Conference Presentations by Lieske Tibbe
Lecture delivered at the ESNA Conference 'Food, glorious food. Food at the heart of nineteenth-ce... more Lecture delivered at the ESNA Conference 'Food, glorious food. Food at the heart of nineteenth-century art', Antwerp, June 8-9, 2017.
An elaborated version in Dutch: 'Aardappeleters. Een laag-bij-de-gronds thema in de schilderkunst, 1885-1905', in 'De Moderne Tijd 2021 No. 3/4, 328-352.
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Fighting the Myth of Van Gogh: R.N. Roland Holst (1868-1938) against the story of his martyrdom, 2015
Lecture delivered at the 'Munch- van Gogh Conference'Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, Nov. 10, 2015.
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Konferenz 'Zur Geschichte der Museen im 19. Jahrhunderts 1789-1918', Berlin, Institut für Museum... more Konferenz 'Zur Geschichte der Museen im 19. Jahrhunderts 1789-1918', Berlin, Institut für Museumskunde, 2-3 Dez. 2004.
Veröffentlicht in: 'Zur Geschichte der Museen im 19. Jahrhundert 1789-1918', Hrsg. von Berhard Graf und Hanno Möbius, Berlin 2006 (Berliner Schriften zur Museumskunde, Band 22), 69-80.
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Paper delivered at the 'Morris 2000 Conference' (University of Toronto/ William Morris Society, Toronto 23/6/2000, 2000
This paper analyses the reception of the works of William Morris in Belgium and in The Netherland... more This paper analyses the reception of the works of William Morris in Belgium and in The Netherlands. The reception differed in socialist and anarchist circles. Imagery borrowed from nature was often used here.
English version of "Nieuws uit Nergensoord. Natuursymboliek en de receptie van William Morris in Nederland en België', De Negentiende Eeuw 25 (2002) nr.4, 233-151.
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Papers by Lieske Tibbe
Rythmus. Jaarboek voor de studie van het fin de siècle (themanummer:) Lopende vuurtjes. Engelse kunst en literatuur in Nederland en België rond 1900, red. Anne van Buul , 2012
This article discusses a number of persons whose political beliefs played a part in the early tra... more This article discusses a number of persons whose political beliefs played a part in the early transfer of Morris's artistic production to the Netherlands. Central are journalist and publisher Leo Simons (1863-1939), and foreman of socialism and anarchism in Holland, Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (1846-1919). Simons wrote about Morris, and particularly admired his Kelmscott Press. He also contributed to the dissemination of Morrisian principles of furniture art, among other things through his directorship of the firm ''t Binnenhuis’. However, no publications by Morris himself appeared in his publishing house. Domela Nieuwenhuis knew Morris personally. He initiated a translation of “News from Nowhere” in 1891 (although he later criticized Morris' vision to a certain extent). Due to irregularities and political entanglements, a complete translation of the book did not appear until 1897, by Frank van der Goes (1859-1939).
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Historisch Tijdschrift Holland 31 nr.3, 178-189, 1999
On the occasion of the exhibition 'Labour and Beauty united. The artist Richard Roland Holst, 186... more On the occasion of the exhibition 'Labour and Beauty united. The artist Richard Roland Holst, 1868-1938 ' in the (former) National Trade Union Museum in Amsterdam (1999) an overview of this artist's career, work and views. His renunciation of free painting and choice of architecture-related art, especially inspired by the writings of John Ruskin and William Morris. Special attention to his utopian mural “Once the dawning day will find Labour and Beauty united,” in the building of the Amalgated Society of Diamond Workers.
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Socialisme & Democratie 53 nr.5, 274-279. , 1996
Art and (class) morality. In his 1907 murals in the building of the Amalgated Society of Diamond ... more Art and (class) morality. In his 1907 murals in the building of the Amalgated Society of Diamond Workers, R.N. Roland Holst (1868-1938) incorporated his views on art and socialism. He combined ideas about art and society from John Ruskin, William Morris, Leo Tolstoi and Karl Kautsky. This article pays particular attention to the use of Kautsky's views. Roland Holst, his wife the poetess Henriette Roland Holst and his friend the poet Herman Gorter developed a “socialist aesthetic” based on Kautsky. It was mainly about developing a proletarian value system in opposition to (wrong) bourgeois morality. And so, Solidarity, Combativeness, Self- sacrifice, Trustfulness, Hope and Organization were the themes of the paintings. The opposition to bourgeois morality had consequences not only for the content, but also for the style of the paintings.
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Spiegel der Letteren 59, 321-350, 2017
Community Art ('Gemeenschapskunst'), flourishing in The Netherlands around 1900, had as one of it... more Community Art ('Gemeenschapskunst'), flourishing in The Netherlands around 1900, had as one of its central issues the collaboration of all arts. Beside architecture, painting, sculpture and the applied arts, also music and literature were welcomed to participate. Here will be analyzed if and how the art of literature - in the broadest sense, as written texts - is incorporated in the four most outstanding monuments of Community Art: the painting 'Procession in honour of the Miracle of the Holy Sacrament' at the Amsterdam Beguinage Chapel, the wall paintings in the town hall of 's-Hertogenbosch, and those in the Exchange Building and the office of the Amalgated Society of Diamond Workers, both at Amsterdam. Beside guide booklets and programs, the paintings themselves show names, implicit and explicit references, quotations and poems especially to adorn a specific place and to transmit a specific message. A trend towards more and more integration can be discovered.
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in: Rachel Esner & Sandra Kisters (eds.), The Mediatization of the Artist, n.pl. (Palgrave Macmillan), 31-46 , 2018
From the year of its founding (1891), Elsevier's Geïllustreerd Maandschrift published a series of... more From the year of its founding (1891), Elsevier's Geïllustreerd Maandschrift published a series of elaborate biographical essays on contemporary artists. This study gives an analysis of these essays in the period 1891-1905, a total of 139 articles, out of which 6 on women artists. “Elsevier’s “ was a quality monthly, aimed at well-educated, middle-class readers.
Considered are the average (fairly advanced) age of the artists discussed, their idea of their “innate” talent, their opposition to parents and academies, and their financial and social position. This is weighed against Thomas Nipperdey's ‘Wie das Bürgertum die Moderne fand’ (1983). Most artists were conservative, both in their art and in their social outlook. By the end of the century, a different view of artists was cautiously gaining ground, and an article on Van Gogh near the end of 1905 makes a striking finale.
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Desipientia 10 nr.1, 41-48, 2003
Was Vincent wrong during the war ? Statements about Vincent van Gogh in 'De Schouw', organ of the... more Was Vincent wrong during the war ? Statements about Vincent van Gogh in 'De Schouw', organ of the Nederalndsche Kultuurkamer. Under the German occupation of the Netherlands, artists were obliged, on pain of exclusion from the cultural circuit, to join the ‘Nederlandsche Kultuurkamer’. The organ of the kultuurkamer, De Schouw, propagated an anti-modern, anti-rationalist, anti-classical, anti-French and anti-cosmopolitan cultural ideology. It is compared here to 'Der Untergang des Abendlandes' by Oswald Spengler, and to 'Rembrandt as Erzieher' by Julius Langbehn. In this view, Vincent van Gogh was a typical ‘Nordrasmensch’, a ‘grüblerische’ nature, rooted in the Brabant soil. By going to the south of France, he met his fate. This view resonated with the reception of Van Gogh in Germany, and with the mindset of the founders of the Kröller-Müller Museum.
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Jong Holland 13 nr. 2, 37-43, 1997
Changing art mood. Letters from Richard Roland Holst on Vincent van Gogh and symbolism. Correspon... more Changing art mood. Letters from Richard Roland Holst on Vincent van Gogh and symbolism. Correspondence of Richard N. Roland Holst with Jan Toorop, J.F. Ankersmit, Jan Toorop, Jan Veth and Henriëtte van der Schalk, showing how the young avant-garde of the 1890s was searching for its own artistic identity. Determining a standpoint towards Van Gogh's art, which was so unusual, played a part in this.
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in: Nader beschouwd. Een serie kunsthistorische opstellen aangeboden aan Pieter Singelenberg (Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen), 129-149., 1986
Observing for Learning. Visiting World Exhibitions as part of the schooling of workmen in the 19t... more Observing for Learning. Visiting World Exhibitions as part of the schooling of workmen in the 19th century.
The sending of Dutch workmen to World Exhibitions in Paris, 1867, 1889 and 1900, with the aims of supplementing the existing (drawing) education of craftsmen, promoting national industry and warding off social unrest. The initiators, the composition of the groups (skilled workers), their findings and reports, and the results.
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Kunstlicht 28, nr. 2/3 : Atelier (Themanummer/ special issue, in honour of Carel Blotkamp), 20-25., 2007
There is a parallel between the design of “museumized” artists' studios and the “modernist” muse... more There is a parallel between the design of “museumized” artists' studios and the “modernist” museum concept. Both assume direct, pure contact of the viewer with the origin of the artwork - as if the viewer were undergoing a ritual in a temple.
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in: Andrea Meyer/Bénédicte Savoy (Eds.), The Museum is Open. Towards a Transnational History of Museums 1750-1940, Berlin (De Gruyter),131-145., 2014
This article focuses on the six international research trips, at the turn of the 19th century und... more This article focuses on the six international research trips, at the turn of the 19th century undertaken by Marius Vachon (1880-1928) in an effort to establish a Museum of Industrial Arts in France, Of special interest to Vachon was the Orientalisches Museum at Vienna, which was affiliated to a trade agency, and showed objects of Austo-Hungarian manufactures as well as objects from Turkey, Persia, India, Japan and China, and offered information on reciprocal trade relations. He also noted that, in terms of the industrious arts, French museums lagged behind the Berlin Kunstgewerbemuseum, the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe in Vienna, and, of course, the South Kensington Museum in London. In the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, he feared competition from German-speaking areas. He called for a ‘Guerre artistique'. However, he could not
appreciate Art Nouveau, as manifested at the 1900 World's Fair in Paris, and at the Musée des Arts décoratifs founded in 1905.
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De Negentiende Eeuw 29 nr. 4, 261-284, 2005
Nature state and decay. Debates on exotic art styles surrounding the 1883 International Colonial ... more Nature state and decay. Debates on exotic art styles surrounding the 1883 International Colonial Exhibition.
The 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam was primarily a commercial exhibition, focused on sales opportunities in non-European territories. In addition, it showed exotic (art) crafts from areas under the administration of European nations. Value judgements on cultural expressions of primitive and exotic peoples also determined the way the exhibition as a whole was arranged. The finely woven classification system showed the position of exotic industries in the ranking of human productivity: evidently, Western European cultural expressions were at the top. An exception were products from the Midden East and non-colonised countries China and Japan. Industry from Holland's ‘own’ colonies was generally viewed negatively, especially that from the province of Aceh, where a colonial war of conquest was raging. But besides that, exotic products could have great appeal as ‘unspoilt’ expressions of art against the ‘tired' or 'decadent' Western European culture. Differing opinions on exotic cultures later determined the appreciation of Arts & Crafts or Art Nouveau.
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De Negentiende Eeuw 24 nr. 2, 141-152, 2000
A culture gap. Dutch art and crafts at the 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibitio... more A culture gap. Dutch art and crafts at the 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition.
Attached to the 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam were three subsidiary exhibitions: the Triennial Exhibition of Living Masters, a retrospective exhibition of Dutch applied art, and an ethnographic exhibition featuring objects of diverse geographical origins. The intent of incorporating art exhibits into major industry exhibitions was to make them appealing to a diverse audience.
But these could also be understood from the classification principles underlying such exhibitions. The main line of these was “from nature to culture,” and art then formed the culmination of human activities. All colonial products (and also the exhibited colonized inhabitants) were at the bottom of this classification, and European achievements at the top.
Furthermore, the side exhibitions were arranged in very different ways. However, they did give rise to polemics about the originality of ornamental styles .
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Jong Holland 1 nr. 2, 13-31, 1985
"Everywhere you looked was art". Dutch workman visit the Paris exhibitions of 1867, 1889 and 1900... more "Everywhere you looked was art". Dutch workman visit the Paris exhibitions of 1867, 1889 and 1900.
Among the numerous visitors to the 19th -century World Exhibitions were delegations of workers from various countries. The purpose of such visits, which took place under the auspices of governments, trade unions or private enterprises, was to raise the standards of artisans and thus the level of craftmanship in the country of origin. In this article are described the reports of three Dutch delegations of workers, to the Paris exhibitions of 1867, 1889 and 1900. The purpose of this article is to ascertain whether the responses of these working men to the various aesthetic novelties which they encountered at the exhibitions differed from those of other visitors, in particular concerning the styles of exhibition design, the buildings and their interior and exterior ornamentation, and the presentation of exotic cultures
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De Negentiende Eeuw 40 nr. 4, 334-350, 2016
In 1876, an International Exhibition was organized in Philadelphia to celebrate the one-hundredth... more In 1876, an International Exhibition was organized in Philadelphia to celebrate the one-hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Dutch industry and commerce were reluctant to participate due to the risks and costs of transport. Dutch painters, by contrast, foresaw an interesting new market in the United States and were eager to send in their works. Consequently, the Dutch contribution to the exposition was dominated by civil engineering, education, book printing, farming, colonial exhibits, and the visual arts. Using catalogues, official reports, newspaper reviews, graphic illustrations and photographs, it is possible to reconstruct several of the Dutch presentations at the Exhibition. Due to the well-groomed exhibits of culture and art, and the absence of industry and trade, Holland was represented and perceived as a peaceful, public-spirited community, characterized by its many waters, pastures, grazing cows, mills and dunes, and unstained by modern life.
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Kunstschrift Openbaar Kunstbezit 33 nr.3, 14-20, 22, 1989
In keeping with the 19th-century encyclopedic conception of science, world exhibitions not only d... more In keeping with the 19th-century encyclopedic conception of science, world exhibitions not only displayed products of industry, but also Fine Arts. An additional advantage was that such a varied offer would attract a larger and buying public.
Also published as:
Kunst op wereldtentoonstellingen: tentoonstellingsideologie en -ekonomie, Artillerie 2/3 (1985) nr. 1-3, 2-28.
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De Negentiende Eeuw 21 (1997) nr.2, 105-126, 1997
The industrial exhibition as a means of education and elevation. Craftsmen as visitors and exhibi... more The industrial exhibition as a means of education and elevation. Craftsmen as visitors and exhibitors.
After dissolution of the guild system in the French era, training opportunities for craftsmen were limited. The obligation since 1817 for somewhat larger towns to maintain municipal drawing schools and drawing academies did not provide sufficient relief. Industrial exhibitions were an opportunity for workers to gain knowledge. This article discusses three possibilities: visiting (or arranging to visit) exhibitions abroad, such as world fairs; exhibitions of products made by workmen, and exhibitions of utensils and tools especially for workmen. These measures concerned reasonably skilled labourers.
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Conference Presentations by Lieske Tibbe
An elaborated version in Dutch: 'Aardappeleters. Een laag-bij-de-gronds thema in de schilderkunst, 1885-1905', in 'De Moderne Tijd 2021 No. 3/4, 328-352.
Veröffentlicht in: 'Zur Geschichte der Museen im 19. Jahrhundert 1789-1918', Hrsg. von Berhard Graf und Hanno Möbius, Berlin 2006 (Berliner Schriften zur Museumskunde, Band 22), 69-80.
English version of "Nieuws uit Nergensoord. Natuursymboliek en de receptie van William Morris in Nederland en België', De Negentiende Eeuw 25 (2002) nr.4, 233-151.
Papers by Lieske Tibbe
Considered are the average (fairly advanced) age of the artists discussed, their idea of their “innate” talent, their opposition to parents and academies, and their financial and social position. This is weighed against Thomas Nipperdey's ‘Wie das Bürgertum die Moderne fand’ (1983). Most artists were conservative, both in their art and in their social outlook. By the end of the century, a different view of artists was cautiously gaining ground, and an article on Van Gogh near the end of 1905 makes a striking finale.
The sending of Dutch workmen to World Exhibitions in Paris, 1867, 1889 and 1900, with the aims of supplementing the existing (drawing) education of craftsmen, promoting national industry and warding off social unrest. The initiators, the composition of the groups (skilled workers), their findings and reports, and the results.
appreciate Art Nouveau, as manifested at the 1900 World's Fair in Paris, and at the Musée des Arts décoratifs founded in 1905.
The 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam was primarily a commercial exhibition, focused on sales opportunities in non-European territories. In addition, it showed exotic (art) crafts from areas under the administration of European nations. Value judgements on cultural expressions of primitive and exotic peoples also determined the way the exhibition as a whole was arranged. The finely woven classification system showed the position of exotic industries in the ranking of human productivity: evidently, Western European cultural expressions were at the top. An exception were products from the Midden East and non-colonised countries China and Japan. Industry from Holland's ‘own’ colonies was generally viewed negatively, especially that from the province of Aceh, where a colonial war of conquest was raging. But besides that, exotic products could have great appeal as ‘unspoilt’ expressions of art against the ‘tired' or 'decadent' Western European culture. Differing opinions on exotic cultures later determined the appreciation of Arts & Crafts or Art Nouveau.
Attached to the 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam were three subsidiary exhibitions: the Triennial Exhibition of Living Masters, a retrospective exhibition of Dutch applied art, and an ethnographic exhibition featuring objects of diverse geographical origins. The intent of incorporating art exhibits into major industry exhibitions was to make them appealing to a diverse audience.
But these could also be understood from the classification principles underlying such exhibitions. The main line of these was “from nature to culture,” and art then formed the culmination of human activities. All colonial products (and also the exhibited colonized inhabitants) were at the bottom of this classification, and European achievements at the top.
Furthermore, the side exhibitions were arranged in very different ways. However, they did give rise to polemics about the originality of ornamental styles .
Among the numerous visitors to the 19th -century World Exhibitions were delegations of workers from various countries. The purpose of such visits, which took place under the auspices of governments, trade unions or private enterprises, was to raise the standards of artisans and thus the level of craftmanship in the country of origin. In this article are described the reports of three Dutch delegations of workers, to the Paris exhibitions of 1867, 1889 and 1900. The purpose of this article is to ascertain whether the responses of these working men to the various aesthetic novelties which they encountered at the exhibitions differed from those of other visitors, in particular concerning the styles of exhibition design, the buildings and their interior and exterior ornamentation, and the presentation of exotic cultures
Also published as:
Kunst op wereldtentoonstellingen: tentoonstellingsideologie en -ekonomie, Artillerie 2/3 (1985) nr. 1-3, 2-28.
After dissolution of the guild system in the French era, training opportunities for craftsmen were limited. The obligation since 1817 for somewhat larger towns to maintain municipal drawing schools and drawing academies did not provide sufficient relief. Industrial exhibitions were an opportunity for workers to gain knowledge. This article discusses three possibilities: visiting (or arranging to visit) exhibitions abroad, such as world fairs; exhibitions of products made by workmen, and exhibitions of utensils and tools especially for workmen. These measures concerned reasonably skilled labourers.
An elaborated version in Dutch: 'Aardappeleters. Een laag-bij-de-gronds thema in de schilderkunst, 1885-1905', in 'De Moderne Tijd 2021 No. 3/4, 328-352.
Veröffentlicht in: 'Zur Geschichte der Museen im 19. Jahrhundert 1789-1918', Hrsg. von Berhard Graf und Hanno Möbius, Berlin 2006 (Berliner Schriften zur Museumskunde, Band 22), 69-80.
English version of "Nieuws uit Nergensoord. Natuursymboliek en de receptie van William Morris in Nederland en België', De Negentiende Eeuw 25 (2002) nr.4, 233-151.
Considered are the average (fairly advanced) age of the artists discussed, their idea of their “innate” talent, their opposition to parents and academies, and their financial and social position. This is weighed against Thomas Nipperdey's ‘Wie das Bürgertum die Moderne fand’ (1983). Most artists were conservative, both in their art and in their social outlook. By the end of the century, a different view of artists was cautiously gaining ground, and an article on Van Gogh near the end of 1905 makes a striking finale.
The sending of Dutch workmen to World Exhibitions in Paris, 1867, 1889 and 1900, with the aims of supplementing the existing (drawing) education of craftsmen, promoting national industry and warding off social unrest. The initiators, the composition of the groups (skilled workers), their findings and reports, and the results.
appreciate Art Nouveau, as manifested at the 1900 World's Fair in Paris, and at the Musée des Arts décoratifs founded in 1905.
The 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam was primarily a commercial exhibition, focused on sales opportunities in non-European territories. In addition, it showed exotic (art) crafts from areas under the administration of European nations. Value judgements on cultural expressions of primitive and exotic peoples also determined the way the exhibition as a whole was arranged. The finely woven classification system showed the position of exotic industries in the ranking of human productivity: evidently, Western European cultural expressions were at the top. An exception were products from the Midden East and non-colonised countries China and Japan. Industry from Holland's ‘own’ colonies was generally viewed negatively, especially that from the province of Aceh, where a colonial war of conquest was raging. But besides that, exotic products could have great appeal as ‘unspoilt’ expressions of art against the ‘tired' or 'decadent' Western European culture. Differing opinions on exotic cultures later determined the appreciation of Arts & Crafts or Art Nouveau.
Attached to the 1883 International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam were three subsidiary exhibitions: the Triennial Exhibition of Living Masters, a retrospective exhibition of Dutch applied art, and an ethnographic exhibition featuring objects of diverse geographical origins. The intent of incorporating art exhibits into major industry exhibitions was to make them appealing to a diverse audience.
But these could also be understood from the classification principles underlying such exhibitions. The main line of these was “from nature to culture,” and art then formed the culmination of human activities. All colonial products (and also the exhibited colonized inhabitants) were at the bottom of this classification, and European achievements at the top.
Furthermore, the side exhibitions were arranged in very different ways. However, they did give rise to polemics about the originality of ornamental styles .
Among the numerous visitors to the 19th -century World Exhibitions were delegations of workers from various countries. The purpose of such visits, which took place under the auspices of governments, trade unions or private enterprises, was to raise the standards of artisans and thus the level of craftmanship in the country of origin. In this article are described the reports of three Dutch delegations of workers, to the Paris exhibitions of 1867, 1889 and 1900. The purpose of this article is to ascertain whether the responses of these working men to the various aesthetic novelties which they encountered at the exhibitions differed from those of other visitors, in particular concerning the styles of exhibition design, the buildings and their interior and exterior ornamentation, and the presentation of exotic cultures
Also published as:
Kunst op wereldtentoonstellingen: tentoonstellingsideologie en -ekonomie, Artillerie 2/3 (1985) nr. 1-3, 2-28.
After dissolution of the guild system in the French era, training opportunities for craftsmen were limited. The obligation since 1817 for somewhat larger towns to maintain municipal drawing schools and drawing academies did not provide sufficient relief. Industrial exhibitions were an opportunity for workers to gain knowledge. This article discusses three possibilities: visiting (or arranging to visit) exhibitions abroad, such as world fairs; exhibitions of products made by workmen, and exhibitions of utensils and tools especially for workmen. These measures concerned reasonably skilled labourers.
The foundation of the South Kensington Museum in London (1852) is seen in the (contemporary and current) literature as the birth of the ‘modern’ museum of Applied Arts: systematic in conception, and intended as a model collection to raise the level of national crafts. Since then, other (older) types of applied arts collections have been described in pejorative terms as ‘dusty’, ‘messy’, ‘dead’. Described are the changing fortunes of (objects from) such collections, notably the Brandenburg Kunstkammer and the Dutch Royal Cabinet of Curiosities.
Bert Altena, 'Machinist en wereldverbeteraar. Het leven van A.J. Jansen, 1847-1931', Hilversum 2014
edited:
Amsterdam (Architectura & Natura)/ Nijmegen (Nijmeegse Kunsthistorische Studies, II) 1994. ISBN 90 71570 39 8
Findings so far, conclusions and proposals for further research.
Presented at NaMu, Making National Museums Program, Conference ‘Setting the Frames’, 26-28 February 2007, Norrköping, Sweden,
The central question is how various countries in the nineteenth century designed and disseminated the image of a 'national culture' through their museums. This research project will cover the explicit documents spreading the museum's image (the museums' aims, promotional materials, and reports; the architecture of their buildings) and the implicit assumptions that lie behind the formation and categorization of a collection, as well as the way the collection was exhibited. 1 In this project local variations on the theme of 'national identity' will be studied from an international, comparative perspective. 2 By using this approach, museum-historical research will be advanced a step further, as in the past it has usually been restricted to case studies on individual museums, and few-if any-connections have been made between similar