Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed

Funghi. Alimentazione e nutraceutica è uno dei pochi testi universitari sulla materia attualmente in commercio in Italia. Il libro analizza le caratteristiche generali dei funghi e le tecniche di raccolta e identificazione dei macromiceti di interesse alimentare e medicinale.
È inclusa la descrizione di ventidue funghi di interesse alimentare, con consigli su raccolta, trattamento, conservazione, commercializzazione e tecniche di coltivazione. Un capitolo è dedicato inoltre alle proprietà alimentari e medicinali. L’analisi delle proprietà medicinali è un’assoluta novità nello scenario dei testi universitari italiani e fornisce al lettore utili informazioni sul settore della nutraceutica dei funghi, in costante crescita anche in Europa.

Fungi share an ancient historical bond with humans which is completely fascinating.
The Strange History of Life
Humans have always been fascinated with life in all its forms, but thousands of years ago, we only classified life on Earth into two categories – plants and animals. We can thank Aristotle for that, and he further divided animals into those with and without blood, as well as those in the land, sea, and air. That rudimentary system remained in place until the 1600s. In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus divided life into the kingdoms of animals and plants, and then further began dividing those into different genera and species, which is why we have the two-part naming system in science (Homo sapiens, for example; Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species.

It wasn’t until the middle of the 19th century that single-celled organisms were finally given their due as a separate kingdom of life (Protista). Seventy years later, single-celled organisms were divided into eukaryotes and prokaryotes, so bacteria became the 4th kingdom of life. Although fungi had been recognized as a unique part of the animal kingdom, it was not separated into its own kingdom until 1969. This five-kingdom system remains the most widely accepted format for classifying life on Earth.
All classifications of life until recently, including the expansion from two kingdoms to five, were based on physical observations of how things looked, even under a microscope. This is how the closeness and relationships between species, genera, classes, orders and kingdoms were decided. Given that fact, it comes as no surprise that most people classified fungi as plants for so long. The similarity in appearance is pretty clear, like little red and white trees…

However, thanks to modern technology, the analysis of genetic relationships between species and organisms is now possible, and it shows something very interesting. By examining the genes of different species, both animal and fungi, the mutational changes can be observed, and genealogical relationships can be determined that go back millions of years.

As it turns out, animals and fungi share a common ancestor and branched away from plants at some point about 1.1 billion years ago. It was only later that animals and fungi separated on the genealogical tree of life, making mushrooms more closely related to humans than plants. Most likely, this common ancestor was a single-celled organism that had sperm-like characteristics (like an animal) and then a later developmental stage with a stronger cell wall (fungi).

Are mushrooms vegetables?
Simple answer? No, it’s not a vegetable. Mushrooms are fruiting bodies of macroscopic filamentous fungi. Earlier when mycology (the study of fungi) arose, it was a part of botany. This happened as fungi were considered to be primitive plants. The major difference between a plant (vegetable) and mushroom is how they acquire their food. In the case of plants, they possess chlorophyll and make their food via photosynthesis. Fungi, on the other hand, exist on decaying material in nature. Also the obvious structural differences, such as lack of leaves, roots, and seeds.So fungi now have their own kingdom on the basis of cellular organization.

However, this is the science side of things. Now let us take a look at the other side, the side of food! In terms of food and nutrition, mushrooms are often put in the category of vegetables. The reason for this lies in the nutritional value. Mushrooms and plants have similar nutritional attributes. The nutrients provided by mushroom are spread across various core food groups such as meat and grains. All this has made mushroom a valuable asset in the kitchen both for taste and nutrition.

The Connection Between Mushrooms and Men
Haven’t you ever noticed that eating a perfectly cooked portobello mushroom is closer to eating meat than a salad? Well, that isn’t exactly a scientific explanation of the connection, but this new revelation of our link to fungi does shed some light on the trouble we have with fungal infections in the body. It is notoriously difficult to treat fungal infections, rather than viral and bacterial pathogens, and this close genetic link may explain why.

Fungi and animals are both eukaryotes, with nuclei and other complex structures inside their cell membranes, whereas bacteria are much simpler – composed of just genetic material and a cell wall. Therefore, when we try to fight a bacterial infection, the body is able to easily differentiate and neutralize the threat. Unfortunately, with fungal infections, the body sometimes thinks that the infection is…. us. Drugs that are synthesized to fight the cells of fungal infections may also attack healthy human cells, as there is very little structural difference.

This monograph contains: Classification of mycotoxins, Mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi,  Aspegillus toxins, Common toxigenic aspergilli, Penicillium toxins, Description of the most common toxigenic Penicillium, Fusarium toxins , Description of some Fusarium species, Toxins of black fungi, Trichoderma toxins, Mycotoxicoses, Aspergillotoxicosis , Penicillotoxicosis, Fusariotoxicosis  ,  Facial Eczema (Pithomycotoxicosis)  ,Stachybotryotoxicosis , Management of mycotoxins contamination in feed, Detection of aflatoxins ,Prevention of mycotoxin formation, Detoxification of mycotoxins in food and  feedstuffs , Control of  mycotoxins during  food processing , Limits for mycotoxins in foods and feeds, Media , reagent and stains used for isolation , identification , Methods for Isolation, Enumeration and Identification of mycotoxigenic moulds, Determination of mycotoxins  in  feed and food  samples , Identification of fungal isolates  by polymerase chain reaction (PCR),  Rapid detection of mycotoxigenic fungi. T also contains , Synopsis on  studies done by authors on mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in foods and feeds,:Fungal contamination of meat ,  Fungal contamination of meat products,  Fungal contamination of meat environment , Fungal contamination of feeds and feed ingredients  Mould infection of fresh and smoked fish ,  Mould infection in milk products,  Toxigenicity of moulds isolated from foods and feeds,  Detection of mycotoxins in foods and feeds,  Detection of mycotoxins in diseased birds, animals and  fish Mycotoxins effects on immune and endocrine systems , Miscellaneous studies on mycotoxins, Control of fungal growth and mycotoxins

mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are found in most cereal.in this study OTA (0.295μg/kg),ZEN (1.34μg/kg),Aspergillus metabolites (1.355μg/kg),fusarium metabolites(3.01μg/kg) and pennicillum metabolites (1027.07μg/kg) are recorded and the  dietary exposure for major mycotoxins in adult and children are 0.551μg/kg and0.001, aflatoxin biosynthetic 0.57μg/kg and 0.68μg/kg, other aspergillus metabolites 22074.45μg/kg and 26489.34μg/kg, fusarium matabolites 2.03μg/kg and 2.43μg/kg,alternaria metabolites 3.5μg/kg and 4.2μg/kg, pennicillium metabolites 293.34μg/kg and352.02μg/kg, metabolites from other fungal genera 0.08μg/kg and 0.1μg/kg, unspecific metabolites and trytophan 40.70μg/kg and 48.83μg/kg

ABSTRAK Mutu biji kakao kering dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa hal di antaranya kerusakan yang disebabkan oleh jamur kontaminan penghasil toksin (mikotoksin). Keberadaan jamur tersebut dapat dideteksi sejak kegiatan panen dan pasca panen, seperti sortasi, fermentasi, pencucian, pengeringan, dan penyimpanan. Jenis jamur kontaminan yang sering ditemukan selama tahapan ini berlangsung antara lain marga Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, dan Mucor. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan jamur antara lain: suhu dan kelembaban, kadar air, aktivitas serangga, dan penanganan pascapanen. Mikotoksin dihasilkan dari metabolit jamur-jamur kontaminan, dan jenis yang mendominasi pada biji kakao adalah aflatoksin dan okratoksin. Kedua jenis mikotoksin tersebut selain dapat menurunkan mutu maupun kuantitas biji dan produk olahannya, juga bersifat toksik/racun yang berbahaya bagi manusia karena dapat menyebabkan gangguan kesehatan seperti kanker hati dan ginjal. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan pencegahan dan pengendalian terhadap jamur kontaminan penghasil mikotoksin pada semua tahapan kegiatan untuk memperoleh biji kakao kering dengan mutu terbaik. ABSTRACT Quality of dried cocoa beans can be affected by several things, one of them is the damage caused by fungal contaminants that produce toxin (mycotoxin). The existence of these fungi can be detected from the harvest and post-harvest activities, including sorting, fermentation, washing, drying, and storage. These types of fungal contaminants that often found during those processes are genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, and Mucor. Factors that influence the development of fungi are temperature and humidity, moisture, insect activity, and postharvest handling. Mycotoxins are generated from metabolites of fungal contaminants, in which the most dominant types on cocoa beans are aflatoxin and ochratoxin. These two types of fungal contaminants can reduce the quality and quantity of cocoa beans and its processed products. Besides, this toxin is also toxic/poison to humans because it can cause health problems such as liver and cancer. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent and control these fungal contaminants at all stages of activities in order to obtain dry beans with the best quality.

Makhluk hidup ini tidak memiliki pigmen klorofil untuk berfotosintesis sehingga cendawan menjadi saprofit atau parasit. Cendawan ada yang hanya satu sel dan ada yang terdiri banyak sel yang bentuknya seperti benang halus (hifa). Hifa itu ada yang bersekat dan ada yang tidak bersekat. Kumpulan dari hifa disebut miselium. Perkembangbiakan ini terjadi dengan adanya penggabungan antara sel kelamin jantan dan sel kelamin betina yang akan membentuk spora, dimana spora tersebut akan membentuk miselium pada keadaan temperatur, kelembapan dan inang yang cocok. Perkembangbiakan secara ini dilakukan tanpa penggabungan sel kelamin jantan dan sel kelamin betina, akan tetapi dengan pembentukan spora atau vegetatif yaitu hifa atau miselium akan diputus yang kemudian bisa dikembang biakkan lagi. Dari hifa akan tumbuh banyak spora. Cendawan ada yang merugikan dan  ada yang menguntungkan. Cendawan yang menguntukan pada umumnya cendawan yang bisa dimakan, sedangkan cendawan yang merugikan umumnya cendawan yang menyebabkan penyakit pada tanaman. Klasifikasi cendawan dibagi dalam empat kelas yang penting yakni Phycomycetes; Ascomycetes; Basidiomycetes dan  Fungi Imperfekti



Kata Kunci : Cendawan; Jenis Penyakit Tumbuhan; Jenis Cendawan; Fungi; Klasifikasi Cendawan;

Fungiandplantsarerichsourcesofthousandsofsecondarymetabolites.Thegeneticallycodedpossibilitiesforsecondarymetaboliteproduction,thestimulioftheproduction,andthespecialphytotoxinsbasicallydeterminethemicroscopicfungi-hostplantinteractionsandthepathogeniclifestyleoffungi.Thereviewintroducesplantsecondarymetabolitesusuallywithantifungaleffectaswellastheimportanceofsignalingmoleculesininducedsystemicresistanceandsystemicacquiredresistanceprocesses.Thereviewalsoconcernsthemimickingofplanteffectormoleculeslikeauxins,gibberellinsandabscisicacidbyfungalsecondarymetabolitesthatmodulateplantgrowthorevencansubverttheplantdefenseresponsessuchasprogrammedcelldeathtogainnutrientsforfungalgrowthandcolonization.Italsolooksthroughthespecialsecondarymetaboliteproductionandhostselectivetoxinsofsomesignificantfungalpathogensandtheplantresponseinformofphytoalexinproduction.Newresultscomingfromgenomeandtranscriptionalanalysesincontextofselectedfungalpathogensandtheirhostsarealsodiscussed.

This is very common crisis, while cutting the potatoes, often seen, while the cut-halves of the potatoes show up a pink slime inside them these are due to the presence of Clostridium Puniceum fungus often attacks the starch contain vegetables like potatoes when prolonged stored in the damp-col d environment. This paper deals with the investigation of the Clostridium P fungus and the Mycotoxin Clostrobin A and the Ideal storage process of the potatoes.

Hasil pertanian tanpa penanganan yang tepat akan mengalami perubahan akibat pengaruh-pengaruh fisiologis, mekanis, fisik, kimia, parasitik dan mikrobiologik. Infeksi jamur dapat terjadi pada hampir 100 % biji jagung oleh jamur bermiselia putih dan hitam (Aspergilus dan Penicillium). Tujuan penulisan makalah ini adalah untuk mengetahui potensi kerusakan jagung di Kalimantan Barat akibat aflatoksin, mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendukung pertumbuhan jamur Aspergillus, mengetahui teknologi pra dan pasca panen yang dapat menekan pertumbuhan jamur Aspergillus serta menyusun rekomendasi penanganan pasca panen biji jagung yang spesifik di Kalimantan Barat.
Potensi biji jagung terinfeksi jamur Aspergillus flavus sangat tinggi sehingga perlu penanganan pasca panen yang tepat. Potensi kerusakan jagung akibat aflatoksin di Kalimantan Barat cukup tinggi akibat iklim tropis yang basah dengan kelembaban yang tinggi. Aflatoksin dapat menyebabkan hepatotoksik (keracunan hati), karsinogenik (penyebab kanker), menghambat pertumbuhan, merusak sistem kekebalan tubuh, penurunan berat badan, pertumbuhan sel-sel darah merah, kandungan kalsium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) di dalam plasma darah, penurunan kadar protein dan albumin dalam darah.
Teknik pengendalian aflatoksin meliputi pengendalian lingkungan tempat tumbuh jamur dan  pemilihan bahan baku biji jagung yang baik. Petani jagung di Kalimantan Barat perlu mendapatkan pengetahuan yang memadai tentang teknis penanganan pra dan pasca panen jagung. Pemerintah perlu melakukan langkah teknis dan strategis yang dilaksanakan secara terpadu untuk mengendalikan tingkat kerusakan biji jagung akibat aflatoksin.

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and removal, were revisited in this work. Our synthesis revealed that mycotoxin decontamination, control, and detoxification strategies cut across pre-and post-harvest preventive measures. In particular, pre-harvest measures can include good agricultural practices, fertilization/irrigation, crop rotation, using resistant varieties of crops, avoiding insect damage, early harvesting, maintaining adequate humidity, and removing debris from the preceding harvests. On the other hand, post-harvest measures can include processing, chemical, biological, and physical measures. Additionally, chemical-based methods and other emerging strategies for mycotoxin detoxification can involve the usage of chitosan, ozone, nanoparticles, and plant extracts.

The indispensable nature of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in agricultural systems is of worldwide concern, hence the need for surveillance studies to preserve public health. Thirteen dairy farms were surveyed and 40 dairy feeds of varying nature collected and analyzed for mycotoxins. Estimated levels of aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisin B 1 (FB 1), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (ADONs), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), and beauvericin (BEA) were established using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Highest frequencies (40/40) were found for AFG 2 (range: <LOQ-116.1 ppb), α-ZEL (range: 0.98-13.24 ppb), and β-ZEL (range: 0.73-4.71 ppb), followed by AFB 2 at 37/40 (range: <LOQ-23.88 ppb), BEA at 36/40 (range: <LOQ-55.99 ppb), HT-2 at 35/40 (range: <LOQ-312.95 ppb), and FB 1 at 34/40 (range: <LOQ-1389.62 ppb). Apart from samples exceeding regulatory limits for total AFs in dairy feeds due to the high amounts of AFG 2 and AFB 2 , levels of other mycotoxins were regarded as safe for dairy production in South Africa. This is the first-time the natural occurrence of the cold climate HT-2 in South African feeds was documented. Persistent co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins across samples, however, may elicit synergistic and/or additive effects in hosts, hence raising concerns about their impacts and how such interactions may affect the dairy livestock sector. Key Contribution: The current study evaluated the single and combined mycotoxin occurrences of 15 mycotoxins in dairy cattle feeds from the Gauteng Province of South Africa. These findings are of importance in the monitoring and management of mycotoxins in animal breeding systems.

ive samples of ‘orunla’ (sliced dried okra fruits) were purchased from selected markets within Ibadan city, Nigeria. These were wrapped in cellophane paper and stored for 4 months. Laboratory made ‘orunla’ samples which acts as control were also prepared. Mycoorganisms were isolated from fresh and stored samples. Effect of storage time on proximate and mineral element contents (Fe, Mg, and P) were also determined. Both fresh and stored ‘orunla’ samples were also screened for possible aflatoxin contamination. The results of the work showed that, biodeteriorating fungi isolated from the market samples and their percentage occurrences include Aspergillus flavus (16.88%), A. niger (16.23%), A. fumigatus (16.23%) and Rhizopus nigricans (16.23%) while Mucor mucedo (5%), Candida albicans (2%) and Trichoderma sp. (2%) had the least percentage occurrences. The moisture contents of the samples range from (9.80% to 16.36%), protein (11.27% to 18.74%), ether extract (1.37% to 2.11%), crude fiber (38.18 % 41.27%), ash (11.70% to 12.55%), carbohydrates (31.15% to31.58%) and dry matter (45.07% to 45.22%). Storage time had significant effect on the nutrient and aflatoxin content of all the samples (P>0.05). Mg and P values were not significantly different from each other except the control. Also, the storage time had effect on the Aflatoxin content in market samples as their aflatoxin content varied and increased with the time of storage. Highest concentration of aflatoxin was detected in Ojaoba  samples (10.20µ/Kg AFB1, 7.30µ/Kg AFB2, 5.7µ/Kg AFG1 and 3.22µ/KgAFG2), Moniya (8.50µ/Kg AFB1, 6.3µ/Kg AFB2, 4.9µ/KgAFG1 and 3.17µ/KgAFG2) and Apete (9.7µ/Kg AFB1, 4.4µ/Kg AFB2, 3.8µ/Kg AFG1 and 2.9µ/KgAFG2) samples while the least aflatoxin was detected  in the control (0.0µ/Kg AFB1, AFG1 AFG2 and 0.13µ/Kg AFB2) and Ojoo (2.50µ/Kg AFB1, 2.10µ/Kg AFB2, 2.1µ/Kg AFG1 and 1.90µ/KgAFG2) after four month of storage. The implication of these results were discussed.
[Jonathan S.G., Asemoloye M.D*., Abe A., Olawuyi O.J. and Aina D. Food Value, Fungi and Aflatoxin Detection in Stored ‘Orunla’ Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench) from Ibadan, Nigeria. Researcher 2016;8(2):7-18]. ISSN 1553-9865 (print); ISSN 2163-8950 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/researcher. 2. doi:10.7537/marsrsj08021602.
    
Keywords: Orunla, Mycoorganism, Biodeterioration, Aflatoxin, Proximate compositions, Abelmoscush esculentus

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and rem...

Practices used by smallholder dairy farmers for handling of feeds at the farm pose a risk of mycotoxins to dairy animals and dairy products, hence a public health concern. The aim of the study was to document the on-farm practices of handling feeds used by these farmers and how they influence the growth of mycotoxin producing fungi together with prevailing extrinsic conditions. Study involved the use of structured questionnaire for interview of smallholder dairy farmers (n=120) for on-farm feed handling practices and collection of feed samples (n=97) for microbial analysis of the mycotoxin producing molds. The fungi counts were interrelated with the feed handling practice and therefore a measure of its impact. Results found out that rural dairy system was characterized by practice of free range grazing unlike peri-urban system practice that had semi-intensive stall feeding. At the farm level, the type feeds storage facility and the type and condition of feeds were found to be significant risk factors (p<0.05) for infestation of mycotoxic fungi. Feed contamination on farm at the sub-value chains with mycotoxic fungi is primarily due to poor storage facilities exposing feed to environmental conditions that favors fungi growth.

Milled rice grade is diminished as the quantity of discolored kernels increases. This study evaluated the magnitude of kernel discoloration and relationship to fungal growth for long-grain hybrid (XL 753), long-grain pureline (Roy J.) and medium-grain (Titan) rice, exposed to storage moisture contents (MCs) of 16 and 21%, wet basis, temperatures of 20, 30, 40 C, and durations up to 16 weeks. Impact of postharvest treatments with the antifungal agents, natamycin and sodium chloride, on rice discoloration and fungal growth was compared with untreated (control) samples. Subsamples were taken every four weeks to determine total fungal counts, discoloration, and water activity. Rice stored at 40 C had six-to eleven-times more discoloration than at 20 C. Increased storage duration significantly increased discoloration. Discoloration was not different between MC levels. Discoloration was significantly lower by sodium chloride treatment, while natamycin was not effective compared to control. Rice samples treated with sodium chloride also had significantly less water activity (mean a w ¼ 0.73) compared to samples treated with natamycin (mean ¼ 0.84) and control samples (mean ¼ 0.83). Hybrid rice had significantly less discoloration compared to pureline and medium-grain. Fungal counts were similar across all cultivars. Increasing temperature and duration decreased fungal count. An inverse relation between fungi and discoloration suggests microbe activities did not explain discoloration. The findings provide important information to growers and processors on conditions necessary to maintain rice quality.

—The consumption of food contaminated with molds (microscopic filamentous fungi) and their toxic metabolites results in the development of food-borne mycotoxicosis. The spores of molds are ubiquitously spread in the environment and can be detected everywhere. Ochratoxin A is a toxic and potentially carcinogenic fungal toxin found in a variety of food commodities. In this study, the mycological quality of various ready-to-eat local and imported pork meat and meat byproducts sold in Egyptian markets were assessed and the presence of various molds was determined in pork used as a raw material, edible organs as liver and kidney as well as in fermented raw meat by-products. The study assessed the mycological quality of pork raw meat and their by-products sold in commercial shops in Cairo, Egypt. Mycological analysis was conducted on (n=110) samples which included pig's livers and kidneys from Egyptian Bassatin slaughter house; local and imported processed pork meat by-products from Egyptian pork markets. The isolates were identified using traditional mycological and biochemical tests. All kidney and liver samples were positive to molds growth while all byproducts were negative. Ochratoxin A levels were quantitatively analyzed using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the highest results were present in kidney 7.51 part per billion (ppb) followed by minced meat 6.19 ppb generally the local samples showed higher levels than the imported ones. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on mycotoxins detection and quantification from pork by-products in Egypt.

This study was implemented in the laboratory of mycotoxins and central laboratory for studies, Agriculture College/ Baghdad Univ., in cooperation with the laboratories for the Test and Ratification Seeds Institute/ Ministry of Iraq Agricultural, to detect the contamination with the deoxynivalenol toxin (DON) for the most important ingredients which it imported or local production in Iraq and its effects on invitro degradation. Two methods were used to extract DON toxin form samples, first with distil water and second with acetonitrail solvent. The results showed that the best extraction for DON toxin was acetonitrail solvent comparing with the distil water extraction. The detection for toxin implemented with ELISA reader showed contamination for all samples of feeds and ingredients which it local production from Babylon, Baghdad, Tikrit, Sulaimani, Arbil and Diyala or imported from Syria. The highest pollution rates with poison for samples imported from Syrian like popcorn seeds, foraged corn, rations, barley, yellow corn and pelt which were 722, 443, 268, 240, 204 and 202 microgram/kg. The Iraqi wheat showed height concentration of contamination with DON, it was 240 µg/kg. No effects for the contaminated treatments on the in vitro degradation for the dry matter and organic matter degradation coefficient.

Food safety and security well implemented could help in making more crops available for consumption. Maize seed is a crop wel l known to be attacked by fungi such as Aspergillus flavus and reduce its nutrients. This study intends to isolate and morphologically identify the Aspergillus flavus from maize seeds from Abuja, Nigeria. The experimental design was complete randomized design involving untreated yellow (Y) and white (W) maize seeds from7 locations in Abuja, Nigeria. Pure culture of fungal isolate was prepared using Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) and Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA). Isolates obtained were characterized and identified on the basis of their colonial and morphological characteristics which include macroscopic and microscopic examinations. All maize seeds from the Abaji had no fungi incidences in both SDA and PDA, while all maize seeds from the experimental field show fungi incidences in both SDA and PDA. On SDA, the maize color yellow and white had F (2, 6) static values of 7.083 and 0.212 at p=0.129 and 0.941 respectively. For the PDA, white maize seeds and yellow maize seeds from all the locations had F (2, 6) static values of 0.377 and 0.521 at p=0.850 and 0.773. Aspergillus flavus was isolated in this study. The maize seeds from Kuje district and the experimental field 2 show a high incidence records. All growth of the Aspergillus in the two media used were not significant at p>0.05.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi belonging to the Penicillium and Aspergillus genera. The natural occurrence of OTA in 18 pure cocoa powder samples marketed in Italy and purchased from supermarkets, organic product shops and retail shops was investigated. Nine samples of the eighteen products had no detectable OTA contamination (below 10 ng/kg). Nine positive samples had a toxin concentration ranging between 0.22 and 0.77 μg/kg with a mean of 0.43 μg/kg. All the organic samples analyzed were negative for OTA; of 14 conventional samples analyzed, four samples (28.56%) were above the suggested legal limit (0.5 μg/kg) because they were contaminated with 0.77, 0.53, 0.67 and 0.62 μg/kg, respectively. The optimization of the extraction protocol and comparison of different brands of immunoaffinity column clean-up were carried out. The incidence (50% of examined samples) of the OTA level in Italian cocoa marketed products is an important signal of attention for consumers, because cocoa is widely used in the production of child snack foods and it contributes to OTA daily intake.

Mycotoxins are recognized as toxic compounds of great concern in the context of human health and economy. Mycotoxins are toxic chemical products formed as secondary metabolites by some fungi that readily colonise crops in the field or after harvest. The toxicity syndrome resulting from the intake of such contaminated material by animal and manis termed Mycotoxicosis.These compounds pose a potential threat to human and animal health through ingestion of food products prepared from these commodities.Mycotoxicoses affect various systems of the body according to the target organs of the mycotoxin. This review revealed the major mycotoxins of fungal origin and their mycotoxicoses. The study also reviewed the history of mycotoxin, methods of mycotoxin detection, analysis and the health implications of consuming mycotoxin-contaminated foods/products. In most developing countries, majority are ignorant of the inherent dangers of consuming mouldy produce or food contaminated with fungi and moulds with possible contamination by mycotoxigenic fungi. In view of this, there is need for general and public education to sensitise the people on the health hazards posed by mycotoxins. Proper washing and cooking practices of food commodities, good agricultural practices, fast and effective analyses and detection, good produce handling and storage are some of the control/regulatory measures that should be encouraged, as to assist in mitigating the side effects of mycotoxins in food and health particularly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries and in African where there is enabling environment that promotes fungal growth.

Aloe vera is one of the most popular ethnomedicinal plants that is commonly used in
treating many infectious diseases. However, the knowledge of the spectrum of
antimicrobial activity of the plant and its bioactive components is still inadequate. In this
study, we carried out an automated determination of phytochemical components in
aqueous extract (AE) of Aloe vera whole stem by GC-MS (Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry), determined the in vitro antimicrobial activity of the extract on some
common pathogenic bacteria which included Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi,
Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus by agar well diffusion method, and
determined the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum Bactericidal
concentration (MBCs) by agar dilution method. The result showed that the extract has
strong antimicrobial activity against all the test organisms. No resistance was observed.
The range for zones of inhibition, MIC and MBC were 12.33 ± 0.33 – 28.67 ± 0.60mm,
25mg/ml – 50mg/ml and 50mg/ml – 100mg/ml respectively. The most susceptible isolate
was S. typhi (MBC = 50mg/ml) and the least sensitive isolate was E. faecalis (MBC =
150mg/ml). The GC-MS of the extract revealed 9 different compounds of which 82.82% are
Palmitic acid methyl ester, (7Z)-7-Tetradecenal, Palmitin, 1,2-di-, 2-aminoethyl hydrogen
phosphate and Decyl hexanoate with peak areas of 34.40%, 20.48%, 15.46% and 12.48%
respectively. In conclusion, Aloe vera contained many broad spectrum antimicrobially
active compounds that can be further purified to produce new antimicrobial compounds
that can be used in the treatment of many diseases especially those caused by S. typhi, S.
aureus and E. coli.
Key words: Aloe vera; Antimicrobial; Bactericidal, Bioactive; Chromatography,
Phytochemical.

This study on Aadun (a popular staple food in Nigeria, prepared as snack from maize) was carried out on samples collected from different areas in South Western Nigeria and compared with a laboratory prepared ones. Proximate and aflatoxin contents of the food were detected and fungi responsible for its bio-deterioration were isolated and studied. The prominent fungi isolated are Rhizopus stolonifer, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma koningi. Proximate composition of the samples were significantly different (P<0.05) with moisture (9.80% to 11.03%), ash (5.53% to 6.90%) and carbohydrate (47.40% to 52.57%) contents but low in fibre (3.43% to 3.93%) and fat (16.63% to 21.13%) contents. Most of the vented samples are confirmed to contain certain amount of aflatoxins concentrations but vary generally based on the sample locations, Aflatoxin G1 and G2 were found in all the samples except the control (laboratory prepared) and high level of Aflatoxin G1 of 12.8 (µ/kg) and 12.3 (µ/kg) were detected on Oja Oba and Ibode samples while the control gavethe least (0.13 µ/kg). Aflatoxins B2, G1 and G2 are below the tolerable limits for human consumption (FAO standard). Aflatoxin B1 was generally higher on the samples and this can be attributed to the fact that when aflatoxin is produced by either Aspergillus flavus or Aspergillus parasiticus, aflatoxin B1 is the first metabolite released before others (aflatoxins B2, G1 and G2) depending on the production rate which takes time, therefore the level of carcinogenicity can be put as B1˃B2˃G1˃G2.

The present experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential toxic effect of long term exposure of aflatoxin and
ochratoxin in coloured broilers. Experimental birds were exposed to AFB1 and OTA as individual and combined
mycotoxins @ 0.5 and 1ppm (low and high dose) for period of six weeks. Birds were observed daily for any change
in clinical signs, mortality and morbidity throughout the experimental period. Blood samples were collected weekly for serum biochemical
analysis. Birds exposed to combined aflatoxin and ochratoxin showed potential toxic effect on growth performance, mortality, morbidity, serum
biochemical parameters than birds exposed to individual mycotoxins. Coloured broilers are also equally susceptible to combined mycotoxicosis
and combination of aflatoxin and ochratoxin have potential toxic effect.

The indispensable nature of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in agricultural systems is of worldwide concern, hence the need for surveillance studies to preserve public health. Thirteen dairy farms were surveyed and 40 dairy feeds of varying nature collected and analyzed for mycotoxins. Estimated levels of aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (ADONs), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), and beauvericin (BEA) were established using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Highest frequencies (40/40) were found for AFG2 (range: &lt;LOQ—116.1 ppb), α-ZEL (range: 0.98–13.24 ppb), and β-ZEL (range: 0.73–4.71 ppb), followed by AFB2 at 37/40 (range: &lt;LOQ—23.88 ppb), BEA at 36/40 (range: &lt;LOQ—55.99 ppb), HT-2 at 35/40 (range: &lt;LOQ—312.95 ppb), and FB1 at 34/40 (range: &lt;LOQ—1389.62 ppb). Apart from samples exceeding regulatory limits for to...

Olive oil, the most important dietary fat source of the Mediterranean diet, can be contaminated by mycotoxins. An efficient
analytical method for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in olive oil is reported.
Thirty commercial samples of virgin olive oil, purchased in olive-press plants and supermarkets in southern Italy and North
Africa, were analysed to verify the analytical procedure and monitor mycotoxin contamination. A simple, rapid and economic
method was set up and tested for both the extractive step and the clean-up procedures for simultaneous AFB1 and OTA
determination in olive oil. Data obtained showed that OTA was detected with high frequency (80%) in samples from both
geographical areas (up to 17.0 ng g–1), while AFB1 was found from three of four samples from North Africa (up to 2.4 ng g–1).
In addition, ‘not labelled’ oil samples proved to be more contaminated by OTA then ‘labelled’ samples (mean values of 2.47
and 0.66 ng g–1, respectively). These findings indicate that olive oil can be significantly contaminated by mycotoxins and
confirm that a scrupulous application of European Regulation 1019/2002 (European Commission 2002), which prohibits the
sale of non-labelled olive oil, is strongly recommended. Conventional qualitative parameters such as peroxide number,
spectrophotometric evaluation and acid values were not correlated with mycotoxin occurrence.

Research Paper


Abstract
The present work was undertaken to evaluate the antifungal potential of
ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in comparison with some commercial
antifungal feed additives (probiotic, propionic acid and clove oil) in
inhibiting the growth of A. flavus strains that were isolated from feeds
using well and disc diffusion tests. The aflatoxigenic strains required
higher concentration of metal nanoparticles than non- aflatoxigenic
strains where the zone diameter of growth inhibition increased when
the concentration increased and it was larger in non-aflatoxigenic than
aflatoxigenic strains. The concentrations of metal nanoparticles below 25
ug/ml didn't affect the growth of all A. flavus strains. The zones of
inhibition produced by the metal nanoparticles were larger than that
produced by the commercial antifungal feed additives. The aflatoxin B1
production by aflatoxigenic strains in liquid medium (YES) or on yellow
corn was significantly diminished in parallel with the decline parameters
in colony count of the treated aflatoxigenic strains. The field application
of the above used nanoparticles and other drugs on commercial poultry
feed evidenced the availability to use ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles only as
antifungal but their antimycotoxins effect was limited to their use as feed
additives during manufacture and before exposure of feeds to fungal
contamination. The significance of the present results was fully discussed.
It is concluded that further studies are required for investigating the
effect of combination of antioxidant metal nanoparticles with other
Journal of Global Biosciences
ISSN 2320-1355
Volume 3, Number 6, 2014, pp. 954-971
Website: www.mutagens.co.in
E-mail: submit@mutagens.co.in
researchsubmission@hotmail.com
Journal of Global Biosciences Vol. 3(6), 2014 pp. 954-971
ISSN 2320-1355
http://mutagens.co.in 955
commercial antimycotoxins to obtain dual synergistic actions to decrease
the amount of used chemicals in the feeds manufacture.
Key words: Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs); Iron oxide nanoparticles
(Fe2O3-NPs); A. f lavus; Aflatoxin B1; Antimycotoxins.

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and rem...

*atefhassan2000@yahoo.com
Abstract : The present study was undertaken to investigate the causes of Sudden death in a turkey farms at El-Wadi
El-Gadid and Giza Governorates. The Post mortems examination of forty representative cases, showed enlargement
and hemorrhages of liver, spleen, lung, kidney and muscles. Aspergillus flavus, A.niger, A.funigatus and Penicillium
citrinum, were isolated in dominating frequency but Fusarium sporotrichioides, F. tricinctum and F. oxysporum
were rarely isolated from these organs. The same fungi were recovered from houses of dead turkey (Feed, litter, air,
underground water and dropping). From 122 of these strains isolated from houses of turkey, 110 were
mycotoxigenic (90.1%), the ratio between the numbers of isolates screened for toxin production versus the number
found to be positive is of interest. 85.3% of Aspergillus flavus produced aflatoxins, 80% of A. ochraceus produced
ochratoxin A and 80% of F. Sporotrichioides and 100% of F. tricinctum and F. oxysporum produced T-2 toxins.
The majority of mycotoxic fungi were detected in feed (90%) and 100% in litter which could be considered as the
main sources of this toxicosis. On the other hand, the mycotoxins were detected in utilized feeds in significant
levels. The mean levels of aflatoxins 35.0±1.5ppb were detected in 76.6% of examined wheat, 80.0±1.0 ppb of
ochratoxins detected in 40% while 19.5±0.02 ppb of T-2 was recovered from 15% of examined wheat samples.
Also, the higher significant mean levels were observed in utilized yellow corn in feeding of diseased turkey
(42.5±2.6 ppb of aflatoxins and 51.0±0.01 ppb of ochratoxins). The same mycotoxins were also detected in sera of
diseased live birds, 40% of turkey sera had a mean levels of 4.74±0.01 ppb aflatoxins, 20% had 1.200±0.03 ppb of
ochratoxins and 50% of examined diseased turkey sera had a mean levels of 52.0±0.2 ppb T-2 toxins. The foregoing
results gave a large probability that the feed, water, litters are the sources of these toxicosis. The biochemical
parameters and electrophoresis patterns were significantly altered in diseased birds. The hygienic significance of
fungal and mycotoxins pollution for turkeys health had been discussed.
[Hassan, A. A; Nahed, M.El Mokhtar and Samira, A.M. Snousi. Studies On Acute Mycotoxicosis In Turkey. New
York Science Journal 2011;4(5):82-91]. (ISSN: 1554-0200). http://www.sciencepub.net/newyork

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and rem...

The present work was undertaken to evaluate the antifungal potential of ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in comparison with some commercial antifungal feed additives (probiotic, propionic acid and clove oil) in inhibiting the growth of A. flavus strains that were isolated from feeds using well and disc diffusion tests. The aflatoxigenic strains required higher concentration of metal nanoparticles than nonaflatoxigenic strains where the zone diameter of growth inhibition increased when the concentration increased and it was larger in non-aflatoxigenic than aflatoxigenic strains. The concentrations of metal nanoparticles below 25 ug/ml didn&#39;t affect the growth of all A. flavus strains. The zones of inhibition produced by the metal nanoparticles were larger than that produced by the commercial antifungal feed additives. The aflatoxin B1 production by aflatoxigenic strains in liquid medium (YES) or on yellow corn was significantly diminished in parallel with the decline parameters in col...

Fungi and plants are rich sources of thousands of secondary metabolites. The genetically coded possibilities for secondary metabolite production, the stimuli of the production, and the special phytotoxins basically determine the microscopic fungi-host plant interactions and the pathogenic lifestyle of fungi. The review introduces plant secondary metabolites usually with antifungal effect as well as the importance of signaling molecules in induced systemic resistance and systemic acquired resistance processes. The review also concerns the mimicking of plant effector molecules like auxins, gibberellins and abscisic acid by fungal secondary metabolites that modulate plant growth or even can subvert the plant defense responses such as programmed cell death to gain nutrients for fungal growth and colonization. It also looks through the special secondary metabolite production and host selective toxins of some significant fungal pathogens and the plant response in form of phytoalexin produ...

Suspensions or solutions with 1% of Chinese galls (Galla chinensis, GC) or 1% of tannic acid (TA), inhibited germination of conidia or mycelium growth of Fusarium graminearum (FG) by 98%–100% or by 75%–80%, respectively, whereas dried bark from buckthorn (Frangula alnus, FA) showed no effect at this concentration. In climate chamber experiments where the wheat variety “Apogee” was artificially inoculated with FG and F. crookwellense (FCr) and treated with 5% suspensions of TA, GC and FA, the deoxynivalenol (DON) content in grains was reduced by 81%, 67% and 33%, respectively. In field experiments with two commercial wheat varieties and artificial or semi-natural inoculations, mean DON reductions of 66% (TA) and 58% (FA), respectively, were obtained. Antifungal toxicity can explain the high efficacies of TA and GC but not those of FA. The Fusarium head blight (FHB) and mycotoxin reducing effect of FA is probably due to elicitation of resistance in wheat plants. With semi-natural inoculation, a single FA application in the first half of the flowering period performed best. However, we assume that applications of FA at the end of ear emergence and a treatment, triggered by an infection period, with TA or GC during flowering, might perform better than synthetic fungicides.

Out of 100 persons working in Feeds and Flour Mill, whose nasal swabs were collected, 29 (29%)
yielded some bacteria. Blood agar and chocolate agar were the media employed for culturing. The
bacterial isolates included Staphylococcus aureus (20%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (4%),
Haemophilus infleunzae (3%) and Neissseria meningtidis (2%). The most frequently isolated
bacterium was S. aureus obtained mainly from the workers in the mill department. There were no
isolates made from workers in transport and marketing departments. The age group between 26-30
and 31-35 had the nasal bacteria isolated from them. The antimicrobial susceptibility test indicated
that there were difference in the sensitivity and resistant patterns of the isolates.