most disturbed by clearcutting in the Eastern Carpathians. We propose that the large carnivores could act temporary as umbrella species in areas that are still relatively undisturbed, such as Southern and Southwestern Carpathians. This alternative conservation strategy will allow time for (1) the new established protected areas to start efficiently and (2) the forestry practices to switch from mostly uncontrolled clearcutting, lacking landscape scale management to ecologically-based practices.

A population of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx was established
by reintroductions in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem in the 1970s and 1980s. The most recent information on the population status indicates that the distribution has stagnated since the late 1990s, for unknown reasons. We assessed the availability of suitable habitat along the Austrian–German–Czech border, and hypothesized that the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx population is not in equilibrium with habitat suitability. Based on global positioning system data from 10 radio-collared lynx, we used a maximum entropy approach to model suitable habitat. Variables reflecting anthropogenic influence contributed most to the model and were negatively associated with the occurrence of lynx. We evaluated the model prediction using independent records of lynx from monitoring in Bavaria, Germany. Using our habitat approach we estimated the area of potential habitat, based on a mean annual home range of 445 km² for males and 122 km² for females. Our results indicated there were 12415 km² of suitable habitat, distributed among 13 patches, for a potential population of c. 142 (93–160) resident lynx. We assessed connectivity via least-cost paths and found that all suitable patches could be reached by the lynx. A comparison with the current distribution of lynx, however, confirms that a significant proportion of suitable habitat is not occupied, which indicates that the distribution is limited by factors other than habitat, with illegal killing being the most likely cause. Our study
provides crucial information for the development of a conservation strategy and regional planning for the Bohemian–
Bavarian lynx population.

Carnivores are often particularly sensitive to landscape fragmentation. Ecological corridors may help to connect local populations, ensuring gene flow and retaining viable meta-populations. We aimed to establish habitat suitability models for two large carnivores in Poland, the grey wolf Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 and the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758, based on ecological niche factor analysis (ENFA). Secondly, we calculated least cost paths (LCPs) based on cost values obtained from ENFA. Thirdly, we determined structures that might act as barriers, thus diminishing the value of the corridor unless appropriate conservation measures are taken. We compared some of the results with actual dispersal data of four lynx in eastern Poland. Results indicate that both species are highly marginalised. Less habitat that is currently available in Poland is suitable for lynx than for wolves. We determined a total of 76 LCPs. Comparison of these theoretical corridors with actual dispersal routes suggests that the traits of calculated LCPs are mostly within the range of those of real routes. We highlight a variety of features that might act as barriers, such as major roads (including planned highways), urbanized areas, and large un-forested areas. We give suggestions where concerted conservation efforts (eg wildlife passages) might be particularly well-directed.

1After an absence of almost 100 years, the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx is slowly recovering in Germany along the German–Czech border. Additionally, many reintroduction schemes have been discussed, albeit controversially, for various locations. We present a habitat suitability model for lynx in Germany as a basis for further management and conservation efforts aimed at recolonization and population development.2We developed a statistical habitat model using logistic regression to quantify the factors that describe lynx home ranges in a fragmented landscape. As no data were available for lynx distribution in Germany, we used data from the Swiss Jura Mountains for model development and validated the habitat model with telemetry data from the Czech Republic and Slovenia. We derived several variables describing land use and fragmentation, also introducing variables that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a larger scale than the map resolution.3We obtained a model with only one significant variable that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a scale of about 80 km2. This result is biologically meaningful, reflecting the absence of intensive human land use on the scale of an average female lynx home range. Model testing at a cut-off level of P > 0·5 correctly classified more than 80% of the Czech and Slovenian telemetry location data of resident lynx. Application of the model to Germany showed that the most suitable habitats for lynx were large-forested low mountain ranges and the large forests in east Germany.4Our approach illustrates how information on habitat fragmentation on a large scale can be linked with local data to the potential benefit of lynx conservation in central Europe. Spatially explicit models like ours can form the basis for further assessing the population viability of species of conservation concern in suitable patches.After an absence of almost 100 years, the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx is slowly recovering in Germany along the German–Czech border. Additionally, many reintroduction schemes have been discussed, albeit controversially, for various locations. We present a habitat suitability model for lynx in Germany as a basis for further management and conservation efforts aimed at recolonization and population development.We developed a statistical habitat model using logistic regression to quantify the factors that describe lynx home ranges in a fragmented landscape. As no data were available for lynx distribution in Germany, we used data from the Swiss Jura Mountains for model development and validated the habitat model with telemetry data from the Czech Republic and Slovenia. We derived several variables describing land use and fragmentation, also introducing variables that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a larger scale than the map resolution.We obtained a model with only one significant variable that described the connectivity of forested and non-forested semi-natural areas on a scale of about 80 km2. This result is biologically meaningful, reflecting the absence of intensive human land use on the scale of an average female lynx home range. Model testing at a cut-off level of P > 0·5 correctly classified more than 80% of the Czech and Slovenian telemetry location data of resident lynx. Application of the model to Germany showed that the most suitable habitats for lynx were large-forested low mountain ranges and the large forests in east Germany.Our approach illustrates how information on habitat fragmentation on a large scale can be linked with local data to the potential benefit of lynx conservation in central Europe. Spatially explicit models like ours can form the basis for further assessing the population viability of species of conservation concern in suitable patches.

Annual and seasonal home ranges were calculated for 47 Eurasian lynx in four Scandinavian study sites (two in Sweden and two in Norway). The observed home ranges were the largest reported for the species, with study site averages ranging from 600 to 1400 km2 for resident males and from 300 to 800 km2 for resident females. When home range sizes were compared to the size of protected areas (national parks and nature reserves) in Scandinavia, it was concluded that very few protected areas contained sufficient forest to provide space for more than a few individuals. As a direct consequence of this, most lynx need to be conserved in the multiuse seminatural forest habitats that cover large areas in Scandinavia. This conservation strategy leads to a number of conflicts with some land uses (sheep and semidomestic reindeer herding, and roe deer hunters), but not all (forestry and moose harvest). Accordingly research must be aimed at understanding the ecology of these conflicts, and finding solutions.

Throughout their evolution, humans have scavenged the remains of prey killed by large carnivores. Such human kleptoparasitism is still occurring nowadays, however, the reasons for it today are more diverse than the simple acquisition of food. The phenomenon is very poorly documented and most of the data available come for Africa and Asia. In this paper we present data of

The known distribution of the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus within the Iberian Penin- sula since the Middle Pleistocene and the lack of reliable records of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in this region have led to the assumption that the Iberian lynx was the sole inhabitant of Iberia. In this study, we identified ancient mitochondrial DNA (a total of 337 base pairs from the control region and cytochrome b) from eight north- ern Iberian lynx remains as Eurasian lynx. These results confirm the presence of Eurasian lynx in northern Iberia from the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary until just a few centuries ago. The paleontological record and our data indicate a population replacement of the Iberian lynx by the Eurasian lynx during the Pleistocene/Holo- cene transition in the Cantabrian cornice of Spain. Phylogeographic patterns of Late Pleistocene and Holocene Eurasian lynx from Iberia, France, Italy and Denmark show that this felid had a more complex phylogeographic history in the past than modern day populations suggest.

The last officially registered lynx in Bulgaria was killed in 1941 and is considered extinct from the country. Since then there
are only unofficial reports of local people throughout the whole country as none of them was officially confirmed. In the last
15 years more and more reports for seen or illegally killed lynx in Bulgaria are gathered from different sources. In May 2008
we initiated two projects to record animal presence and behaviour by 8 Moultrie camera traps. On 21st of November 2008 in
6:38 and 6:39 am a camera trap placed for observation of a badger set registered two photos of adult male lynx. This evidence
is equal to quality one level of data reliability, according to the common standards for the interpretation of the monitoring
data on a Pan-Alpine level accepted by the Pan-Alpine Conservation Strategy for the Lynx. This is considered the first real
proof of lynx presence in Bulgaria. Development of the lynx population through the last years is discussed below.

Paper about Lynx sp. at Spain during the XIX th century.  Here we give keywords to identify Linx in old Spanish documents, even in American territory (Southern USA and México). We get hundreds of reports in documents such as old news papers, old Geographic studies and old dictionaries. Also old biological studies have been found that give us a strong data source. Relative human impact in historical wildlife can be found in old documents and other types of data, including  the evolution of fashion, which is studied using old paintings. Of course there a study of bibliography. Data is always read into historical information.

Este artículo trata sobre linces, tanto ibericos como europeos, presentes en España durante el siglo XIX. Se propone altibajos en su abundancia, todos asociados a diferentes acontecimientos históricos. Se propone una metodología para la identificación de linces en antiguos documentos de territorios históricos hispanos, incluyendo Estados Unidos y México. Se usan gran cantidad de fuentes de información, tales como prensa histórica, estudios geográficos, premios por muertes de alimañas, antiguos estudios sobre zoología y biología. Se propone una evolución relativa de la población en base al impacto antrópico y el contexto histórico. En las fuentes destaca la evolución de la moda en el uso de pieles, analizada mediante obras de arte. Por supuesto hay un estudio de la bibliografía existente. Se concluye con mapas de distribución y tablas de datos y referencias en toda España.

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Richard Pococke’s Tour of Scotland (1760) seems to provide a record of a breeding population of lynxes (Lynx lynx) in the mountains near Auchencairn in the Southern Uplands of Scotland. This paper evaluates the authenticity and significance of the record.

Abstract. Despite having a large range in the Romanian Carpathians, the ecology of Eurasian lynx is relatively misunderstood, particularly concerning the size of its home range and utilized resources. By means of a collar equipped with a GPS device, the movements of a mature lynx female were monitored for a period of 305 days in the northwestern section of Vrancea Mountains. The area of the female's home range is estimated at 486.11 km2, a significantly larger area than what had been recorded previously for Romania. The ...