WO2016073972A1 - Cancer immunotherapy using virus particles - Google Patents

Abstract

A method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof is described that includes administering a therapeutically effective amount of a virus or virus-like particle to the subject, wherein the virus particle is nonreplicating and noninfectious in the subject. The method represents a type of in situ vaccination, in which application of an immunostimulatory reagent directly to the tumor modifies the tumor microenvironment so that the immune system is able to respond to the tumor.

Description

CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPY USING VIRUS PARTICLES

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62/076,543, filed November 7, 2014, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62/107,617, filed January 26, 2015, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62/159,389, filed May 11, 2015, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT ON FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH

[0002] This invention was made with Government support under NIH Training Grant No. 5T32AI007363-22, NIH Training Grant No. T32 HL105338, and Grant No. NIH 1 U54 CA151662 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and Grant No. CMMI 1333651 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Regardless of tissue of origin, metastatic cancers uniformly carry poor prognoses. Conventional chemo- and radiotherapy are largely ineffective for late stage disease. The emerging field of tumor immunology offers new therapeutic options. Novel therapeutics that seek to induce anti-tumor immunity, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor cell therapies, and tumor-associated antigen cancer vaccines show promise, but the development of immunotherapy for cancer is in an early stage and it is likely that, as with other cancer therapies, immunotherapies will be combined for optimal efficacy. Each cancer type is unique but many solid tumors metastasize to the lungs. An option with limited exploration is direct application of immunostimulatory reagents into the suspected metastatic site or an identified tumor. This approach, in situ vaccination, can modulate the local microenvironment and, like therapies such as T cell checkpoint blocking antibodies, can relieve immunosuppression and potentiate anti-tumor immunity against antigens expressed by the tumor. [0004] Research into nanoparticles as cancer therapies to this point has largely focused on them as a delivery platform: the loading of particles with tumor-associated antigen and immune agonists for the stimulation of anti-tumor immunity, or the loading of particles with pre-existing conventional chemotherapeutic drugs for delivery to tumors as a means to reduce toxicity. Sheen et al., Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol., 6(5):496-505 (2014). However, the tendency of nanoparticles to interact with and to be ingested by innate immune cells gives them potential as immunostimulatory, immunoregulatory and immunostimulatory agents if they modulate the characteristics of the ingesting innate immune population.

[0005] Virus-like particles (VLPs) refer to the spontaneous organization of coat proteins into the three dimensional capsid structure of a particular virus. Like active viruses, these particles are in the 20-500 nm size range, but they are devoid of the virus nucleic acid. VLPs have already been deployed as antigen components of antiviral vaccines against infectious counterpart viruses hepatitis B (Halperin et al., Vaccine, 30(15):2556-63 (2012)) and human papilloma virus (Moreira et al., Hum Vaccin., 7(7):768-75 (2011)). By preventing infection with viruses that cause cancer, vaccines utilizing VLPs are currently contributing to reductions in cancer incidence.

[0006] Recent studies have demonstrated that VLP therapeutic efficacy extends beyond the specific antigen array that they carry and that they may possess inherent immunogenic properties that can stimulate immune responses against infectious agents that do not carry any antigen included in the VLP. Rynda-Apple et al., Nanomed., 9(12): 1857-68 (2014)). VLPs have shown the ability to induce protective immune responses in the respiratory tract in mouse models of infectious diseases of the lungs. VLP treatment protected mice from bacterial pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (Rynda- Apple et al., Am J Pathol., 181(1): 196-210 (2012)) and Coxiella burnetii (Wiley et al., PLoS ONE., 4(9):e7142 (2009)). VLPs have also been shown to protect mice in various influenza models. Patterson et al., ACS Nano., 7(4):3036-44 (2013); Richert et al., Eur J Immunol., 44(2):397-408 (2014). Protective immunity in these models was associated with recruitment, activation, and increased antigen-processing capabilities, formation of inducible bronchus- associated lymphoid tissue (iBALTs), and stimulation of CD4⁺ T and B lymphocytes and CD8⁺ T cells. It is important to note that these studies reported robust induction of both innate and adaptive immunity and that the VLPs utilized were not antigenically related to the infectious agents, yet appeared to exert their therapeutic effect via the inherent immunomodulatory nature of the particles. The mechanistic basis of immunomodulation of any VLP is not known, but it is possible that some VLPs have more of that capacity than others.

SUMMARY

[0007] The inventors investigated whether virus and virus-like particles and their unique therapeutic features, originally observed in lung infectious disease models, could be utilized for a new application: treating cancer, such as lung cancer. Primary lung cancer is the second most common cancer in the United States, behind only breast cancer. Additionally, most other majors cancers frequently metastasize to the lung, including breast, bladder, colon, kidney, melanoma, and prostate. Their research focused on melanoma due to its increasing incidence in the US and the poor prognosis for metastatic disease, which currently has a 5- year survival of below 10%. Flaherty et al, N Engl J Med., 363(9):809-19 (2010). The inventors also studied whether anti-tumor immune-mediated efficacy translates to models of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and colon cancer; both primary and metastatic sites were treated.

[0008] Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) is a proteinaceous nanoparticle that self-assembles into discrete, uniform 30 nm-sized icosahedral structures. It consists of 60 copies each of small and large coat protein units. Yildiz et al, J Controlled Release, 172(2):568-78 (2013). CPMV is a plant virus that can be produced through molecular farming in plants. In particular, the particle used in the examples provided herein is the VLP system empty CPMV (eCPMV), which does not carry any nucleic acids; therefore, it is nonreplicative and can be regarded as safe from a human health and agricultural perspective. In planta production prevents endotoxin contamination that may be a byproduct of other VLP systems derived from E. coli. The particle is scalable, stable over a range of temperatures (4-60°C) and solvent:buffer mixtures, and can be modified to deliver cargo such as drugs or antigens in its hollow core or covalently linked to its coat proteins. Aljabali et al, Mol Pharm., 10(1):3— 10 (2013). The inventors investigated the efficacy of the eCPMV nanoparticle as an immunotherapy agent in a model of metastatic lung melanoma as well as dermal melanoma and other cancers (breast, colon, ovarian), and find it has striking efficacy in mouse models as an in situ vaccination reagent. [0009] The inventors approach does not rely on eCPMV particles as a vehicle for drug or antigen delivery, but rather on their inherent immunogenicity. This immunogenicity appears to be uniquely potent when the particles are inhaled or when administered through intratumoral administration into dermal tumors or as IP administration when treating disseminated, metaststic ovarian cancer. For treatment of lung tumors, the particles are intratracheally injected into mice with established lung tumors and this immunostimulatory treatment results in the rejection of those tumors and systemic immunity that prevents growth of distal tumors. The eCPMV particles alone are able to stimulate systemic anti-tumor immunity. The eCPMV could render the lung microenvironment inhospitable to tumor cell seeding or continued growth. The inventors treat 3 days post-challenge, a timepoint at which it is well-established that tumor cells have already seeded. Whether these cells persist and simply fail to expand, or if they are actively eliminated by the immune system, is not known.

[0010] The inventors have demonstrated that empty cowpea mosaic virus (eCPMV) viral like particles (VLP) with no apparent immunostimulatory components are able to stimulate an effective antitumor immune response. The manner in which eCPMV VLP are recognized by the immune system has not yet been characterized. The studies in mice demonstrate this capability when the eCPMV viral like particles (VLP) are inhaled by the mice after establishment of the lung tumors. This is the first demonstration of this inherent immunostimulatory capability of any type of VLP having an antitumor effect.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0011] The present invention may be more readily understood by reference to the following drawings, wherein:

[0012] Figures 1A and IB provides bar graphs showing eCPMV nanoparticles are inherently immuonogenic. (A) Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) exposed to eCPMV produce elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in vitro. (B) Thioglycollate-elicited primary macrophages also secrete significantly elevated levels of the same panel of cytokines. Both cell types were cultured for 24hr with 2C^g eCPMV (dark gray bars) and cytokine levels were analyzed using a multiplexed luminex array. [0013] Figures 2A-2D provides graphs showing eCPMV inhalation induces dramatic changes in immune cell composition and cytokine/chemokine milieu in B 16F10 lung tumor-bearing mice. (A) Representative FACS plots pre-gated on live CD45⁺ cells of non-tumor-bearing mice treated with PBS (top left) or eCPMV (top right) and B 16F10 lung tumor-bearing mice treated with PBS (bottom left) or eCPMV (bottom right). B16F10 mice were treated on day 7 post-B16F10 IV injection. Lungs were harvested 24hr after intratracheal injection of PBS or lOOug eCPMV. Labeling indicates (i) quiescent neutrophils, (ii) alveolar macrophages, (iii) monocytic MDSCs, (iv) granulocytic MDSCs, (v) tumor-infiltrating neutrophils, and (vi) activated neutrophils. Numbers beside circled groups is % of CD45⁺ cells. Arrows indicate TINs (blue) and CDl lb⁺ activated neutrophils (red). Gating strategies available in supplemental data. (B) Changes in innate cell subsets induced by eCPMV inhalation are quantified as a percentage of CD45⁺ cells (top) and total number of cells (bottom) as presented in panel (A). (C) Representative histograms for TINs, activated neutrophils, alveolar macrophages, and monocytic MDSCs indicating uptake of Alexa488-labeled CPMV, class-II, and CD86 activation markers. (D) Lungs of B 16F10 lung tumor-bearing mice exhibited elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemoattractants when treated with eCPMV as in panel (A).

[0014] Figures 3A-3D provide graphs and images showing eCPMV inhalation prevents formation of B 16F10 metastatic-like lung tumors. (A) Schematic of experimental design. (B) Photographic images of lungs from eCPMV- and PBS-treated B16F10 tumor-bearing mice on day 21 post-tumor challenge. (C and D) B16F10 lung metastatic-like tumor foci were quantified both by number in (C) or by qRT-PCR assay for melanocyte-specific Tyrpl mRNA expression in (D).

[0015] Figures 4A-4D provide graphs showing eCPMV treatment efficacy in B16F10 lung model is immune-mediated. (A) eCPMV inhalation did not significantly affect tumor progression when mice lack 11-12. (B) Treatment efficacy was also abrogated in the absence of Ifn-γ. (C) NOD/scid/I R-y^"'^" mice lacking T, B, and NK cells also failed to respond to eCPMV inhalation therapy. (D) Depletion of neutrophils with Ly6G mAb abrogates treatment efficacy. [0016] Figure 5A-5D provide graphs and images showing eCPMV immunotherapy is successful in metastatic breast, flank melanoma, colon, and ovarian carcinoma models. (A) Mice challenged with 4T1 breast tumors and intratracheally injected with PBS rapidly developed (IVIS images) and succumbed (Kaplan-Meier) to metastatic lung tumors beginning on day 24, whereas tumor development was delayed and survival significantly extended in mice receiving intratracheal injection of eCPMV. (B) Mice bearing intradermal flank B16F10 tumors directly injected with eCPMV (arrows indicate treatment days) showed noticeably delayed tumor progression relative to PBS -injected controls and, in half of eCPMV-treated mice, the tumor was eliminated altogether. (C) Mice bearing intradermal flank CT26 colon tumors also responded to direct injection of eCPMV (arrows indicate treatment days) with significantly delayed growth when compared to PBS-injected controls. (D) eCPMV also proved successful as a therapy for ID8-Deft>29/Vegf-A ovarian cancer- challenged mice, significantly improving survival when injected IP relative to PBS-injected controls.

[0017] Figures 6A and 6B provide a timechart (A) and a graph (B) showing eCPMV treatment of dermal B 16F10 induces systemic anti-tumor immunity.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0018] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Definitions

[0019] As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. In addition, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.). [0020] As used herein, the terms "peptide," "polypeptide" and "protein" are used interchangeably, and refer to a compound comprised of amino acid residues covalently linked by peptide bonds. A protein or peptide must contain at least two amino acids, and no limitation is placed on the maximum number of amino acids that can comprise the sequence of a protein or peptide. Polypeptides include any peptide or protein comprising two or more amino acids joined to each other by peptide bonds. As used herein, the term refers to both short chains, which also commonly are referred to in the art as peptides, oligopeptides and oligomers, for example, and to longer chains, which generally are referred to in the art as proteins, of which there are many types. "Polypeptides" include, for example, biologically active fragments, substantially homologous polypeptides, oligopeptides, homodimers, heterodimers, variants of polypeptides, modified polypeptides, derivatives, analogs, fusion proteins, among others. The polypeptides include natural peptides, recombinant peptides, synthetic peptides, or a combination thereof. A protein may be a receptor or a non-receptor. "Apa" is aminopentanoic acid.

[0021] A "nucleic acid" refers to a polynucleotide and includes polyribonucleotides and poly deoxyribonucleo tides .

[0022] "Treating", as used herein, means ameliorating the effects of, or delaying, halting or reversing the progress of a disease or disorder. The word encompasses reducing the severity of a symptom of a disease or disorder and/or the frequency of a symptom of a disease or disorder.

[0023] A "subject", as used therein, can be a human or non-human animal. Non-human animals include, for example, livestock and pets, such as ovine, bovine, porcine, canine, feline and murine mammals, as well as reptiles, birds and fish. Preferably, the subject is human.

[0024] The language "effective amount" or "therapeutically effective amount" refers to a nontoxic but sufficient amount of the composition used in the practice of the invention that is effective to provide effective imaging or treatment in a subject, depending on the compound being used. That result can be reduction and/or alleviation of the signs, symptoms, or causes of a disease or disorder, or any other desired alteration of a biological system. An appropriate therapeutic amount in any individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation. [0025] A "prophylactic" or "preventive" treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who does not exhibit signs of a disease or disorder, or exhibits only early signs of the disease or disorder, for the purpose of decreasing the risk of developing pathology associated with the disease or disorder.

[0026] A "therapeutic" treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who exhibits signs of pathology of a disease or disorder for the purpose of diminishing or eliminating those signs.

[0027] "Pharmaceutically acceptable carrier" refers herein to a composition suitable for delivering an active pharmaceutical ingredient, such as the composition of the present invention, to a subject without excessive toxicity or other complications while maintaining the biological activity of the active pharmaceutical ingredient. Protein-stabilizing excipients, such as mannitol, sucrose, polysorbate-80 and phosphate buffers, are typically found in such carriers, although the carriers should not be construed as being limited only to these compounds.

[0028] In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of a virus or virus-like particle to the subject. The virus or virus-like particle should be nonreplicating and noninfectious in the subject to avoid infection of the subject. In some embodiments, the virus particle is administered proximal to a tumor in the subject. Administration of the virus particle proximal to a tumor involves administration directly to the tumor site to provide a high local concentration of the virus particle in the tumor microenvironment.

[0029] In some embodiments, virus-like particles (VLPs) in which the viral nucleic acid is not present are used. Virus-like particles lacking their nucleic acid are non-replicating and non-infectious regardless of the subject into which they are introduced. An example of viruslike particles is empty Cowpea Mosaic Virus particles. In other embodiments, the virus particles include a nucleic acid within the virus particle. If present, the nucleic acid will typically be the nucleic acid encoding the virus. However, in some embodiments the viral nucleic acid may have been replaced with exogenous nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid is RNA, while in other embodiments the nucleic acid is DNA. A virus particle including nucleic acid will still be nonreplicating and noninfectious when it is introduced into a subject which it cannot infect. For example, plant virus particles will typically be nonreplicating and noninfectious when introduced into an animal subject.

[0030] In some embodiments, the virus is a plant virus. However, a bacteriophage or mammalian virus can be used in some embodiments of the invention. When a plant virus is used, in some embodiments the plant virus is a plant picornavirus. A plant picornavirus is a virus belonging to the family Secoaviridae, which together with mammalian picomaviruses belong to the order of the Picornavirales. Plant picomaviruses are relatively small, non- enveloped, positive- stranded RNA viruses with an icosahedral capsid. Plant picomaviruses have a number of additional properties that distinguish them from other picomaviruses, and are categorized as the subfamily secoviridae. In some embodiments, the virus particles are selected from the Comovirinae virus subfamily. Examples of viruses from the Comovirinae subfamily include Cowpea mosaic virus, Broad bean wilt virus 1 , and Tobacco ringspot virus. In a further embodiment, the virus particles are from the Genus comovirus. A preferred example of a comovirus is the cowpea mosaic virus particles.

[0031] The virus or virus-like particles can be obtained according to various methods known to those skilled in the art. In embodiments where plant virus particles are used, the virus particles can be obtained from the extract of a plant infected by the plant virus. For example, cowpea mosaic virus can be grown in black eyed pea plants, which can be infected within 10 days of sowing seeds. Plants can be infected by, for example, coating the leaves with a liquid containing the virus, and then rubbing the leaves, preferably in the presence of an abrasive powder which wounds the leaf surface to allow penetration of the leaf and infection of the plant. Within a week or two after infection, leaves are harvested and viral nanoparticles are extracted. In the case of cowpea mosaic virus, 100 mg of virus can be obtained from as few as 50 plants. Procedures for obtaining plant picornavirus particles using extraction of an infected plant are known to those skilled in the art. See Wellink J., Meth Mol Biol, 8, 205- 209 (1998). Procedures are also available for obtaining virus-like particles. Saunders et al., Virology, 393(2):329-37 (2009). The disclosures of both of these references are incorporated herein by reference. Cancer treatment by virus particle administration

[0032] The present invention provides a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof by administering a therapeutically effective amount of a virus or virus-like particle to the subject. While not intending to be bound by theory, it appears that the virus particles have an anticancer effect as a result of eliciting an immune response to the cancer. "Cancer" or "malignancy" are used as synonymous terms and refer to any of a number of diseases that are characterized by uncontrolled, abnormal proliferation of cells, the ability of affected cells to spread locally or through the bloodstream and lymphatic system to other parts of the body (i.e., metastasize) as well as any of a number of characteristic structural and/or molecular features. A "cancer cell" refers to a cell undergoing early, intermediate or advanced stages of multi-step neoplastic progression. The features of early, intermediate and advanced stages of neoplastic progression have been described using microscopy. Cancer cells at each of the three stages of neoplastic progression generally have abnormal karyotypes, including translocations, inversion, deletions, isochromosomes, monosomies, and extra chromosomes. Cancer cells include "hyperplastic cells," that is, cells in the early stages of malignant progression, "dysplastic cells," that is, cells in the intermediate stages of neoplastic progression, and "neoplastic cells," that is, cells in the advanced stages of neoplastic progression. Examples of cancers are sarcoma, breast, lung, brain, bone, liver, kidney, colon, and prostate cancer. In some embodiments, the virus particles are used to treat cancer selected from the group consisting of but not limited to melanoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, lung cancer, and ovarian cancer. In some embodiments, the virus particles are used to treat lung cancer. Inhalation is a preferred method of administering the virus or virus-like particles when treating lung cancer. However, inhaled virus particles are able to treat cancer beyond the lung as a result of their ability to stimulate a systemic immune response. For example, in some embodiments, the virus particles are used to treat metastatic cancer which has spread to one or more sites beyond the initial point where cancer has occurred. In other embodiments, the virus or virus-like particles can be administered proximal to tumors in other tissues.

[0033] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of ablating the cancer. Ablating the cancer can be accomplished using a method selected from the group consisting of cryoablation, thermal ablation, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, radiofrequency ablation, electroporation, alcohol ablation, high intensity focused ultrasound, photodynamic therapy, administration of monoclonal antibodies, immunotherapy, and administration of immunotoxins.

[0034] In some embodiments, the step ablating the cancer includes administering a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer agent to the subject. Examples of anticancer agents include angiogenesis inhibitors such as angiostatin Kl-3, DL-a- difluoromethyl-ornithine, endostatin, fumagillin, genistein, minocycline, staurosporine, and (+)-thalidomide; DNA intercalating or cross-linking agents such as bleomycin, carboplatin, carmustine, chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, melphalan, mitoxantrone, and oxaliplatin; DNA synthesis inhibitors such as methotrexate, 3-Amino-l,2,4-benzotriazine 1,4- dioxide, aminopterin, cytosine β-D-arabinofuranoside, 5-Fluoro-5'-deoxyuridine, 5- Fluorouracil, gaciclovir, hydroxyurea, and mitomycin C; DNA-RNA transcription regulators such as actinomycin D, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, homoharringtonine, and idarubicin; enzyme inhibitors such as S(+)-camptothecin, curcumin, (-)-deguelin, 5,6-dichlorobenz- imidazole Ι-β-D-ribofuranoside, etoposine, formestane, fostriecin, hispidin, cyclocreatine, mevinolin, trichostatin A, tyrophostin AG 34, and tyrophostin AG 879, Gene Regulating agents such as 5-aza-2'-deoxycitidine, 5-azacytidine, cholecalciferol, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, melatonin, mifepristone, raloxifene, all trans-retinal, all trans retinoic acid, 9-cis-retinoic acid, retinol, tamoxifen, and troglitazone; Microtubule Inhibitors such as colchicine, dolostatin 15, nocodazole, paclitaxel, podophyllotoxin, rhizoxin, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, and vinorelbine; and various other antitumor agents such as 17-(allylamino)-17- demethoxygeldanamycin, 4-Amino-l ,8-naphthalimide, apigenin, brefeldin A, cimetidine, dichloromethylene-diphosphonic acid, leuprolide, luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone, pifithrin-a, rapamycin, thapsigargin, and bikunin, and derivatives (as defined for imaging agents) thereof.

[0035] In some embodiments, the step ablating the cancer includes immunotherapy of the cancer. Cancer immunotherapy is based on therapeutic interventions that aim to utilize the immune system to combat malignant diseases. It can be divided into unspecific approaches and specific approaches. Unspecific cancer immunotherapy aims at activating parts of the immune system generally, such as treatment with specific cytokines known to be effective in cancer immunotherapy (e.g. IL-2, interferon's, cytokine inducers). [0036] In contrast, specific cancer immunotherapy is based on certain antigens that are preferentially or solely expressed on cancer cells or predominantly expressed by other cells in the context of malignant disease (usually in vicinity of the tumor site). Specific cancer immunotherapy can be grouped into passive and active approaches.

[0037] In passive specific cancer immunotherapy substances with specificity for certain structures related to cancer that are derived from components of the immune system are administered to the patient. The most prominent and successful approaches are treatments with humanised or mouse/human chimeric monoclonal antibodies against defined cancer associated structures (such as Trastuzumab, Rituximab, Cetuximab, Bevacizumab, Alemtuzumab). The pharmacologically active substance exerts is activity as long as a sufficient concentration is present in the body of the patient, therefore administrations have to be repeated based on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations.

[0038] On the other hand, active specific cancer immunotherapy aims at antigen-specific stimulation of the patient's immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. Active specific cancer immunotherapy therefore, in general, is a therapeutic vaccination approach. There are many types of cancer vaccine approaches being pursued, such as vaccination with autologous or allogeneic whole tumor cells (in most cases genetically modified for better immune recognition), tumor cell lysates, whole tumor associated antigens (produced by means of genetic engineering or by chemical synthesis), peptides derived from protein antigens, DNA vaccines encoding for tumor associated antigens, surrogates of tumor antigens such as anti-idiotypic antibodies used as vaccine antigens, and the like. These manifold approaches are usually administered together with appropriate vaccine adjuvants and other immunomodulators in order to elicit a quantitatively and qualitatively sufficient immune response (many novel vaccine adjuvant approaches are being pursued in parallel with the development of cancer vaccines). Another set of cancer vaccine approaches relies on manipulating dendritic cells (DC) as the most important antigen presenting cell of the immune system. For example, loading with tumor antigens or tumor cell lysates, transfection with genes encoding for tumor antigens and in-vivo targeting are suitable immunotherapies that can be used together with the virus or virus-like particles of the invention for cancer treatment. Cargo Molecules

[0039] In some embodiments, the virus particle is loaded with or bonded to a cargo molecule. A variety of different types of cargo molecules can be loaded into or bonded to the virus particles. Cargo molecules that are loaded into the virus particle must be sufficiently small to fit within the virus capsid (i.e. , have a size of 10 nm or less for a typical icosohedral capsid). Preferred cargo molecules for the present invention include antitumor agents. Alternately, rather than being loaded into the virus particle, the cargo molecule can be bonded to the virus particle. A cargo molecule can be coupled to a virus particle either directly or indirectly (e.g. via a linker group). In some embodiments, the cargo molecule is directly attached to a functional group capable of reacting with the agent. For example, a nucleophilic group, such as an amino or sulfhydryl group, can be capable of reacting with a carbonyl-containing group, such as an anhydride or an acid halide, or with an alkyl group containing a good leaving group (e.g., a halide). Alternatively, a suitable chemical linker group can be used. A linker group can serve to increase the chemical reactivity of a substituent on either the agent or the virus particle, and thus increase the coupling efficiency. A preferred group suitable as a site for attaching cargo molecules to the virus particle is one or more lysine residues present in the viral coat protein.

Dosage and Formulation of Virus Particles

[0040] When used in vivo, the constructs of the invention are preferably administered as a pharmaceutical composition, comprising a mixture, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The loaded picornavirus may be present in a pharmaceutical composition in an amount from 0.001 to 99.9 wt %, more preferably from about 0.01 to 99 wt %, and even more preferably from 0.1 to 95 wt %.

[0041] The virus particles, or pharmaceutical compositions comprising these particles, may be administered by any method designed to provide the desired effect. Administration may occur enterally or parenterally; for example orally, rectally, intracisternally, intravaginally, intraperitoneally or locally. Parenteral administration methods include intravascular administration (e.g., intravenous bolus injection, intravenous infusion, intra- arterial bolus injection, intra-arterial infusion and catheter instillation into the vasculature), peri- and intra- target tissue injection, subcutaneous injection or deposition including subcutaneous infusion (such as by osmotic pumps), intramuscular injection, intraperitoneal injection, intracranial and intrathecal administration for CNS tumors, and direct application to the target area, for example by a catheter or other placement device.

[0042] A preferred method for administering the virus particle to a subject having lung cancer is by inhalation. For example, the virus particles can be administered intratracheally to the lung of the subject. For administration by inhalation, the virus particles are preferably formulated as an aerosol or powder. Various methods for pulmonary delivery of nanoparticles are discussed by Mansour et al., Int J Nanomedicine. 2009;4:299-319, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0043] The compositions can also include, depending on the formulation desired, pharmaceutically-acceptable, non-toxic carriers or diluents, which are defined as vehicles commonly used to formulate pharmaceutical compositions for animal or human administration. The diluent is selected so as not to affect the biological activity of the combination. Examples of such diluents are distilled water, physiological phosphate -buffered saline, Ringer's solutions, dextrose solution, and Hank's solution. In addition, the pharmaceutical composition or formulation may also include other carriers, adjuvants, or nontoxic, nontherapeutic, nonimmunogenic stabilizers and the like.

[0044] Suitable doses can vary widely depending on the therapeutic or imaging agent being used. A typical pharmaceutical composition for intravenous administration would be about 0.1 mg to about 10 g per subject per day. However, in other embodiments, doses from about 1 mg to about 1 g, or from about 10 mg to about 1 g can be used. Single or multiple administrations of the compositions may be administered depending on the dosage and frequency as required and tolerated by the subject. In any event, the administration regime should provide a sufficient quantity of the composition of this invention to effectively treat the subject.

[0045] The formulations may be conveniently presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Preferably, such methods include the step of bringing the virus particles into association with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier that constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general, the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing the active agent into association with a liquid carrier, a finely divided solid carrier, or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired formulations. The methods of the invention include administering to a subject, preferably a mammal, and more preferably a human, the composition of the invention in an amount effective to produce the desired effect.

[0046] One skilled in the art can readily determine an effective amount of virus particles to be administered to a given subject, by taking into account factors such as the size and weight of the subject; the extent of disease penetration; the age, health and sex of the subject; the route of administration; and whether the administration is local or systemic. Those skilled in the art may derive appropriate dosages and schedules of administration to suit the specific circumstances and needs of the subject. For example, suitable doses of the virus particles to be administered can be estimated from the volume of cancer cells to be killed or volume of tumor to which the virus particles are being administered.

[0047] Useful dosages of the active agents can be determined by comparing their in vitro activity and the in vivo activity in animal models. Methods for extrapolation of effective dosages in mice, and other animals, to humans are known in the art. An amount adequate to accomplish therapeutic or prophylactic treatment is defined as a therapeutically- or prophylactically-effective dose. In both prophylactic and therapeutic regimes, agents are usually administered in several dosages until an effect has been achieved. Effective doses of the virus particles vary depending upon many different factors, including means of administration, target site, physiological state of the patient, whether the patient is human or an animal, other medications administered, and whether treatment is prophylactic or therapeutic.

[0048] Examples have been included to more clearly describe particular embodiments of the invention. However, there are a wide variety of other embodiments within the scope of the present invention, which should not be limited to the particular examples provided herein.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 : In situ vaccination with plant-derived virus-like nanoparticle immunotherapy suppresses metastatic cancer

[0049] Current therapies are often ineffective for metastatic cancer and emerging immunotherapies, while promising, are early in development. In situ vaccination refers to a process in which immunostimulatory reagents applied directly to the tumor modify the immunosuppressive microenvironment so that the immune system is able to effectively respond against the tumors. The inventors hypothesized that treatment of lung tumor-bearing mice with a virus-like nanoparticle could modulate the lung immune environment and prevent the development of B 16F10 metastatic-like lesions. This example shows that inhalation of a self-assembling virus-like particle derived from cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) suppresses the development of tumors in the lungs of mice after intravenous challenge. The disparity in tumor burden between CPMV- and PBS-treated mice was pronounced, and the effect was immune-mediated as it was not seen in Ιίη-γ^{_ ~}, Il-12^{_ ~}, or NOD/scid/I Ry^"'^" mice. Efficacy was also lost in the absence of Ly6G⁺ cells. CPMV nanoparticles were rapidly taken up by granulocytic cells in the tumor microenvironment and resulted in their robust activation and cytokine/chemokine production. CPMV nanoparticles are stable, nontoxic, highly scalable, and modifiable with drugs and antigens. These properties, combined with their inherent immunogenicity and significant efficacy against a poorly immunogenic tumor, present CPMV as an attractive novel immunotherapy against cancer metastatic to the lung. Additionally, CPMV exhibited clear treatment efficacy in various other tumor models including dermal melanoma, metastatic breast, colon, and ovarian cancers. This is the first report of a virus-like nanoparticle being utilized as a cancer immunotherapy with proven therapeutic efficacy.

Materials and Methods

eCPMV Production and Characterization

[0050] eCPMV capsids were produced through agroinfiltration of Nicotiana benthamiana plants with a culture of Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404 transformed with the binary plasmid pEAQexpress-VP60-24K, which contains genes for the coat protein precursor VP60 and its 24K viral proteinase to cleave it into its mature form. 6 days post infiltration, the leaves were harvested and eCPMV extracted using established procedures. The particle concentration was measured using UV/vis spectroscopy (ε₂8ο _nm = 1-28 mg^"1 mL cm^"1), and particle integrity was determined by transmission electron microscopy and fast protein liquid chromatography. Mice

[0051] C57BL/6J (01C55) females were purchased from the National Cancer Institute or The Jackson Laboratory. Il-12p35^{_ ~} (002692), Ιίη-γ '^" (002287), BALB/c (000651), and NOD/scid/I Ry^"'^" (005557) female mice were purchased from The Jackson Laboratory. All mouse studies were performed in accordance with the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Dartmouth.

Tumor Models

[0052] The B16F10 murine melanoma cell line was obtained from Dr. David Mullins (Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire). 4Tl-lucif erase murine mammary carcinoma cells were provided by Ashutosh Chilkoti (Duke University, Durham, NC). B 16F10, 4Tl-luc, and CT26 were cultured in complete media (RPMI supplemented with 10% FBS and penicillin/streptomycin). ID8-Defb29/Vegf-A orthotopic ovarian serous carcinoma cells were cultured in complete media supplemented with sodium- pyruvate as previously described. Lizotte et al., Oncoimmunology, 3:e28926. eCollection 2014. Cells were harvested, washed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and injected in the following manner depending on tumor model: 1.25xl0⁵ live cells injected intravenously in 200μί PBS in the tail vein (B16F10 metastatic lung), 1.25xl0⁵ live cells injected intradermally in 30μL· PBS in the right flank (B 16F10 flank), lxlO⁵ live cells injected intradermally in 30μΙ_^ PBS in the right flank (CT26 flank), 2xl0⁶ live cells injected intraperitoneally in 200 μL· PBS (ID8-Defb29/Vegf-A peritoneal ovarian). For 4Tl-luc tumor challenge, lxlO⁵ live cells were injected in 30 of PBS into the left mammary fat pad on day 0 and the tumor was surgically removed on day 16, a day by which it is well- established that the tumor has spontaneously metastasized to the lung. Complete removal of primary 4Tl-luc tumors was confirmed by bioluminescent imaging. B16F10 and ID8- Defb29/Vegf-A are syngeneic for the C57BL6J strain, whereas CT26 and 4Tl-luc are syngeneic for the BALB/c background. eCPMV Treatment Scheduling

[0053] WT, Il-12^{_ "}, Ιίη-γ-'^", NOD/scid/IL2R7^{_ "}, and Ly6G-depleted mice challenged intravenously with B16F10 were intubated and intratracheally injected with 100μg of eCPMV in 50μL· PBS on days 3, 10, and 17 post-tumor challenge. For lung challenge experiments, mice were euthanized on day 21 for quantification of metastatic-like lesions and tyrosinase expression. 4Tl-luc-bearing mice were intratracheally injected with 20 μg of eCPMV in 50 μL· PBS on day 16 (same day as primary tumor removal) and again on day 23 (day 7 post-tumor removal). B16F10 flank tumors were intratumorally injected with 100 μg eCPMV on day 7 post-tumor challenge once tumors had reached 10mm² and again on day 14. CT26 flank tumors were intratumorally injected with 100 μg eCPMV on day 8 post-tumor challenge once they had reached 10 mm² and again on day 15. Flank tumor diameters were measured every other day and mice were euthanized when tumor diameters reached 200 mm². ID8-Defb29/Vegf-A mice were injected IP with 100 μg of eCPMV weekly beginning on day 7 post- tumor challenge and euthanized when they reached 35g due to ascites development.

Antibodies and Flow Cytometry

[0054] Anti-mouse antibodies were specific for CD45 (30-F11), MHC-II (M5/114.15.2), CD86 (GL-1), CDl lb (Ml/70), F4/80 (BM8), and Ly6G (1A8) from Biolegend and CD16/CD32 (93) from eBioscience. WT and B16F10 lung tumor-bearing mice were intratracheally injected with 100μg Alexa-488-labeled CPMV particles 24hr prior to euthanization. Lungs were harvested and dissociated into single cell suspension using the Miltenyi mouse lung dissociation kit (cat# 130-095-927). Red blood cells were removed using lysis buffer of 150 mM NH4C1, 10 mM KHC03, and 0.5 mM EDTA. Flow cytometry was performed on a MACSQuant analyzer (Miltenyi). Data were analyzed using FlowJo software version 8.7.

Tyrosinase mRNA Expression Analysis

[0055] Whole lungs were dissociated and total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen, 74104). cDNA was synthesized using iScript™ cDNA synthesis kit (Bio-Rad, 170- 8891). q-PCR was performed on a CFX96™ Real-Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad) using iQ™ SYBR® Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, 170-8882) with primers at a concentration of 0.5 μΜ. mRNA transcript fold-change was calculated using the AACT method with all samples normalized to mouse Gapdh. Cytokine Assay

[0056] For in vivo cytokine data, total lung homogenate was harvested from B16F10 lung tumor-bearing mice 24hr post-inhalation of lOC^g eCPMV particles, which was day 8 post- tumor challenge. For in vitro cytokine results, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and thioglycollate-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, both derived from C57BL6 mice, were cultured at lxlO⁶ cells/well in 200 complete media in 96-well round-bottomed plates with either 20 μg of eCPMV or PBS. Supernatant was harvested after 24hr incubation. Cytokines were quantified using mouse 32plex Luminex assay (MPXMCYTO70KPMX32, Millipore).

Cell Depletion

[0057] Mice were injected with mAb depleting Ly6G (clone 1A8) that was purchased from Bio-X-Cell (cat# BE0075-1) and administered IP in doses of 500 μg one day prior to eCPMV treatment and then once weekly for the duration of survival experiments. Greater than 95% depletion of target cell populations in the lung was confirmed by flow cytometry.

IVIS Imaging

[0058] Mice were injected IP with 150mg/kg of firefly D-luciferin in PBS (PerkinElmer cat#122796) and allowed to rest for lOmin. Imagining was conducted using the Xenogen Vivo Vision IVIS Bioluminescent and Fluorescent Imager platform and analyzed with Living Image 4.3.1 software (PerkinElmer).

Statistics

[0059] Unless noted otherwise, all experiments were repeated at. least 2 times with 4- 12 biological replicates and results were similar between repeats. Figures denote statistical significance of p <0.05 as *, p <0.()1 as **, and p <0.001 as ***. A p-value < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant Data for bar graphs was calculated using unpaired Student's t-test. Error bars represent, standard error of the mean from independent samples assayed within the represented experiments. Flank tumor growth curves were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. Survival experiments utilized the log-rank Mantel-Cox test for survival analysis. Statistical analysis was done with GraphPad Prism 4 software. Results eCPMV nanoparticles are inherently immunogenic

[0060] Previously published work with VLPs as treatments for pathogenic infections of the respiratory tract utilized a variety of systems and report varying degrees of immunomodulatory capacity. Additionally, these studies often focused on the immune responses to antigens contained in the VLP and not the inherent immunogenicity of the particles themselves, which has not been definitively shown for VLPs. Bessa et al., Eur J Immunol. 38(1): 114-26 (2008). Moreover, it is not known if some VLPs are more stimulatory than others. For these reasons, and the inventors proposed use of eCPMV (eCPMV refers to "empty" cowpea mosaic virus particle devoid of RNA) as a novel immunotherapy, they first sought to determine its inherent immunogenicity. eCPMV VLPs were added to in vitro cultures of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and primary macrophages harvested from C57BL6 mice. Twenty-four hours of culture with eCPMV particles induced both BMDCs (Fig. 1A) and macrophages (Fig. IB) to secrete higher levels of canonical pro-inflammatory cytokines including ΙΙ-β, 11-6, Il-12p40, Ccl3 (MIPl-a), and Tnf-a, leading the inventors to conclude that eCPMV is inherently immunostimulatory. eCPMV inhalation radically alters the B16F10 lung tumor microenvironment

[0061] The immunomodulatory effect of eCPMV inhalation on the lung microenvironment was determined next, both in terms of immune cell composition and changes in cytokine and chemokine levels. Exposure of non-tumor-bearing mouse lungs to eCPMV revealed significant activation of Ly6G⁺ neutrophils 24 hours after exposure as assessed by their upregulation of the CDl lb activation marker (Costantini et al., Int Immunol., 22(10):827-38 (2010)) (Fig. 2A top panels) and CD86 co-stimulatory marker. Alexa488-labeling of the particle allowed for cell tracking, which enabled the inventors to confirm that it is this CD1 lb⁺Ly6G⁺ activated neutrophil subset, specifically, that takes up the eCPMV.

[0062] Lungs of mice bearing B16F10 melanoma tumors revealed a more complex immune cell composition. By day 7 the emergence of large populations of immunosuppressive CDl lb⁺Ly6G^"F4/80^loclass-ILSSC^l0 monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and CDl lb⁺Ly6G⁺F4/80^"class-H^midSSC^hi granulocytic MDSCs (Fig. 2A bottom panels) could be observed. Gabrilovich et al., Nat Rev Immunol., (4):253-68 (2012). The inventors also observed the presence of a small population of CDl lb Ly6G class-II^mi CD86 ¹ cells that have been described in the literature as "tumor-infiltrating neutrophils" or "Nl neutrophils" that are known to exert an anti-tumor effect through coordination of adaptive immune responses, production of high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, recruitment of T and NK cells, and direct cytotoxicity to tumor cells. Fridlender et al., Cancer Cell. 16(3): 183-94 (2009); Mantovani et al, Nat Rev Immunol. (8) :519-31 (2011). Inhalation of eCPMV into B16F10-bearing lungs dramatically altered the immune cell composition 24 hours after administration. Significant increases in the tumor-infiltrating neutrophil (TIN) and CDl lb⁺Ly6G⁺ activated neutrophils populations, as well as a reduction in CDl lb^"Ly6G⁺ quiescent neutrophils (Fig. 2A bottom panels, see arrows) were also observed. TIN and activated CDl lb⁺ neutrophil populations increased dramatically both as a percentage of CD45⁺ cells and also in total number (Fig.2B). Interestingly, it is these neutrophil subpopulations that took up the vast majority of eCPMV particles, particularly TINs that took up 10-fold more eCPMV than CDl lb⁺ activated neutrophils (Fig. 2C). Monocytic MDSC, quiescent neutrophil, and alveolar macrophage populations did not take up eCPMV, and granulocytic MDSCs displayed uneven uptake. The TIN and activated neutrophil populations also expressed MHC class-II, and the TINs, in particular, displayed high levels of co- stimulatory marker CD86, indicating potential antigen presentation and T cell priming capability. Significant changes were not observed in the numbers of monocytic or granulocytic MDSCs.

[0063] Activation of neutrophil populations by eCPMV is consistent with data collected from a multiplexed cytokine/chemokine array performed on whole lung homogenate of B16F10 tumor-bearing lungs treated with eCPMV or PBS (Fig. 2D). Specifically, significant increases in neutrophil chemoattractants GM-CSF, Cxcll, Ccl5, and ΜΙΡ-Ια and significant increases in cytokines and chemokines known to be produced by activated neutrophils such as GM-CSF, II- 1 β, 11-9, Cxcll, Cxcl9, CxcllO, Ccl2, MIP-la, and MIP-Ι β were seen. Interestingly, the inventors did not observe significant increases in levels of 11-6 or Tnf-a, which are classical pro-inflammatory cytokines which may be detrimental in the context of lung immunobiology. eCPMV inhalation suppresses B16F10 metastatic-like lung tumor development

[0064] The inventors next investigated whether the inherent immunogenicity of the eCPMV particle in the lung could induce anti-tumor immunity in the B16F10 intravenous model of aggressive metastatic lung cancer. Indeed, weekly intratracheal injection of 100 μg of eCPMV (Fig. 3A) resulted in significantly reduced tumor burden as assessed by both metastatic-like tumor foci number (Fig.3, B and C) and tyrosinase expression (Fig. 3D). Tyrosinase-related protein 1 (Tyrpl) is a melanocyte- specific gene (Zhu et al., Cancer Res., 73(7):2104-16 (2013)) whose expression in the lung is restricted to B16F10 tumor cells, which allows for the quantitative measure of tumor development and serves as a control for the varying sizes of metastatic-like foci.

Anti-tumor efficacy ofeCPMV inhalation is immune -mediated

[0065] The inventors determined whether the immune system was required for treatment efficacy by repeating their experimental design described in Figure 3 in the following transgenic mice: Il-12^{_ ~}, Ιίη-γ^{_ ~}, and NOD/scid/IL2Ry^{" "}. A significant difference in lung tumor burden between eCPMV- and PBS-treated mice was not observed in the absence of II- 12 (Fig. 4A), Ifn-γ (Fig. 4B), or in NSG mice lacking T, B, and NK cells (Fig. 4C).

[0066] eCPMV accumulates in and activates neutrophils in the lungs of B 16F10 tumor- bearing mice (Fig.2, A to C). Additionally, significant increases in neutrophil-associated cytokines and chemokines were detected in the mouse lung following eCPMV inhalation (Fig. 2D). Therefore, neutrophils were depleted using a monoclonal antibody to assess the necessity of neutrophils for treatment efficacy. Depletion of neutrophils from the lungs of tumor-bearing mice abrogated the anti-tumor effect that we observed in WT mice (Fig. 4D). This, combined with the lack of efficacy observed in Il-12^{_ "}, Ifn-γ^"'^", and NSG mice leads the inventors to conclude that the anti-tumor effect of eCPMV inhalation on B 16F10 development is through immunomodulation of the lung tumor microenvironment and, in particular, requires the presence of the neutrophil compartment. eCPMV anti-tumor efficacy is not restricted to the B16F10 intravenous lung model

[0067] The inventors sought to ascertain whether eCPMV treatment efficacy was restricted to the B 16F10 metastatic lung model or if the immunomodulatory anti-tumor effect could transfer to other models. The 4T1 BALB/c syngeneic breast cancer model, which is a transferrable yet truly metastatic model, was first utilized. 4T1 tumors established in the mammary fat pad spontaneously metastasize to the lung by day 16, at which point the primary tumor was surgically removed and eCPMV treatment begun, injecting intratracheally to affect lung tumor development. The 4T1 cells also expressed luciferase, allowing the ivnentors to track metastatic lung tumor development. Mice treated intratracheally with eCPMV particles had significantly delayed lung tumor onset and significantly extended survival (Fig. 5A). Mice from eCPMV and PBS treatment groups had comparable primary mammary fat pad tumor burden at day of surgical removal. Therefore, differences in tumor development and survival were due to treatment. No mice from either group experienced recurrence of primary mammary fat pad tumors.

[0068] To determine whether the eCPMV particle's unambiguous efficacy in B16F10 and 4T1 metastatic lung models was unique to the lung immune environment, its ability to treat dermal tumors was also tested. Both intradermal B16F10 melanoma (Fig. 5B) and CT26 colon (Fig. 5C) tumor growth was significantly delayed following direct injection with eCPMV and, in half of the B16F10 eCPMV-treated mice, resulted in elimination of the tumors altogether after only two treatments (Fig. 5B).

[0069] Finally, the therapeutic effect of eCPMV was investigated in a model of disseminated peritoneal serous ovarian carcinoma. Conejo-Garcia et al., Nat Med., (9):950-8 (2004). ID8- Deft>29A^?egf-A-ch&\\enged mice treated weekly with eCPMV exhibited significantly improved survival relative to PBS-treated controls (Fig. 5D). In fact, mice receiving eCPMV survived longer in comparison than other immunotherapies attempted in this model including a live, attenuated Listeria monocytogenes strain (Lizotte et al., Oncoimmunology, 3:e28926. eCollection 2014), avirulent Toxoplasma gondii (Baird et al., Cancer Res., 73(13):3842— 51 (2013)), combination agonistic CD40 and poly(I:C) (Scarlett et al., Cancer Res., 69(18):7329-37 (2009)), or 11-10 blocking antibody (Hart et al., T Cell Biol., 2:29 (2011)). It is important to note that the anti-tumor effects of eCPMV in the tested models are not attributable to direct tumor cell cytotoxicity, as exposure to high concentrations of the particle in vitro had no effect on cancer cell viability or proliferation. The logical conclusion is that the striking anti-tumor effect induced by eCPMV nanoparticle treatment is fully immune- mediated and translatable to a variety of tumor models across diverse anatomical sites. Discussion

[0070] eCPMV nanoparticles are immunotherapeutic to a surprisingly high degree and clearly modulate the tumor immune environment. BMDCs and macrophages exposed to the particles robustly secreted select pro-inflammatory cytokines (Fig. l, A and B). eCPMV particles were produced in plants, then plant contaminants were extracted using polyvinyl- polypyrrolidone, eCPMV isolated through PEG precipitation and sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation, and finally the particles concentrated by ultrapelleting. Purity was checked by UV/Vis absorbance, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC), and SDS gel electrophoresis. Wen et al., Biomacromolecules, 13(12):3990-4001 (2012). No contaminants were detected during these procedures. Particles were then resuspended in PBS. Additionally, eCPMV is completely devoid of RNA that could stimulate TLR3/7. The inventors therefore conclude that the high immunogenicity of eCPMV is due to the size, shape, or inherent immune recognition of the viral coat protein. This is unlike virus-like or protein cage nanoparticles that are manufactured in E. coli or other systems that may contain immunogenic contaminants like endotoxin or viral nucleic acids that are challenging to remove during the purification process.

[0071] eCPMV inhalation transforms the lung tumor microenvironment and requires the presence of Ly6G⁺ neutrophils, a population that is minimally associated with response to tumor immunotherapy. Notably, eCPMV particles appear to specifically target Ly6G⁺ neutrophils. eCPMV has been shown to bind surface vimentin on cancer cells (Steinmetz et al., Nanomed. 6(2):351-64 (2011)) and some antigen-presenting cells (Gonzalez et al., PLoS ONE. 4(l l):e7981 (2009)), although it is not known if this is the mechanism by which lung- resident neutrophils are internalizing the particle, or if surface expression of vimentin is a feature of murine neutrophils. eCPMV appears to target quiescent neutrophils and convert them to an activated CDl lb⁺ phenotype, as well as inducing the recruitment of additional CDl lb⁺ activated neutrophils and CDl lb⁺class-II⁺CD86^hl tumor- infiltrating neutrophils. In fact, these two populations - activated neutrophil and tumor-infiltrating or "Nl" neutrophils - are the only innate immune cell populations that significantly change rapidly following eCPMV lung exposure, both dramatically increasing as a percentage of CD45⁺ cells and in total cell number (Fig. 2B). Neutrophils are viewed canonically as sentinels for microbial infection that quickly engulf and kill bacteria before undergoing apoptosis, yet they have an emerging roll in tumor immunology. Although still controversial, it appears that neutrophils possess phenotypic plasticity analogous to the M1/M2 polarization accepted in macrophage literature. Studies have shown infiltration of an immunosuppressive, pro- angiogenic "tumor- associated neutrophil" population in B 16F10 metastatic lung, human liver cancer, sarcoma, and lung adenocarcinoma models that is correlated with enhanced tumor progression. Alternatively, depletion of tumor-resident immunosuppressive neutrophils, conversion of them to a pro-inflammatory phenotype, or recruitment of activated neutrophils to infiltrate the tumor microenvironment is associated with therapeutic efficacy. Activated neutrophils can directly kill tumor cells via release of reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI), prime CD4⁺ T cells and polarize them to a Thl phenotype, cross-prime CD8⁺ T cells, and modulate NK cell survival, proliferation, cytotoxic activity and IFN-γ production. Activated neutrophils can also produce Cxcr3 ligands Cxcl9 and CxcllO that can recruit CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells that are correlated with anti-tumor immunotherapeutic efficacy in melanoma models. The data showing increases in immunostimulatory neutrophil populations (Fig.2B) agrees with the cytokine data (Fig. 2D), in which increases in neutrophil chemoattractants GM-CSF, Cxcll, Ccl5, and ΜΙΡ-Ια and cytokines and chemokines known to be produced by neutrophils were observed, including GM-CSF, ΙΙ-Ι β, 11-9, Cxcll , Cxcl9, CxcllO, Ccl2, MIP-la, and ΜΙΡ-1 β. This data in turn agrees with the in vivo tumor progression data showing that neutrophils are required for eCPMV anti-tumor efficacy. Interestingly, although many cytokine and chemokine levels were elevated to a statistically significant degree following eCPMV treatment, changes were modest when compared to the dramatic differences in actual tumor burden (Fig.3, B to D). Moreover, increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines Tnf-a or 11-6 that are known to cause tissue damage when upregulated in the lung were not observed. It appears, therefore, that eCPMV treatment of lung tumors is effective without eliciting the kind of inflammatory cytokine response that could cause acute lung injury.

[0072] eCPMV inhalation exhibited remarkable efficacy as a monotherapy (Fig. 3) that is very clearly immune-mediated (Fig. 4). This is novel because the eCPMV particle does not directly kill tumor cells or share any antigenic overlap with B 16F10 tumors, but induces an anti-tumor response that requires Thl -associated cytokines 11-12 (Fig. 4A) and Ifn-γ (Fig. 4B), adaptive immunity (Fig. 4C), and neutrophils (Fig. 4D). This suggests that the inherent immunogenicity of eCPMV, when introduced into the lung, disrupts the tolerogenic nature of the tumor microenvironment; in essence, removing the brakes on a pre-existing anti-tumor immune response that is suppressed, or allowing a de novo anti-tumor response to develop. [0073] This work also shows that eCPMV anti-tumor efficacy in the intravenous B 16F10 metastatic lung model is not an artifact of the C57BL6 mouse strain or the B16F10 model, as eCPMV therapy works equally impressively in flank B 16F10, ovarian carcinoma, and two BALB/c models of metastatic breast and colon cancer (Fig. 5). Constitutive luciferase expression in 4T1 breast carcinoma cells and intradermal challenges of B16F10 and CT26 allowed us to measure tumor progression quantitatively in a manner not feasible in the B16F10 lung model. It is in these models that we observed a potent and immediate antitumor effect that significantly delayed tumor progression and, in the cases of the B 16F10 and CT26 intradermal tumors, induced rapid involution of established tumors and formation of necrotic centers (Fig.5, B and C) that remained confined to within the margins of the tumors and did not appear to affect surrounding tissue. Such early responses to eCPMV - day 3 post- intratumoral injection - would indicate that eCPMV particles are inducing innate immune cell-mediated anti-tumor responses. However, follow-up studies to determine immune cell infiltration into these tumors and the phenotypes of such cells would be interesting.

[0074] This is the first report of a VLP-based nanoparticle utilized as a cancer immunotherapy and, furthermore, an immunotherapy that specifically targets and activates neutrophils within the tumor microenvironment to coordinate downstream anti-tumor immune responses. The eCPMV nanoparticle, alone, is immunogenic and highly effective as a monotherapy. However, it can also serve as a nanocarrier for tumor antigens, drugs, or immune adjuvants, opening up the exciting possiblity that eCPMV can be modified to deliver a payload that further augments and improves its immunotherapeutic efficacy.

[0075] The inventors have demonstrated that eCPMV is an effective immunotherapy against tumors originating from a variety of organs. eCPMV therapy is well-tolerated in doses comparable to other biologies and small molecules with no observable toxic side-effects. In summary, the eCPMV self-assembling VLP is an exciting new platform for the treatment of cancer that exerts its therapeutic efficacy through unleashing the power of anti-tumor immunity.

Example 2: eCPMV treatment of dermal B16F10 is inducing systemic anti-tumor immunity

[0076] As shown in Figure 6, the inventors established dermal melanoma tumors and injected the eCPMV particles directly into them (100 μg/injection, arrows indicate injection days). In half of the mice this results in complete disappearance of the tumors. In the cured mice, we then waited 4 weeks and re-challenged with the same tumor cells, but we injected tumor cells on the opposite flank. Most of those mice did not develop secondary tumors. To clarify: primary tumors were directly injected with particles, whereas mice bearing secondary tumors received no treatment. They had to rely on systemic anti-tumor immune memory alone. The eCPMV was applied locally in the first tumors, but induced systemic immunity. "Re- challenge" mice where those that previously had B 16F10 dermal tumors that were direct- injected and that shrank and disappeared.

[0077] The complete disclosure of all patents, patent applications, and publications, and electronically available materials cited herein are incorporated by reference. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been given for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described, for variations obvious to one skilled in the art will be included within the invention defined by the claims.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. A method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a virus or virus-like particle to the subject, wherein the virus or virus-like particle is nonreplicating and noninfectious in the subject.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the virus is a plant virus.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the virus is a plant picornavirus.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the plant picornavirus is a virus of the Comovirus genus.

5. The method of claim 3, wherein the plant picornavirus is a cowpea mosaic virus.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the virus particle is administered proximal to a tumor in the subject.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the virus particle is administered with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is metastatic cancer.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of melanoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, lung cancer, and ovarian cancer.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is lung cancer.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the virus particle is administered by inhalation.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the virus particle is a non-infectious virus particle.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein the virus particle is loaded with or bonded to a cargo molecule.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the cargo molecule is an anticancer agent.

15. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of ablating the cancer.

16. The method of claim 1, further comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer agent to the subject.