__________. 1998. Matching as an Econometric Evaluation Estimator. Review of Economic Studies 65: 261-294.
A-2. North Carolina In Florida and North Carolina, community colleges also have limited enrollment -- or are preparing to do so -- despite the open admissions principle under which they have long operated..... Forsyth Technical Community College, in North Carolina, already has had to turn away about 100 students seeking remedial classes because the school had no money to hire the instructor. That to me is pretty drastic in an urban community like ours, says the president, Bob H. Greene. Institutions with admissions requirements have other means to limit enrollment, and many are using them (Blumenstyk, 1991).
- As of June 21, RCC had about 20,000 applications on file for September classes. Rotella figured about half those students would get in (Peoples, 1995). Page 44 California's community colleges are bracing for a 25 percent enrollment increase in the next decade that will explode demand for teachers, classroom space, child care, financial aid and remedial education. That explosion will rock a system already strained by waiting lists, crowding and tight budgets.
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Becker, G. and N. Tomes. 1979. An Equilibrium Theory of the Distribution of Income and Intergenerational Mobility. The Journal of Political Economy 87: 1153-89.
Belley, P. and L. Lochner. 2007. The Changing Role of Family Income and Ability in Determining Educational Achievement. Mimeo.
Ben-Porath, Y. 1967. The Production of Human Capital and the Life Cycle of Earnings. The Journal of Political Economy 75(4), Part 1: 352-365.
- Benjamin, M. 2002. Student Makeup Draws Scrutiny Community college Site Will Ease Clovis Center Crowding. The Fresno Bee, February 25, California.
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- Blumenstyk, G. 1991. Public Colleges Battered by Recession Turn Away Thousands of Students. Higher Admissions Standards Among the Methods Employed. The Chronicle of Higher Education 38(12): A-1.
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Bound, J. and S. Turner. 2007. Cohort Crowding: How Resources Affect Collegiate Attainment. Journal of Public Economics 91 (5-6): 877-899.
- Bradburn, E.M., R. Berger, X. Li, K. Peter, and K. Rooney. 2003. A Descriptive Summary of 19992000 Bachelor's Degree Recipients 1 Year Later, With an Analysis of Time to Degree, NCES 2003165, Project Officer: James Griffith. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
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- Brown, M., M. Mazzocco, J.K. Scholz, and A. Seshadri. 2007. Tied Transfers. Mimeo.
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Carneiro, P. and J.J. Heckman. 2002. The Evidence on Credit Constraints in Post-Secondary Schooling. The Economic Journal 112(482): 705-734.
Christian, M. S. 2007. Liquidity Constraints and the Cyclicality of College Enrollment in the United States. Oxford Economic Papers 59(1):141-169.
- Chronicle of Higher Education. 1996. Notebook: Florida State U. Accused of Bullying Outspoken Student (March 1).
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- Coleman, D. 1996. Growth Will Test Schools' Resources; Fresno City College, One of the State's Largest Community Colleges, Will Feel the Greatest Impact. The Fresno Bee, December 1, California.
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- David Mertes, chancellor of the community colleges, has also asked each college for proposals that might become part of a new systemwide policy in January. Options under consideration include: limiting enrollment of out-of-state students, allowing students to take only a certain number of classes, and offering fewer basic-skills classes (Blumenstyk, 1991). In California, the state's master plan for higher-education prohibits community colleges from capping enrollment, but that hasn't stopped the Legislature from limiting the number of students they will reimburse the colleges for when dollars in the budget are tight. As a result, last year, there were more than 40,000 students at the state's 108 community colleges for which the institutions received no state money. Officials in the state system's office estimate that the colleges lost out on some $120.8-million in state funds.
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- Delong, J.B., C. Goldin, and L. Katz. 2003 Sustaining U.S. Economic Growth.In H. Aaron, J. Lindsay, and P. Nivola, eds., Agenda for the Nation. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
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DiNardo, J., N. M. Fortin, and T. Lemieux. 1996. Labor Market Institutions and the Distribution of Wages: 1973-1993, A Semi-Parametric Approach. Econometrica 64(5): 10011044.
- Dynarski, S. and B. Jacob. 2007. What Explains the Rise in Kindergarten Redshirting? Mimeo.
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Elder, T. and D. Lubotsky. 2007. Kindergarten Entrance Age and Children's Achievement: Impacts of State Policies, Family Background, and Peers. Mimeo.
- Evelyn, J. 2002a. For Many Community Colleges, Enrollment Equals Capacity; At Cape Fear, Officials Struggle to Meet Needs of Different Types of Students. The Chronicle of Higher Education 48(33): A-41.
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- Evelyn, J. 2002b. Budget Cuts Force Community Colleges to Consider Turning Away Students: Many States Aren't Providing Enrollment-based Appropriations. The Chronicle of Higher Education 48(46): A-25.
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- Finder, Alan. 2006. Debate Grows as Colleges Slip in Graduations. The New York Times, September 15.
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- Fitzpatrick, M. and S. Turner. 2006. Blurring the Boundary: Changes in the Transition from College Participation to Adulthood. In S. Danziger and C. Rouse (eds.) The Economics of the Transition to Adulthood. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
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Flores-Lagunes, A. and A. Light. 2007. Interpreting Sheepskin Effects in the Returns to Education. Princeton University Education Research Section Working Paper 22.
Heckman, J.J., H. Ichimura, and P. E. Todd. 1997. Matching as an Econometric Evaluation Estimator: Evidence from Evaluating a Job Training Program. Review of Economic Studies 64: 605-654.
- Horvitz, D.G. and D.J. Thompson. 1952. A Generalization of Sampling Without Replacement from a Finite Universe. Journal of the American Statistical Association 47: 663-685.
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- If they wait, then there's nothing we can do for them. The classes will be gone, said Darroch Rocky Young, acting senior vice chancellor for the ninemember Los Angeles Community College District. Last year lack of money forced the district to turn away 5,000 students and cut 1,000 classes (The Associated Press State & Local Wire, 2004).
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- It's a zoo today, college spokesman Jay Williams added. As many as 800 students are trying to get into basic English classes (Titze, 2000). Even universities experiencing manageable growth, such as the University of Utah, are concerned about future projections. The U. is considering upping admissions standards to slow the flow of students.
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Keane, M. and K. Wolpin. 2001. The Effect of Parental Transfers and Borrowing Constraints on Educational Attainment. International Economic Review 42(4): 1051-1103.
Leigh, D. and A. Gill. 2003. Do Community Colleges Really Divert Students from Earning Bachelor's Degrees? Economics of Education Review 22: 23-30.
Light, A. 2001. In-School Work Experience and the Returns to Schooling. Journal of Labor Economics 19: 65-93.
- Little, R.J.A., and D. Rubin. 2002. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data, 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley.
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- Little, R.J.A..1982. Models For Nonresponse In Sample Surveys. Journal of the American Statistical Association 77: 237-250.
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- McCormick, A. and L. Horn. 1996. A Descriptive Summary of 199293 Bachelor's Degree Recipients: 1 Year Later, With an Essay on Time to Degree. U.S. Department of Education NCES 96158, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
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- Mr. Cundiff says that as it is, the college will likely turn away another 500 or so students this fall. If state revenues take another dive, he says, that number may increase. To stem growth, he is looking at his options: an official enrollment cap or even instituting admissions standards, two things almost unheard of in the community-college world (Evelyn, 2002b). An unexpected wave of students enrolling at Salt Lake Community College is stretching the school's resources during its first week of school. Enrollment, which was expected to hold steady this semester, is up about 700 FTE, the equivalent of full-time students, or by 1,400 actual students over the first day of classes last year. As of (Tuesday) night, 6,125 people were on wait lists trying to get into classes they need -- a record number -- said Judd Morgan, vice president for student services.
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Page 39 Courant, P., M. McPherson, and A. Resch. 2006. The Public Role in Higher Education. National Tax Journal 59(2): 291-318.
Page 40 Kane, T. 1996. College Cost, Borrowing Constraints and the Timing of College Entry. Eastern Economic Journal 22(2): 181-194.
- Page 41 Snyder, T.D., A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman. 2006. Digest of Education Statistics 2005 (NCES 2006-030). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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- Page 52 B-5. Eighteen Year Old Population For the crowding regressions, we calculate the number of eighteen-year olds in each state in 1972 and 1992, which are the cohort high school graduation years in NLS72 and NELS:88 respectively. To measure the population of eighteen year olds in each state, we use data on population by state and single year of age that are available through the Bureau of the Census website. Data for 1972 are available at: http://www.census.gov/popest/archives/pre1980 /e7080sta.txt and data for 1992 are available at: http://www.census.gov/popest/archives/1990s/st_age_sex.html. The change in the log of the eighteen year old population at the state-level constitutes the independent variable of interest in the crowding regressions.
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- Page 70 Figure 5. Employment and Hours Worked Among Those Enrolled in College by Type of Institution, October CPS Panel A. Proportion of Enrolled Students Employed 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 October CPS ProportionofEnrolledEmployed Public 2 yr, Share Employed Public 4 yr, Share Employed Private 4 yr, Share Employed 18-21 Year Olds Panel B. Proportion of Students Working 20+ Hours Enrolled 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 October CPS ProportionWorking20+HoursandEnrolled Public 2 yr, 20+ hours Public 4 yr, 20+ hours Private 4 yr, 20+ hours 18-21 Year Olds Source: Data are from authors' tabulations using the October CPS. Individual weights are employed.
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- Peoples, R. 1995. Classroom Doors Slamming Shut; Demand Outstrips the Supply of Community College Seats. The Press-Enterprise, June 25, Riverside, CA.
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- Reynolds, C. 2007. Academic and Labor Market Effects of Two-year College Attendance: Evidence Using Matching Methods. Mimeo.
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Rouse, C. 1995. Democratization or Diversion? The Effect of Community Colleges on Educational Attainment. Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13: 217-224.
Royston, P. 2004. Multiple Imputation of Missing Values. Stata Journal 4(3): 227-241.
- Rubin, D. 1987. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York: Wiley. Sandy, J., A. Gonzalez and M. Hilmer. Forthcoming. Alternative Paths to College Completion: The Effect of Attending a Two-Year School on the Probability of Completing a Four-Year Degree. Economics of Education Review.
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- Salt Lake Community College expects about 3,000 additional students on its campuses for the fall 2003 semester due, in part, to the University of Utah's enrollment cap.
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- Schafer, J. 1997. Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data. London: Chapman and Hall.
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- Scott-Clayton, J. 2007. What Explains Rising Labor Supply Among U.S. Undergraduates, 1970-2003? Mimeo.
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- Smith, J. 2007. Heterogeneity and Higher Education. University of Michigan, mimeo.
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Solon, G. 2004. A Model of Intergenerational Mobility Variation over Time and Place, in Generational Income Mobility in North America and Europe, ed. Miles Corak, 38-47. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Some 17,000 of those students were in the Los Angeles Community College District, the state's largest district. Consequently, it lost out on more than Page 43 $46.6-million in state funds that the colleges had to make up on their own. And although California's public colleges enjoyed several years of robust state budgets in the late 1990s, officials say the few good years did not make up for the lean spending plans that lawmakers adopted when times were tough (Evelyn, 2002b). Thousands of Riverside County high school graduates are being turned away every year from overcrowded community college classes, as a giant hole is ripped in the higher education 'safety net' for those with neither the money nor the grades for four-year schools. Educators say many of the students who do not get in will never come back.
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- Source: Authors' calculation from the NLS72 and NELS:88 surveys. School rankings are taken from the 2005 US News and World Report top college and university rankings. NLS72 calculations were made using the fifth follow-up weights included in the survey. Fourth follow-up weights were used for the NELS:88 survey calculations. Only those participating in these follow-ups are included in the tabulations. 2
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- Source: Authors' tabulations as described in the text using CPS data from 1977-2003 for the sample aged 18-20. Each cell represents a separate regression and includes CPS sample weights. 2 Robust standard errors are in parentheses: ** indicates significance at the 5 percent level and * indicates significance at the 10 percent level.
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- Stewart, K. 2001. Utah Colleges Brace for High Enrollment; With Double-digit Increases, Some Schools May be Forced to Restrict Their Admissions; High Enrollment Has Some Utah Schools Worried. The Salt Lake Tribune, September 1.
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Stinebrickner, R. and T. Stinebrickner. 2003. Working During School and Academic Performance, Journal of Labor Economics 23: 473-491.
- Sturrock, C. 2003. Students on Edge as California Colleges Mull Enrollment Caps. Contra Costa Times, October 20.
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- Sykes, S. 2003. SLCC Sees Its Gain in U. Loss; Enrollment Cap: College Officials Say University's Cost-cutting May Bring Thousands of Students to Them; University Disagrees; SLCC Expects Record Boost in Enrollment. The Salt Lake Tribune, June 6.
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- The Associated Press State & Local Wire. 2004. University-eligible Students May Crowd California Community Colleges. The Associated Press State & Local Wire, May 16.
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- The NELS:88 survey started with students who were in the eighth grade in 1988 (high school class of 1992) and conducted follow-up surveys with participants in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 2000. Similar to the NLS72 survey, NELS:88 contains high school records and collegiate transcripts as well as a host of background information that may be relevant to time to degree. Although degrees can be awarded throughout a year, we record the timing of degree receipt in discrete units of years since cohort high school graduation. Cohort high school graduation is defined as June 1972 for the NLS72 sample and June 1992 for the NELS:88 sample. The cut-point in each survey that defines a new year is the end of August (and thus the start of the new academic year). For example, NLS72 respondents who received a degree in January and June of 1976 would both be classified as taking 4 years to obtain a BA. However, a student who received a degree in September 1976 would be classified as taking 5 years.
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- The NLS72 and NELS:88 samples are restricted to those who attend college within 2 years of cohort high school graduation. Cohort high school graduation is defined as June 1972 for the NLS72 sample and June 1992 for the NELS:88 sample. 3 School types included in the weighting regressions are: public non-top 15, public top 15, private 4-year, and 2-year. School type indicators and samples refer to first institution attended. 4 All p-values in the table are based on 5000 bootstrap replications of the data, clustered at the high school level. The pvalue for the test of first-order dominance shows the percentage of the replications for which the NLS72 distribution is less than the NELS:88 distribution for years 4, 5 or 6.
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- The NLS72 and NELS:88 samples are restricted to those who attend college within 2 years of cohort high school graduation. Cohort high school graduation is defined as June 1972 for the NLS72 sample and June 1992 for the NELS:88 sample. 3 School types included in the weighting regressions are: public non-top 15, public top 15, private 4-year, and public 2year. School type indicators and samples refer to first institution attended. 4 All p-values in the table are based on 5000 bootstrap replications of the data, clustered at the high school level. The pvalue for the test of first-order dominance shows the percent of the replications for which the NLS72 distribution is less than the NELS:88 distribution for years 4, 5 or 6.
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- The NLS72 and NELS:88 samples are restricted to those who attend college within 2 years of cohort high school graduation. Cohort high school graduation is defined as June 1972 for the NLS72 sample and June 1992 for the NELS:88 sample. Page 57 Table 2. Cumulative Time To Degree Distributions for College Graduates within 8 Years of Cohort High School Graduation for the Full Sample and by First Institution Attended 1 Source: Authors' calculation from the NLS72 and NELS:88 surveys. NLS72 calculations were made using the fifth follow-up weights included in the survey. Fourth follow-up weights were used for the NELS:88 survey calculations. Only those participating in these followups are included in the tabulations. 2
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- The NLS72 and NELS:88 samples are restricted to those who initially attend a non-top 15 public college within 2 years of cohort high school graduation. Cohort high school graduation is defined as June 1972 for the NLS72 sample and June 1992 for the NELS:88 sample. 3 Parental income in NLS72 and NELS:88 are given in discrete ranges in both surveys. We group the income ranges into 6 income categories in each survey that correspond to the same real income across surveys using the CPI. In NLS72, the real income ranges are less than $3,000, $3000-$6000, $6001-$7500, $7501-$10500, $10501-$15000, and greater than $15000. In NELS:88, the real income ranges are less than $10,000, $10000-$20000, $20001-$25000, $25001-$35000, $35001-$50000, and greater than $50000.
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- The NLS72 study participants were seniors in high school in the spring of 1972. Following the base year interview, participant follow-up surveys were administered in 1973, 1974, 1976, 1979, and 1986 (for a subsample), with questions covering collegiate participation and degree attainment. In addition, detailed high school records and postsecondary transcripts were collected by the Department of Education.
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- They endure crowded classes, and many students who live in Clovis and northeast Fresno commute to Fresno City College for courses Clovis Center has no space to provide. The campus is too small for the amount of people who come here, student Elie Lipson, 20, said while taking a moment away from a computer terminal before the start of a class (Benjamin, 2002).
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- They get jobs, they get apartments and then have bills to pay, said Billie Rogers, a veteran counselor at Corona High School. It is easy for them to get off track, and hard to get back on. Community colleges statewide are limiting classes as a result of budget cuts and an enrollment cap that was imposed in 1981. But nowhere is the problem more acute than in Riverside County, where thousands of students are turned away from classes each year. A community college is supposed to accommodate the community, said Salvatore Rotella, president of Riverside Community College. But in this county, demand far outstrips the supply of seats at the college. All students over the age of 18 - and many who are still in high school with a counselor's permission - are accepted but may find it tough to get classes, he said. That is especially true for general education courses - English, math and science - needed to transfer to a four-year college or university.
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- Titze, M. 2000. SLCC's Rolls Swell. Deseret News, August 25, Salt Lake City, UT.
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Turner, S. E. 2005. Going to College and Finishing College: Explaining Different Educational Outcomes. In C. Hoxby (ed.) College Decisions: How Students Actually Make Them and How They Could. Chicago: University of Chicago Press for NBER.
- Twenty-year-old Andrew Shouse will start his third year at RCC in the fall. He has been trying since the fall of 1993 to complete enough general education requirements to transfer to UCR as a junior. His first semester, Shouse managed to get into one English class, but had to take a computer class and an art course. Sometimes you have to take cheesey classes just to get credits, he said.... Most classes have about 40 seats, and there are always about 20 people trying to talk instructors into letting them squeeze in, Shouse said. Usually you get to the teachers before the regular start of classes, or during the previous semester before classes are over, he said. If you keep pestering them, they might remember you and let you in. Rotella estimated RCC may be turning away as many as 10,000 students a year. Students may enroll by telephone or in person, but an unknown number never make it into classes.
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- U.S. Department of Education. 2006. A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education. Washington, D.C. Van Buuren, S,., H.C. Boshuizen, and D.L. Knook. 1999. Multiple Imputation of Missing Blood Pressure Covariates in Survival Analysis. Statistics in Medicine 18(6): 681-694.
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- Van Leer, T. 2002. Utah colleges may limit enrollments. Deseret News, August 1.
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- We will have to do more with less, Interim President Judd Morgan told SLCC's board of trustees Wednesday. We will see larger class sizes because we want to fill up those we already offer instead of creating new ones (Sykes, 2003). Page 48 Appendix B: Data Appendix B-1. Time To Degree and Degree Completion Time to degree and degree completion are calculated using NLS72 and NELS:88 survey responses from the first through fifth follow-ups in NLS72 and the fourth follow-up in NELS:88.
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- We're pretty full, said Bill Stewart, chancellor of the State Center Community College District, which includes Kings River Community College in Reedley as well as Fresno City College. It's going to take a lot of creativity on our part (Coleman, 1996). It will take three years, but students at State Center Community College District's Clovis Center are relieved a new campus is going to be built.
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- With three weeks still to go in the registration process, Utah Valley State College already has 14 percent more enrollments than at the same time last fall, said registrar Luann Smith. The Orem college has been the fastest-growing among the state institutions for a number of years. We admit everyone, but if they come and find that the courses they want are already full, they may either look at other options or wait until the next semester, she said. Although open enrollment remains the objective, the availability of classes is a limiting factor, she said (Van Leer, 2002).
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