Diaspora

Tongan Americans trace their heritage and ancestry to the island Kingdom of Tonga, a sovereign constitutional monarchy in the South Pacific (Hau’ofa, 2008). Tongans migrate to the United States primarily for educational and employment opportunities (Cowling, 1990). Of approximately 45,000 Tongan Americans, 18,500 were born outside of the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). About 63 percent of Tongan American families entered the United States before the 1990s and thus have lived in the United States for multiple generations. Tongans reside primarily in Hawaii, California, Utah, and Oregon. Their locations are strategically established to support a transnational life that includes frequent travel to Tonga for family and community events. This chapter will explore aspects of how Tongans have navigated the U.S. thus far.

Dear Friends and Colleagues,

Kinyras: The Divine Lyre is also available online through the CHS website: http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/6329. The web version, however, does not have page numbers, so that internal cross-references cannot be easily followed. Hence the PDF here.

Internet 2.0 fosters the emergence, connection and association of a geographically dispersed community such as Malagasy migrants. This exploratory study analyses Malagasy online practices as a means to understanding the social dynamics and community-building in their host countries. The method employed relies on a parallel analysis of 121 websites and 82 Facebook public pages and groups created and/or managed by Malagasy migrants. The websites are classified according to the category of their activity and the networks they form, based on method used in the e-Diasporas Atlas project (Diminescu, 2012). Findings reveal that Malagasy overseas have the same geographical distribution both online and offline, but Facebook pages and groups are present in more countries than the websites what suggests a potential inverse correlation between belonging to a larger community and the need to be connected online. The network analysis of the websites uncovers that the Malagasy migrants' websites maintain a very weak connection among them and are split into several satellite networks around an interconnected group of political blogs. We conclude this significant weak connection among the MGWEB as a sign of a diaspora in-the making. KEY WORDS: diaspora, incipient diasporas, Malagasy diaspora, connected diaspora; transnational identity APSTRAKT: Internet 2.0 podstiče nastajanje, povezivanje i udruživanje geografski rasutih zajednica poput madagarskarskih migranata. U ovoj eksplorativnoj studiji se kroz analizu onlajn praksi Madagaskaraca objašnjava društvena dinamika i građenje zajednice u okviru njihovih zemalja domaćina. Metodologija rada se oslanja na paralelnu analizu 121 veb stranice i 82 javne Fejsbuk stranice i grupa kreiranih i/ili administriranih od strane madagaskarskih migranata. Na temelju 1 fortunatmiarintsoa.andrianimanana01@estudiant.upf.edu 2

DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199920082-0070

Introduction
The Chinese diaspora is an interdisciplinary research topic par excellence. Located at the intersection of the humanities and social sciences, it encompasses disciplines as diverse as geography, sociology, history, anthropology, psychology, and political science. In addition, scholarship on the topic is characterized by changing configurations and approaches that are reflected in terminological debates. The term “overseas Chinese” is mostly associated with the first period of migration (the 1850s–1950) after mass migration from China began during the mid-19th century. During this period, the main destination for South Chinese emigrants was Southeast Asia. Up to the end of World War II, the majority of them considered themselves huaqiao (Chinese sojourners or overseas Chinese), who remained politically and culturally loyal to China. During the second period (1950–1980), new migration patterns emerged as Chinese migrated from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia to North America, Australia, and western Europe. Chinese émigrés renounced Chinese citizenship and gradually became huaren (ethnic Chinese or Chinese overseas) who pledged allegiance to their host countries. Finally, during the third phase (1980 onward), new migrants (xin yimin) from various locations in the PRC began to make up a greater proportion of overall Chinese emigration. The term “Chinese overseas” is generally employed as a neutral term to refer to the approximately 46 million ethnic Chinese who reside outside of mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macau in the early 21st century. As a result of the growing impact of theories of globalization during the 1990s, however, the term “Chinese diaspora” also became widespread. Since then, the study of the Chinese overseas in national contexts and of Chinese migration as an account of departure, arrival, and settlement has been supplemented with an emphasis on mobility, networks, and flexible identities. Since the topic of Chinese diaspora is interdisciplinary in nature, typified by changing approaches, and encompasses all aspects of the life of ethnic Chinese dispersed over more than 150 countries, this bibliography combines a thematic with a geographical organization. Viewing the Chinese overseas in the context of developments both in their places of residence and in China and using a multidimensional perspective, this bibliography pays attention to main themes, such as the importance of different historical phases, patterns of adaptation, and linkages and networks of the Chinese overseas. It gives special consideration to interdisciplinary and geographical aspects, to comparative approaches, to transnational awareness, and to works that combine theoretical discourse and empirical practice.