Behavioural Science

This milestone text provides a comprehensive and state-of-the art overview of perfectionism theory, research, and treatment from the past 25 years, with contributions from the leading researchers in the field. The book examines new theories and perspectives including the social disconnection model of perfectionism and the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. It also reviews empirical findings, with a special focus on stress, vulnerability, and resilience, and examines perfectionism in specific populations. Finally, it considers how perfectionism relates to physical health and psychophysiological processes and introduces new approaches to effective prevention and treatment. By increasing our understanding of perfectionism as a complex personality disposition and providing a framework for future explorations, this landmark publication aims to promote further research in this field. It will be invaluable reading for academics, students, and professionals in personality psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, applied psychology and related disciplines.

Some of Law and Economics’ basic claims have come to be criticized as a result of empirical findings that question their viability. Particularly, the premise that agents consistently act rationally and with their self-interest in mind seems problematic. What the consequences of the criticism mean for Law and Economics’ tenability depends largely on the questions whether (1) some elements are unassailable to the alternative’s objections and (2) the alternative is a systematic whole. It is argued that Law and Economics may be salvaged, if it is minimized and its ambitions are tempered. This means focusing on the stable, a priori, elements inherent to it.

Perfectionists have shown increased negative affect after failure compared to nonperfectionists. However, little is known about how perfectionists react to repeated failure. This study investigated the effects of two forms of perfectionism—self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism—on 100 university students’ reactions to repeated failure (versus repeated success) examining three negative emotions: anxiety, depression, and anger. Results showed that socially prescribed perfectionism predicted increased anxiety, depression, and anger after initial failure and further increased anger after repeated failure. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism predicted increased anxiety, but only after repeated failure. The findings suggest that both self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism are vulnerability factors predisposing individuals to react with increased negative affect after repeated failure.

Objective: To describe the experiences and perspectives of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) regarding dietetic services and to suggest improvements for their access and delivery.

Design: Semistructured telephone interviews.

Setting: Urban and rural Australia.

Participants: A total of 30 English-speaking adults with T2DM recruited by means of electronic advertisements and posters.

Phenomenon of interest: Engagement with services, adherence to diet, and perspectives regarding dietetic services.

Analysis: Capability, opportunity, and motivation model of behavior and theoretical domains framework informed the analysis.

Results: Participants were predominantly middle-aged, White, university-educated, and full-time professionals. Most had been diagnosed with T2DM for 2 years or more, were overweight or obese, were on glucose-lowering medication, and had visited the dietitian at least once. Two inter-related behaviors were identified: eating a healthy diet for T2DM and participating with dietetic services. Health literacy, as well as support by family, friends, and professionals, were reported as enablers for both these behaviors. Barriers stated included misconceptions about diets and the role of dietitians, unpleasant previous experiences with services, and lack of social support.

Conclusions and implications: These data support that improving health literacy of people with T2DM, in conjunction with social support by family and friends and professional support by dietitians, is likely to facilitate dietary behavior change.

Perhaps two of the most commonly asked questions about Covid-19 hysteria and the formulation and implementation of the disastrous policies across the globe in response to the Chinese virus are: why are we so willing to give up our freedoms, and how the hell did we get here? Excellent questions both. The answers may lie, at least partly, in the arguments of two popular works of non-fiction published over the last two decades. They are Nudge, written by Obama apparatchik Cass Sunstein and his academic offsider Richard Thaler, and The Tipping Point, by the airport bookshop star, Malcolm Gladwell. The former is a work of behavioural economics-for which Thaler received the Nobel Prize in economics in 2017-the latter a work of sociology that launched Gladwell as a writer. I am sure Gladwell wasn't intending to be prophetic or ironic when he said: "Ideas and products and messages and behaviors spread like viruses do".

Perfectionism is a prevalent characteristic in athletes. Yet some researchers have argued that perfectionism in sports is maladaptive because it undermines athletes’ performance and stifles athletic development. This argument, however, neglects that perfectionism is a multidimensional characteristic and that only some dimensions of perfectionism are clearly maladaptive, whereas others are not. This review argues that perfectionism is comprised of two main dimensions―perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006)―that show different and unique pattern of relationships with athletes’ emotion, motivation, and performance. In support of this argument the review will present findings indicating that only perfectionistic concerns show unique positive relationships with competitive anxiety, fear of failure, and avoidance goal orientations. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings show unique positive relationships with self-confidence, hope of success, approach goal orientations, and performance in training and competitions. The findings suggest that only perfectionistic concerns are clearly maladaptive, whereas perfectionistic strivings may form part of a healthy striving for excellence. Implications for applied sport psychology are discussed as are open questions for future research.

Encouraging further research on the dimensional assessment of personality disorders (PDs), Section III of the DSM-5 introduced a hybrid model for the assessment of six PDs employing self-reports on 25 maladaptive personality traits (“DSM-5 personality traits”). Following suggestions that multidimensional perfectionism is an important characteristic across various personality disorders (Ayearst, Flett, & Hewitt, 2012), the present study investigated how personal (self-oriented) and interpersonal (other-oriented and socially prescribed) aspects of perfectionism predicted the DSM-5 personality traits in a sample of 311 university students. Multiple regressions (controlling for the overlap between the different forms of perfectionism) showed that socially prescribed perfectionism positively predicted the traits defining schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive PD; other-oriented perfectionism positively predicted the traits defining narcissistic PD; and both socially prescribed and other-oriented perfectionism positively predicted the traits defining antisocial PD. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism positively predicted only one of the four traits defining obsessive-compulsive PD (rigid perfectionism). Showing that multidimensional perfectionism predicted all DSM-5 traits defining the personality disorders of Section III, the findings suggest that future DSM-5 updates may profit from including interpersonal aspects of perfectionism as a diagnostic criterion.

In this paper we evaluate the effectiveness of volunteering activities for young people at improving their non cognitive skills and other employability measures, including a Trier social stress test, in three randomised trials in the UK. We find significant improvements in non cognitive skills but more most (but indicative) improvements in performance in an interview measure.

Research on worry during the past 15 years has revealed a remarkable amount of knowledge about this pervasive human phenomenon. Worry involves a predominance of verbal thought activity, functions as a type of cognitive avoidance, and inhibits emotional processing. Worry also produces not only anxious experience but depressive affect as well. Recent evidence suggests that the very private experience of worry is developmentally connected to enmeshed childhood relationships with the primary caregiver and is currently associated with significant interpersonal problems, especially those involving tendency to be overly nurturing to others. At the physiological level, worry is characterized peripherally by parasympathetic deficiency and autonomic rigidity and centrally by left-frontal activation.

À la manière d’un kaléidoscope, le savoir empirique sur les comportements humains permet de forger une vision renouvelée des enjeux intéressant les juristes. L’analyse comportementale du droit permet avant tout de nourrir la discussion sur l’efficacité des règles de droit, c’est-à-dire sur leur aptitude à atteindre leur but. Prendre en considération plus systématiquement les comportements dans l’élaboration et l’application du droit constitue une entreprise nécessaire et ambitieuse. La présente introduction à l’analyse comportementale du droit est une invitation à relever ce défi.

Objective: Although perfectionism is a prominent personality disposition, only a few longitudinal studies have investigated how perfectionism develops. Theoretical models and qualitative studies have posited that academic success is a developmental antecedent of perfectionism. Yet, quantitative studies tend to interpret the cross-sectional relationships as academic success being an outcome of perfectionism. In light of these gaps in the literature, the present study was the first to investigate the longitudinal relationships between perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, academic achievement, and academic efficacy examining academic success as an antecedent of perfectionism. Method: The study examined 487 adolescents (aged 12-19 years, 54% female) using a crosslagged longitudinal design with three time points spaced 4-5 months apart. Results: Results showed that academic achievement predicted relative increases in both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, even when including academic efficacy. In addition, academic efficacy predicted relative increases in perfectionistic strivings. Discussion: This is the first study to show that academic achievement is a common factor in the development of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, whereas academic efficacy plays a role only in the development of perfectionistic strivings. Conclusions: Implications of the findings for the development of perfectionism are discussed.

This is a translation of the table of contents from Maurice Merleau-Ponty's first book, "La structure du comportement". This TOC is more detailed than the one provided in A. Fisher's English translation, and lays out the structure of the text with greater clarity. Page numbers are given for the English translation and the original French.

[AMAZON LINK BELOW TO BOOK ITSELF -- TOC and book intro in downloadable .pdf] 

"It is a common experience that a problem difficult at night is resolved in the morning after the committee of sleep has worked on it." --John Steinbeck Scientific research confirms what people have always known: answers, ideas, and inspiration do come to us in dreams. Harvard psychologist and world-renowned dream specialist Deirdre Barrett, Ph.D., offers this rich collection of examples of how the world's most creative practitioners in art, music, film, science, literature and other fields have used the revelations of their dream life to inform their work. Dr. Barrett offers insights showing us how to encourage lucid, meaningful dreaming, and how to apply the meanings of our dreams to solving problems--from the everyday to the extraordinary. This is the stuff dreams are made of. In the visual arts, Jasper Johns couldn't find his unique artistic vision until he dreamed it in the form of a large American flag. Salvador Dali and his colleagues built the startling new genre of surrealism out of dreams. Kubla Kahn dreamed the design for his stately pleasure dome; thousands of years later, Lucy Davis, chief architect at a major firm, continues the tradition of dreaming designs into life in her extraordinary buildings. Film is a fertile avenue for dreams: "Twice I have transferred dreams to film exactly as I had dreamed them," confides director Ingmar Bergman, as have Federico Fellini, Orson Welles, Akira Kurosawa, Robert Altman, and John Sayles. From Mary Shelley's terrible nightmare, which became Frankenstein, to Stephen King's haunting dream as a little boy, which led to his first bestseller, countless writers have consulted the Committee. Musicians from Beethoven to Billy Joel and Paul McCartney have whistled the Committee's tunes. In science, physiologist Otto Loewi dreamed the medical experiment that earned him the Nobel Prize. In sports, Marion Jones dreamed she'd broken a world record, then brought the dream to life. Gandhi translated his dream of resistance into a movement that changed the world. Since Freud, we take it for granted that our dreams reflect our past. In The Committee of Sleep, Barrett reveals how dreams can also tell us about our future potential--and how to reach it.

For decades, consumer law has been the stepchild of the legal discipline, neither public nor private law, not classic but post-modern, not 'legal enough', 'too political', in short, a discipline at the margins, suffering from the haut gout and striving to change society through law for the 'better'. Just like Atreyu, Frodo Baggins, Luke Skywalker, the Ghostbusters, Naruto Uzumaki, Dreamworks' dragon trainer, and many others, consumer law is the underdog carrying the burden of saving the day. Times are changing. We are perhaps reaching the point of the story where the world comes to understand the real value of consumer law in a society that is dominated and dependent on private consumption. Publishing houses and ever more numerous researchers from public and private law perspectives, working on national, European and international law are getting into what is no longer a new legal field. Now the time is ripe for a whole Handbook on Consumer Law Research which brings methodology to the fore. This first chapter pursues three aims, firstly to embed consumer law research into the overall development of legal research since the rise of consumer law in the 1960s, secondly to explain our choice to focus on the behavioural turn in consumer law and present the range of contributions in this volume that engage with the upcoming strand of research, thirdly to explore how the recent attention to behavioural insights can be combined with a pre-existing body of doctrinal research and social legal research in consumer law and outline avenues for further research.

Objectives. This study sought to apply behavioural reasoning theory (BRT) to the prediction of undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The reasons students use to justify and defend binge drinking may provide important information on motivations underlying such behaviour.Methods. Undergraduate students (N= 265) completed questionnaires assessing their reasons for and against binge drinking, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, intention, and past behaviour. Frequency of binge drinking was assessed at 1-week follow-up (N= 172).Results. A series of path analyses were conducted to assess the direct and indirect effects of the BRT variables on binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The variables under consideration accounted for 80% of the variance in binge drinking intentions (with past behaviour, reasons for binge drinking, and attitude having significant direct effects on intention), and 34% of the variance in binge drinking at 1-week follow-up (with past behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and intention having significant direct effects on future behaviour). Additional regression analyses revealed that respondents who strongly endorsed being sociable and having fun as reasons for binge drinking were more likely to intend to engage in binge drinking over the subsequent week.Conclusions. The results provide support for BRT as a framework for understanding undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour, and suggest that interventions need to focus on the social reasons for engaging in binge drinking in undergraduate students.

In accordance with the social information processing model, how adolescents attribute cause to a particular social situation (e.g., bullying) they witness or participate in, influences their online social information processing, and hence, how they will act in the situation.
Objective 
The aim of the present study was to explore how older teenagers explain why bullying takes place at school, and whether there were any differences in explaining bullying due to gender.
Methods 
Two hundred and fifteen Swedish students in upper secondary school responded to a questionnaire. Mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative methods) were used to analyze data.
Results 
The qualitative analysis resulted in three main categories and nine subcategories regarding accounts of bullying causes. According to the findings, the youth explained bullying much more often with individualistic explanations (bully attributing and victim attributing) than non-individualistic explanations (social context attributing). Furthermore, girls tended to provide a greater number of bullying explanations and were more likely to attribute bullying causes to the bully and the victim, as compared to boys.
Conclusions 
The findings provide insights into older teenagers’ understanding of why bullying occurs in school. The study also identified some gender differences but also some mixed findings regarding gender differences in comparison with previous research with younger participants. The authors concluded that more research has to be done to investigate age and gender differences.

This chapter is the introduction to the book Nudge and the Law: A European Perspective. It sets the scene for an exploration of the legal implications of the emergent phenomenon of behaviourally informed intervention. More precisely, we focuses on the challenges and opportunities it may offer to the policymaking of the European Union. This dual focus on law and on Europe characterises our endeavour. We take as our starting point the current debate around "Nudging", which mainly comprises two strands of enquiry: when is it legitimate for States to use psychology to inform policy? (the legitimacy debate) and, to the extent that it is legitimate, how can behavioural insights in practice be incorporated into the decision making processes? (the practicability debate). We explain why a European perspective differs somewhat from a US American perspective and introduce the structure of the volume. The book contains contributions which analyse what behavioural insights might bring to EU law, both at a horizontal level and at a sectoral level. It endeavours to present existing research in a manner that is accessible both to EU law specialists who are not yet familiar with behavioural sciences and to behavioural lawyers who are not specialists in EU law.

This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

This is a Research Paper based on an exploratory study done by the Research Scholar which explores different psychological aspects of ‘Honour Killing’ based on the reports, research studies and anecdotes published and observations made with an intensive approach on the concept. It is a study designed to identify and research different psychological dimensions like ‘Culture’, ‘Attitude’, ‘honour’ ‘Belief’ ‘Morality’ etc and its bearing on ‘Honour Killing’ based on the conflict between the individual and the family due to various reasons like choice of sexual/marital partner, Education and employment, Dress, Behaviour and contact with the opposite sex, Sexuality, General conformity to the family and community’s culture and expectations. This exploratory study was carried out as a qualitative research under Indian scenario based on secondary data available on the area which also included basic references on international incidents on the same. The research enquiry focused on several research questions: What is ‘Honour Killing’ and its various types?; How the psychological aspects of ‘culture’, ‘honour’, ‘morality’, ‘attitude’ and ‘belief’ are connected with ‘honour killing’?; Why the above said psychological concepts in human beings are more stronger than the other psychological concepts in them like ‘feelings’, ‘emotions’, ‘sentiments’, ‘humanity’ and other social traits when they commit homicides in the name of ‘honour’?. Why people are inclined to obey and follow biased and communal based ‘Khap’ Panchayats instead of the existing legal and Constitutional provisions and systems in the Country while treating issues or incidents? The study points out how the multifarious psychological aspects influencing ‘honour killing’ and to what extent it creates panic and havoc in the society which deter the stability of social life thereby ends life of many citizens in a nation as well as affects the development of a nation.

The chapter presents a review of the research literature examining perfectionism from a motivational perspective. Taking the two-factor model of perfectionism—differentiating the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—as a basis, we present analyses of the differential relationships that the two dimensions show with key motivational constructs focusing on achievement motivation and self-determination theory. As regards achievement motivation, we examine the relationships with achievement motives (hope of success and fear of failure) and achievement goals (task and ego goals, 2 × 2 and 3 × 2 achievement goals). As regards self-determination theory, we examine the relationships with autonomous and controlled motivation and with the different regulatory styles associated with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Based on the findings of our review, we propose that the differential motivational qualities of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns are important to understand why perfectionism is a “double-edged sword” that may energize or paralyze people, motivating some perfectionists to engage and others to disengage. We conclude that perfectionism research may profit from seeing perfectionism from a motivational perspective, perhaps even regard perfectionism as a motive disposition (need for perfection) whereby perfectionistic strivings represent the approach-oriented and autonomous aspects, and perfectionistic concerns the avoidance-oriented and controlled aspects.

Mahalanobis once invoked a mental construct of ‘five
concentric circles’ to characterize the domains of science
and statistics [3]. At the center is physics and at
the outer layers are survey methods or areas where
the variables are mostly unidentifiable, uncontrollable
and ‘free’. As a student of physics and mathematics
at Cambridge [4], he began his own career at the central
geometric point of this construct. By the end of
his life, he had made theoretical and applied contributions
to every sphere. In 1922, he became professor
of Physics at the Presidency College in Calcutta [7].
As ‘a physicist by training, statistician by instinct
and a planner by conviction’ [9], his interests led
him to found the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) in
1931 [10] to promote interdisciplinary research. In
1933, he launched the internationally renowned journal
Sanky¯a, serving as editor for forty years.

The aim of the present study was to examine to what degree different mechanisms of moral disengagement were related to age, gender, bullying, and defending among school children. Three hundred and seventy-two Swedish children ranging in age from 10 to 14 years completed a questionnaire. Findings revealed that boys expressed significantly higher levels of moral justification, euphemistic labeling, diffusion of responsibility, distorting consequences, and victim attribution, as compared with girls. Whereas boys bullied others significantly more often than girls, age was unrelated to bullying. Moral justification and victim attribution were the only dimensions of moral disengagement that significantly related to bullying. Furthermore, younger children and girls were more likely to defend victims. Diffusion of responsibility and victim attribution were significantly and negatively related to defending, while the other dimensions of moral disengagement were unrelated to defending.

Phronetic organizational research is an approach to the study of management and organizations focusing on ethics and power. It is based on a contemporary interpretation of the Aristotelian concept phronesis, usually as ‘prudence’. Phronesis is the ability to think and act in relation to values, to deliberate about ‘things that are good or bad for humans’ in the words of Aristotle (1976:1140a24–b12). Phronetic organizational research effectively provides answers to the following four value-rational questions, for specific problematics in management and organization studies: 1. Where are we going with this specific management problematic? 2. Who gains and who loses, and by which mechanisms of power? 3. Is this development desirable? 4. What, if anything, should we do about it?

Over the past 25 years, a number of multidimensional measures of perfectionism has been developed. Based on different models of multidimensional perfectionism, these measures contain different numbers of subscales, and most of the time the different subscales bear different names. This presents a confusing situation to researchers unfamiliar with the often complex details of the perfectionism literature who want to conduct research on perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise and need to make a decision as to what measure to use to capture individual differences in multidimensional perfectionism. The aim of the present chapter is to give researchers some guidance in this decision. To this aim, the chapter will (a) review the available multidimensional measures that have been published in international peer-reviewed journals and (b) provide a critique of these measures. In addition, the chapter will provide (c) recommendations on which measures to use and guidance on which decisions researchers have to make when using these measures to capture perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise.

The Aalborg Project may be interpreted as a metaphor of modern politics, modern administration and planning, and of modernity itself. The basic idea of the project was comprehensive, coherent, and innovative, and it was based on rational and democratic argument. During implementation, however, when idea met reality, the play of Machiavellian princes, Nietzschean will to power, and Foucauldian rationality-as-rationalization resulted in the fragmentation of the project.

Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder in adolescence and lower levels of subjective well-being and psychological adjustment. Perfectionism, however, is a multidimensional disposition, and not all dimensions of perfectionism are necessarily unhealthy or maladaptive. This entry presents an overview about perfectionism in adolescence and the main dimensions of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. It shows how the two dimensions are related to subjective well-being, psychological adjustment and maladjustment, and disorder. Moreover, it informs on how perfectionism can be measured and what factors influence the development of perfectionism in children and adolescents. Finally, the entry will discuss what is still unknown about perfectionism and why the notion that perfectionism can be healthy or adaptive is controversially debated.

At the same time that case studies are widely used and have produced canonical texts, it may be observed that the case study as a methodology is generally held in low regard, or is simply ignored, within the academy. For example, only 2 of the 30 top-ranked U.S. graduate programs in political science require a dedicated graduate course in case study or qualitative methods, and a full third of these programs do not even offer such a course. In contrast, all of the top 30 programs offer courses in quantitative methods and almost all of them require training in such methods, often several courses. In identifying this paradox of the case study’s wide use and low regard, Gerring rightly remarks that the case study survives in a “curious methodological limbo,” and that the reason is that the method is poorly understood. In what follows, we will try to resolve Gerring’s paradox and help case study research gain wider use and acceptance.

Incidental fisheries bycatch is recognised as a major threat to albatross populations worldwide. However, fishery discards and offal produced in large quantities might benefit some scavenging seabirds. Here, we demonstrate an integrated approach to better understand the ecological ramifications of fine-scale overlap between seabirds and fisheries. As a case study, we examined whether foraging in association with a fishing vessel is advantageous for chick provisioning in terms of quantity of food delivered to chicks, in northern royal albatross (Diomedea sanfordi) at Taiaroa Head, New Zealand. Fine-scale overlap between albatrosses and vessels was quantified by integrating GPS tracking and Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS). Meal size delivered to chicks was measured using custom-designed nest balances, and monitoring of attendance of adults fitted with radio transmitters was used in conjunction with time-lapse photography at the nest allowed us to allocate each feeding event to a specific parent. The combination of these techniques enabled comparison of meal sizes delivered to chicks with parental foraging trip durations with or without fishing vessels association. A total of 45 foraging trips and associated chick feeding events were monitored during the chick-rearing period in 2012. Differences in the meal size and foraging trip duration relative to foraging overlap with fisheries were examined using a linear mixed-effect model, adjusted for chick age. Our results, based on three birds, suggest that foraging in association with vessels does not confer an advantage for chick feeding for this population that demonstrated low rates of overlap while foraging. The integrated research design presented can be applied to other seabird species that are susceptible to bycatch, and offers a valuable approach to evaluate habitat quality by linking habitat use and foraging success in terms of total amount of food delivered to offspring.

This paper seeks to take the established behavioural models relating to comfort zones, group and individual development, and managing change, and use them to create a methodology for understanding and managing performance. It seeks to provide a reliable approach to getting the best out of people that is firmly based on sound behavioural and psychological principles backed up by observational data and practical field research. It is not, however, a ‘scientific’ paper full of detailed research data, complex theories and high-flown rhetoric, but rather it is a practical guide based on twenty years of consultancy in the field and eight years of teaching university students in a business school.

In understanding and managing performance, the key is the management of the stress. Both motivation and anxiety are, behaviourally, sub-sets of stress and, consequently, they are tools to assist in performance management – there will be times when motivation will be the most useful tool, while at others the introduction of anxiety will be more appropriate. However, too much motivation or anxiety will result in too much stress and this will result in performance being disabled.

The correct management style needs to be applied in each phase if performance is to be maximized. Applying the incorrect style has a negative impact on performance. In situations in which a series of performance-enhancing steps need to be taken, it is imperative to start the new performance cycle at the point at which the old performance cycle develops a slowing performance trend.

Much of Australia's violent post-1788 history is in the form of oral narrative and myth. Can myths be analyzed for their historicity? Can we reliably identify the Lemkinian patterns of history? Genocide is a legal question for which there are destructive evidentiary outcomes. Therefore, we are also interested in the juridical and criminogenic process of legalized dispossession, of invasive pastoralism and the century long war for the land, of the way in which normative values shape our rule-based social order, a subject we address more fully through On Values the origins of Australia's social order. This paper sets out an investigative methodology for analyzing Lemkinian genocide in Australia, from myth accretions to metahistory. Some of the work is collected from other published material to provide a single source for researchers.