Burned Bones

The analysis of burned bone stumbles on the problems raised by the heatinduced changes that seriously interfere with the methods adopted by biological anthropologists. These changes especially affect the structure of bone leading to fragmentation, dimensional modification, warping and fracturing. As a result, quantitative analysis based on measurements and weighing are usually overlooked due to uncertainties regarding their ability to correctly process burned skeletal remains. Although some pioneering research on this issue has been carried out in the Past, this remained sporadic and with little application from  bioanthropologists. In addition, a significant part of that research was either developed on rather small samples of human bones or on samples of faunal bones. Also, some other investigation was carried out by extrapolating from the results obtained on unburned skeletons, which is an inadequate indirect approach. The present research tackled these problems by analysing present-day cremations on a modern crematorium in order to investigate three distinct issues. The first one regarded the relevance of heat-induced warping and thumbnail fracturing for the determination of the pre-cremation condition of the human remains. Secondly, the implication of heat-related dimensional change on sexual dimorphism and consequent sex determination from calcined bones was addressed. Finally, the value of postcremation skeletal weights for bioarchaeological interpretation of funerary contexts was also investigated. This was done by examining human skeletons both prior and after cremation on two different cremation samples: one composed of recently dead cadavers
submitted to cremation; and another one composed of dry skeletons recently exhumed.
The research demonstrated that, although heat-induced warping and thumbnail fracturing is much more typical of cremations on fleshed cadavers, these features are also present on the burned remains of defleshed skeletons. Therefore, the occurrence of these features is probably related to the preservation of collagen-apatite bonds which play an important role on the mechanical strength of bone. As for sexual dimorphism, the results revealed that it is not significantly affected by heat and that such differences between females and males can be useful to classify unknown individuals according to sex based on the univariate metric analysis of calcined bones. Therefore, sex determination of this kind of material needs not to rely exclusively on the examination of morphological traits which requires a multivariate approach. At last, logistic regression coefficients that are able to estimate the expected proportion of the specific skeletal regions present on funerary assemblages were developed. This was carried out in order to assist on the interpretation of the course of action adopted during the recovery of the skeletal remains from the pyre and their consequent deposition in the grave. Such method was proven to be more dependable than previous ones based on weight references from unburned skeletons. This research demonstrated that, although heat-induced bone changes can indeed be very extensive, their analytical potential is not completely wiped out. Nonetheless, such analysis needs to be based on references that are specific to burned bone to allow for reliable insights. As a result, additional research is needed to better equip bioanthropologists with new analytical techniques more suitable for the investigation of burned human skeletal remains.

The paper reports on the analysis of an osteological sample from cremation graves of Lusatian culture recovered at Stobrawa site 25D, distr. Opole. The rescue excavation covered an area of ca. 800 m2 and uncovered 81 graves and three shallow settlement pits dated to Bronze Age IV-V and older Hallstatt Period. Skeletal remains submitted for osteological analysis came from 43 graves. The analysis was carried out to ascertain cremation efficiency, total weight of the bone, number of individuals to an urn, age and sex of the individuals, approximate body height, presence of animal bone. Most urns held skeletal remains that were completely oxidised (88.4 %; 40, 4/50, 50). Except for skeletal remains from two urns (graves nos.: 39, 53; 4.7%) all other vessels held uniformly cremated bone. The two exceptions presumably result from the construction of the pyre providing some insight on the features of the burial rite practiced by the investigated population. How the body was handled after cremation is intimated also by the quantity of skeletal remains deposited inside the urns. Their largest quantity was found in grave no. 10 – 1855.35g, the smallest – 2.45g - in one of the vessels from double grave no. 77. There were 39 single (90.7%) and 4 double burials (nos.: 52, 53, 64, 69). Closer age determination could be made for 16 burials (30.8%): two individuals were qualified as category infans I, one as category infans I/II, four as infans II, two as iuvenis, two as adultus, four as adultus/maturus, and one as category maturus. For 15 cases, owing to their preservation status, only a broad classification was used in which the individuals were described as “adult” (13 individuals) and “child” (2 individuals). In 19 cases assessment of bone age was not possible. Six male (11.5) and five female individuals were identified. In other cases sex determination was not possible (78.8%). In four cases (7.7%) estimation of approximate body height could be made -  for individuals from graves 4, 29?/64?, 65 and 69.

This paper uses an osteological approach and applies the study of entanglement in an attempt to understand the crematoria on Rapa Nui (Easter Island), which represent a unique tradition within the ceremonial spheres of the Polynesian area. Skeletal remains from the crematorium of ahu Hanga Hahave, which consist of both cremated - and unburned remains, have been analysed to reveal the different practices that took part in the cremation process and to identify the individuals that were deposited in such structure. Ethnohistorical records were applied to interpret the osteological evidence and to discuss the circumstances surrounding the possible use of the crematorium, as either a site for sacrificial offerings or a site for burials.  This paper aims at creating an underlying basis for the study of crematoria on Rapa Nui and provides an overview of the processes central to the disposal of the dead and the usage and significance of this structure. The results of this study showed that the ancient Rapanui through the practice of cremation, followed an internalised structure within their society to complete each cultural act that constituted the crematorium, and these were divided in the construction of the crematorium, the making of fire, and the treatment of the dead. The complexity of each cultural act presents the possibility that an organised society, with at least one designated head, may have been in charge of the practice of cremation physically and spiritually. The skeletal remains could not be applied to determine whether the crematorium of Hanga Hahave was used for sacrificial offering or for burial since the analysed remains only represented one-fifth of the entire bone collection from the crematorium. However, the findings in this study have pointed towards a burial practice rather than a sacrificial one.

The graves and especially the cremation graves of infants and small children (aged less than one year old) make up a relatively sparse category in the Danish archaeological records as well as in other areas. The reason for this startling under-representation has been debated for some time, but for some reason experimental studies of the cremation of infants and small children is as sparse in literature as the evidence for infant cremation graves. Even in non-archaeological literature (i.e. forensic and medico-legal literature), the cremation of infants is a rare subject of debate. Here we propose an experiment designed to show whether or not the bones of infants and small children (using domesticated pigs as substitutes for humans) can withstand the thermic stress they would have been exposed to in a simplistic reconstruction of a prehistoric funerary pyre. The results are measured in the post-cremation skeletal weight of the cremains and the data 14
is then compared to our knowledge of modern-day commercial cremations of infants and small
children. Our results show firstly, that the bones can indeed withstand a simplistic cremation
process and secondly, that the post-cremation skeletal weight matches our knowledge of modern
commercial cremations.

Evidências arqueológicas em montículos e complexos anelares Jê nas terras altas do sul do Brasil apontam para o desenvolvimento de um ritual funerário focado na cremação entorno de 1000 BP. Este artigo discute, com base em análises bioarqueológicas, etnográficas e etno-históricas, o papel da cremação enquanto uma prática ritualizada direcionada a transformar o morto e seu corpo. Foram observadas no registro arqueológico uma série de semelhanças e diferenças interpretadas como respostas estratégicas inegociáveis e/ou negociáveis desenvolvidas frente à morte.
Palavras-chave: Cremação. Arqueologia Funerária. Ritual. Bioarqueologia. Complexos
Anelares Jê.
The Fire and Death: Cremation as a Ritual Funerary Practice
Archaeological evidence from southern Jê mound and enclosure complexes in the
southern Brazilian highlands points to the development of a funerary ritual focused on
cremation from 1000 BP onwards. Drawing upon bioarchaeological, ethnographic and
ethnohistorical analysis, this article discusses the role of cremation as a ritualised practice aimed at transforming the deceased and their corpse. Patterns of similarities and differences are observable in the archaeological record which are interpreted as negotiable and non-negotiable strategic responses developed in response to death.
Keywords: Cremation. Funerary Archaeology. Ritual. Bioarchaeology. Mound and Enclosure Complexes.

Ulguim, P. F. 2016. O fogo e a morte: a cremação como prática funerária ritual. Habitus Goiânia 14(1):107-130. DOI: 10.18224/hab.v14.1.2016.107-130

The interdisciplinary research of burned bones is focused in this paper by presenting and discussing some methods that can assist the bioanthropologist in the analysis of this kind of remains. In particular, some techniques based on the histological structure of bone and on its molecular composition allow new ways of identifying burned human bone and of determining some aspects of the biological and ontological profile of an individual. A brief summary of those techniques is thus here presented.

El objetivo principal de este trabajo recae en la caracterización zooarqueológica y tafonómica de las estructuras de combustión del Magdaleniense medio de la Cova del Parco. Este tipo de análisis nos permite inferir cuestiones sobre la funcionalidad de cada estructura de combustión, partiendo de la morfología de los restos óseos acumulados en su interior y del grado de termoalteración que muestran. Asimismo, se ha analizado la cronoclimatología de las fases pleistocenas de la cavidad, uniendo, tanto el análisis de homogeneidad entre las fechas radiocarbónicas, como su inclusión dentro de los eventos climáticos GS-2a, GI-1 y GS-1.

In the anthropological analysis of burned bone, the presence of a white heat line aids in determining a bone’s physical condition prior to burning, distinguishing between those burned fleshed or wet versus dry. However, while the relationship between this thermal signature and a bone’s physical condition has been studied, there is a lack of research concerning the chemical composition of white heat lines.

The present study assessed the composition of white heat lines that form on burned bone using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with the potassium bromide (KBr) pellet method. The present study examined the effects of soft tissue and the retention of bone’s organic material, including naturally-occurring grease and water, on the development and appearance of a white heat line. Experimental remains consisted of isolated long bones from white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), elk (Cervus canadensis), sheep (Ovis aries), and pig (Sus scrofa) in five physical conditions – fleshed (fresh bones with adhering soft tissue), very wet (recently defleshed bone, greasy), partially wet (defleshed, slight grease retention), dry (defleshed, naturally degreased), and soaked (formerly dry bone immersed in water). These bones were burned over a wood fire made within a 55-gallon drum.

After a visual analysis to evaluate white heat line formation, chemical composition was analyzed by determining spectral peak heights of the carbonate (CO3) ν3 (1415 cm-1), phosphate (PO4) ν3 (1035 cm-1), and amide I (1660 cm-1) vibrational bands. These thermal signatures appear to form superficially, measuring approximately 1.5 mm in depth. Results indicate that white heat lines that formed on fleshed bone contain an increased amount of CO3, PO4, and amide I in comparison to their unburned controls, while those that formed on very wet bone contain decreased amounts instead.

These findings further our knowledge of how fire modifies physical remains and the effect that bone’s physical condition prior to burning has on the development of a white heat line and the resulting compositional changes. In order to build upon the results gained from the present study, continuing research is needed to investigate compositional differences between white heat lines that form on fleshed versus very wet bone and to assess bone’s fat content as a possible contributing factor. Additional FTIR research is needed to assess the other vibrational bands of CO3, PO4, and amide that are present in bone.

El sitio Chenque I es un cementerio de cazadores-recolectores ubicado en el área centro-sur de la provincia de La Pampa (Argentina), cuyo rango de uso es 1050 a 290 años AP. El mismo presenta diversas modalidades de inhumación con un MNI de 236 y diversos tratamientos corporales, lo cual representa una inusitada diversidad de prácticas mortuorias durante el Holoceno tardío final en la región pampeana. No obstante, allí se registró solo un entierro secundario múltiple, el Entierro N° 28, con evidencia de alteración térmica en restos osteológicos humanos. En este trabajo se analizan las implicancias de la alteración térmica de los cuerpos a través del análisis de las características óseas macroscópicas y del contexto arqueológico del Entierro Nº 28. Los resultados indican que el proceso de termoalteración de restos humanos fue complejo e intencional, y habría sido realizado en distintas etapas que incluyen la combustión en otro espacio distinto al entierro, la recolección de los restos, el armado del fardo funerario, su traslado y el depósito final en el sitio Chenque I.

The aim of the present master thesis is to present the effect of fire in the manipulation of the deceased in the Aegean Bronze Age through experimental approaches. The experimental part was complemented by the macroscopic examination of selected archaeological burnt bones in order to start the building up of a database on the conditions, the technology and the effect of fire on human remains from the prehistoric Aegean. The case study bone assemblage was derived from the recently excavated Early Minoan cemetery (early 3rd mill. BC) at Koumasa, Greece. Exposure of the body to fire, causes various physical, chemical and mechanical alterations including colour change, propagation of fractures, shrinkage, warping, deformation, relative cortical preservation, as well as, removal of the organic component and modification of the inorganic crystal component. Thorough macroscopic examination of the aforementioned features can provide valuable information regarding fire’s intensity and temperature, the duration of burning events, the amount of raw material which was necessary for the manipulation of fire, the position and proximity of the body to fire, as well as the stage of decomposition of the burned remains (dry, fleshed, or semi-fleshed) at the time of burning. To that, a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors indicate the process’ complexity and the parameters which need to be taken into account in modern simulations of firing conditions of the past. One of the main goals of this master thesis is the proposal of a specialised methodological protocol for the macroscopic study of burnt bones. This methodology was formulated taking into account all the suggestions of researchers studying burnt human bones and applied both to the burnt pig bones collected from the experimental pyres and to the human remains derived from tholos B of Koumasa. This parallel use of a common methodology in experimental and archaeological samples, which not only records biological features, but also features related to the effects of fire on the bone structure, aims to compare the data and to better understand the role of fire in the manipulation of the deceased.

Η παρούσα μεταπτυχιακή διπλωματική εργασία παρουσιάζει τη δυναμική της χρήσης της φωτιάς στη μεταχείριση των νεκρών κατά την Εποχή του Χαλκού στο Αιγαίο, έτσι όπως προκύπτει από την εφαρμογή πειραματικών προσεγγίσεων, αλλά και την παράλληλη εξέταση μέρους των ανθρώπινων σκελετικών καταλοίπων από το προανακτορικό νεκροταφείο θολωτών τάφων στην Κουμάσα (αρχές 3ης χιλιετίας π.Χ.), του νομού Ηρακλείου, Κρήτης. Μέσα από την εκτενή καταγραφή των θερμικών αλλοιώσεων που υφίσταται το ανθρώπινο σώμα εξαιτίας της έκθεσής του στη φωτιά, είναι εφικτό να εξαχθούν σημαντικά στοιχεία που σχετίζονται αφενός με την τεχνολογία της φωτιάς και την ανασύσταση της θερμικής διαδικασίας κι αφετέρου με το ρόλο που είχε η φωτιά στη μεταχείριση των νεκρών μιας κοινότητας. Για την καλύτερη και ολιστική κατανόηση του πολυσχιδούς και πολυδιάστατου χαρακτήρα ενός θερμικού επεισοδίου, όπου καίγονται ανθρώπινα μέλη, είναι απαραίτητη η διερεύνηση όλων των επιμέρους σταδίων, που συμβάλουν στη διαδικασία της καύσης. Τα καμένα οστά είναι το τελικό αποτέλεσμα μιας πολύπλοκης διαδικασίας, που απαιτεί επένδυση χρόνου και εξειδικευμένης εργασίας. Για το λόγο αυτό, ένας από τους βασικούς στόχους της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η ανασύσταση όλων των διακριτών σταδίων που ορίζουν ένα θερμικό επεισόδιο, μέσω της εφαρμογής δύο πειραμάτων σε συνθήκες που προσομοιάζουν αυτές του παρελθόντος. Η επιλογή και η συγκέντρωση της καύσιμης ύλης, η προετοιμασία του χώρου διεξαγωγής των πειραμάτων, η κατασκευή των πυρών, η παρακολούθηση των μακροσκοπικά ορατών θερμικών αλλοιώσεων που υφίσταται το σώμα λόγω της φωτιάς και τέλος η συλλογή των σκελετικών καταλοίπων από το χώρο της πυράς, προσφέρουν χρήσιμες πληροφορίες τις οποίες ο κάθε ερευνητής που μελετά καμένα οστά οφείλει να λαμβάνει υπόψη του. Έπειτα, ένας από τους βασικότερους στόχους της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η πρόταση μιας εξειδικευμένης μεθοδολογίας για τη μακροσκοπική μελέτη οστών που έχουν έρθει σε επαφή με τη φωτιά. Η συγκεκριμένη μεθοδολογία, διαμορφώθηκε λαμβάνοντας υπόψη όλες τις υποδείξεις των ερευνητών που μελετούν καμένα ανθρώπινα οστά στο εξωτερικό και εφαρμόστηκε τόσο στα οστά που συλλέχθηκαν από τις δύο πειραματικές πυρές, όσο και στα σκελετικά κατάλοιπα από το θολωτό τάφο Β του νεκροταφείου της Κουμάσας. Η παράλληλη αυτή χρήση κοινής μεθοδολογίας στα πειραματικά και αρχαιολογικά δείγματα, όπου καταγράφονται όχι μόνο βιολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, αλλά κυρίως γνωρίσματα που σχετίζονται με τις επιδράσεις της φωτιάς στην οστική επιφάνεια, αποσκοπεί στη σύγκριση των δεδομένων και στην καλύτερη κατανόηση του ρόλου της φωτιάς στη μεταχείριση των νεκρών. Μέσω της έρευνας, έχουν προκύψει σημαντικές διατυπώσεις και προτεινόμενες ερμηνείες, οι οποίες σχετίζονται με τις διάφορες μεταβλητές που επηρεάζουν ένα θερμικό επεισόδιο. Η αναλογία ωστόσο των σημερινών παρατηρήσεων με τις διαδικασίες που λάμβαναν χώρα κατά το παρελθόν, δεν είναι απόλυτη και σε καμία περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να επιτευχθεί με ασφάλεια. Παρόλα αυτά, μέσω των πειραματικών προσεγγίσεων, δίνεται η αφορμή για περαιτέρω σκέψη και προβληματισμό, σχετικά με τη χρήση της φωτιάς κατά τη μεταχείριση των νεκρών, καθώς πρόκειται για μια διαδικασία που ενσωματώνει πολλαπλές δια-δράσεις και εμπλοκές από τα μέλη της εκάστοτε κοινότητας.

Bones submitted to heat experience structural and chromatic modifications. In particular, heat-induced bone warping and thumbnail fractures have been linked to the burning of fleshed and green bones – where the soft tissues have been removed from the bones soon after death – in contrast to dry bones. Those have been suggested as indicators of the state of the individual before being burned thus allowing inferences about the funerary behaviour of archaeological populations. A large sample of 61 skeletons submitted to cremation has been examined for the presence of both of these heat-induced features. Although uncommon, bone warping and thumbnail fractures were present in some of the skeletons demonstrating that its presence is not restricted to the burning of non-dried bones as generally believed. Rather than being an indicator of the presence of bones with soft tissues, bone warping seems to be more of an indicator of the preservation of collagen–apatite links which can be maintained on dry bones with low collagen deterioration. In addition, our results also do not confirm thumbnail fractures as an exclusive sign of the burning of bones with soft tissues. As a result, these heat-induced changes should be used with caution when trying to infer about the pre-burning state of an individual.

The subject of this Master’s thesis is the osteological material from a Mesolithic settlement in Anundsjö county in Västernorrland, Sweden. The material consists of burned animal bones. The bones from thirteen excavation squares were chosen for analysis. The important aspects analysed were determination of species and anatomical part, bone type, fragment size, burning grade analysis, cortical thickness and a study of the Cancellous bone structure. The aims of this study are to get a better understanding of the people from the Mesolithic site Lillsjön, see what animal husbandry they attain. Are there depositional patterns and what do they mean? Another main focus lies with the methods of working with burned bones, what can be interpret from the indeterminate fragments and which are the most fruitful methods?

The Johnston Site (36IN002) is a Johnston Phase Monongahela village located in Indiana County, PA along the Conemaugh River. Since archaeological investigations resumed in 2006, portions of the domestic sphere and plaza have been excavated as part of the Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP) field schools. The IUP investigation has generated a robust body of research focused on spatial patterning, dating of the village occupation, and subsistence strategies. This study examines the role of fire in the preparation and disposal of bone materials by comparing type of bone used, the intensity of bone burning, and the level of bone fragmentation within different types of features. It is proposed that the assessment will shed light on whether features identified as post-enclosed pits, fire pits, or hearths were used for primary or secondary burning, as well as the nature of these features for cooking, sources of heat, and waste disposal.

Abstract:  In view of the difficulties in extracting quantitative information from burned bone, we suggest a new and accurate method of determining the temperature and duration of burning of human remains in forensic contexts. Application of the powder X-ray diffraction approach to a sample of human bone and teeth allowed their microstructural behavior, as a function of temperature (200–1000°C) and duration of burning (0, 18, 36, and 60 min), to be predicted. The experimental results from the 57 human bone sections and 12 molar teeth determined that the growth of hydroxylapatite crystallites is a direct and predictable function of the applied temperature, which follows a nonlinear logistic relationship. This will allow the forensic investigator to acquire useful information about the equilibrium temperature brought about by the burning process and to suggest a reasonable duration of fire exposure.

The main objective of this paper is to characterize the pattern of thermal alteration in a sample of modern bones collected after a natural grassland fire in the Pampas region (Argentina). A total of 917 bone remains were recovered, including a variety of different body size taxa. Results suggest that natural grassland fires affect bone remains in a more severe way than previously documented. In general, a high proportion of bones with thermal alteration (70%) was recorded for the different body size categories, with calcined bones dominating the sample. Some differences in relation to the size classes were found; specifically, a higher extension of burning was recorded for the smaller-sized taxa. For the small animals, the homogeneous distribution of the burning damage in long bones and mandibles could help to differentiate a natural grassland fire from cooking, in which the burning pattern would be more heterogeneous.

Trade and movement may have been great factors in the changing societal landscape of Bronze Age Hungary, leading to possible inequalities among the people. Examination of burials can help us get to know the relation between a community and their dead which may reflect social connections within the living community. The Békés 103 site located in southeastern Hungary was in use as a cremation cemetery from the Early Bronze Age through the Late Bronze Age. This study focuses on the bone color analysis of 20 human burials with differing ages and sexes. Munsell Soil Color Charts were used to objectively score the color of the bone fragments which may be able to indicate the temperature of the funeral pyre. Preliminary results suggest that subadults and females had a higher calcination percentage than adults or males, respectively. The amount of calcination amongst groups may indicate differences between mortuary practices in the Békés 103 cemetery which may reflect similar differences within society.

Cremation is a burial practice which has been adopted by numerous cultures throughout time and space. Experimental archaeology can play a major role in the understanding of the pyro-technology and the heat induced changes on bone structure. Exposure of the body to fire, causes various physical, chemical and mechanical alterations including colour change, propagation of fractures, shrinkage, warping, deformation, relative cortical preservation, as well as, removal of the organic component and modification of the inorganic crystal component. Thorough macroscopic examination of the aforementioned features can provide valuable information regarding fire’s intensity and temperature, the duration of burning events, the amount of raw material which was necessary for the manipulation of fire, the position and proximity of the body to fire, as well as the stage of decomposition of the burned remains (dry, fleshed, or semi-fleshed) at the time of burning. To that, a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors indicate the process’ complexity and the parameters which need to be taken into account in modern simulations of firing conditions of the past. This paper will present two different experiments which included the combustion of two pig carcasses in different stages of decomposition and the recording of all macroscopic heat-induced changes.

In connection with the special exhibition "Gallow, wheel and burning at the stake - insights into places of horror" the Neanderthal Museum carried out a unique experiment to recreate a burning at the stake as an historical way of execution in the winter of 2009. Up to now similar experiments focussed exclusively on the burning of a corpse as a prehistoric funeral practice. This experiment was based on an illustrated written source from 1800 by the executioner Johann Ernst Clausen of the town Lemgo, in which flammable materials, their amounts and a plan for building a stake for burning a person is described in detail. The experiment aimed at testing the construction plan, checking on the exact termination of an execution at the burning stake, to find possible accompanying phenomena such as the smell of burning and to document the traces of a burning at the stake in the archaeological evidence.

In this paper, we present the results of naturalistic taphonomic observations made in different environmental contexts of the Pampas region. The objective of this study is to evaluate the formation processes of bone assemblages in differently sized vertebrates. In the hills, medium-sized vertebrates dominate the assemblages and the main accumulating agents are carnivores. In the shallow lakes and fluvial valleys, bones of large-sized vertebrates are predominant and accumulate mainly by natural death and discard of the carcasses by local farmers. The coast shows a more uniform representation of small, medium, and large-sized vertebrates, which is related to high biodiversity and good visibility of the bones deposited in this environment. Finally, the information from the plains indicates a similar representation of medium and large-sized vertebrates, both deposited by natural deaths. Results from the taphonomic analysis suggest higher destruction rates of bones of small-sized animals, and the likelihood of preservation and burial of animal bones varies in each of the environments. The mixing of bone remains with the archaeological deposits is dependent on these variables.

In this paper, we present the results of naturalistic taphonomic observations made in different environmental contexts of the Pampas region. The objective of this study is to evaluate the formation processes of bone assemblages in differently sized vertebrates. In the hills, medium-sized vertebrates dominate the assemblages and the main accumulating agents are carnivores. In the shallow lakes and fluvial valleys, bones of large-sized vertebrates are predominant and accumulate mainly by natural death and discard of the carcasses by local farmers. The coast shows a more uniform representation of small, medium, and large-sized vertebrates, which is related to high biodiversity and good visibility of the bones deposited in this environment. Finally, the information from the plains indicates a similar representation of medium and large-sized vertebrates, both deposited by natural deaths. Results from the taphonomic analysis suggest higher destruction rates of bones of small-sized animals, and the likelihood of preservation and burial of animal bones varies in each of the environments. The mixing of bone remains with the archaeological deposits is dependent on these variables.