KR101561424B1 - Electrolyte Solution for Lithium Secondary Battery and Lithium Secondary Battery Comprising The Same - Google Patents

Abstract

In an electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery comprising a lithium salt and a nonaqueous solvent, the solvent in the electrolytic solution preferably comprises 5 to 50% by weight of a dioxolane-based solvent and 50 to 95% by weight of an ether Based solvent, and a lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte solution.

Description

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery and a lithium secondary battery including the same,

The present invention relates to an electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery and a lithium secondary battery comprising the same, and more particularly, to an electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery comprising a lithium salt and a non-aqueous solvent, wherein the solvent in the electrolyte is a non- 5 to 50% by weight of a dioxolane-based solvent and 50 to 95% by weight of an ether-based solvent, and a lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte solution.

2. Description of the Related Art As technology development and demand for mobile devices have increased, demand for secondary batteries as energy sources has been rapidly increasing. In recent years, the use of secondary batteries as a power source for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles . Accordingly, a lot of research has been conducted on a secondary battery that can meet various demands, and in particular, there is a high demand for a lithium secondary battery having a high energy density, a high discharge voltage, and an output stability.

Particularly, a lithium secondary battery used in a hybrid electric vehicle needs to be used for 10 years or more under harsh conditions in which charge and discharge due to a large current are repeated in a short time, in addition to a characteristic capable of exhibiting a large output in a short time, Safety and output characteristics far superior to those of batteries are inevitably required.

In this regard, in a conventional lithium secondary battery, a lithium cobalt composite oxide having a layered structure is used for a positive electrode and a graphite based material is used for a negative electrode. However, in the case of LiCoO ₂ , energy density and high temperature characteristics On the other hand, since the output characteristic is bad, it is not suitable for a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) requiring a high output because it obtains a high output temporarily required from the battery, such as oscillation and rapid acceleration. LiNiO ₂ , The lithium manganese oxides such as LiMnO ₂ and LiMn ₂ O ₄ have a disadvantage in that they have poor cycle characteristics and the like.

Recently, a method of using a lithium transition metal phosphate material as a cathode active material has been studied. Lithium transition metal phosphate materials are classified into LixM ₂ (PO ₄ ) ₃ , which is a Nasicon structure, and LiMPO ₄ , which has an olivine structure, and has been studied as a material superior in high temperature stability to LiCoO ₂ .

The negative electrode active material has a very low discharge potential of about -3 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode potential and exhibits a highly reversible charge / discharge behavior due to the uniaxial orientation of the graphite plate layer (graphene layer) life of carbon-based active materials.

On the other hand, a lithium secondary battery is manufactured by placing a porous polymer separator between a cathode and an anode and introducing a non-aqueous electrolytic solution containing a lithium salt such as LiPF ₆ . During charging, lithium ions in the positive electrode active material are released and inserted into the carbon layer of the negative electrode. In discharging, lithium ions in the carbon layer are released to be inserted into the positive electrode active material. Serves as a moving medium. Such a lithium secondary battery should basically be stable in the operating voltage range of the battery, and should have the ability to transfer ions at a sufficiently high speed.

Although the conventional carbonate-based solvent is used as the non-aqueous electrolytic solution, the carbonate solvent has a problem in that the viscosity increases and the ionic conductivity becomes small.

Therefore, there is a great need for a technique capable of solving the above problems.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to solve the above-mentioned problems of the prior art and the technical problems required from the past.

The inventors of the present application have conducted intensive research and various experiments and have found that when an electrolyte for a secondary battery comprising a predetermined amount of a dioxolane-based solvent and an ether-based solvent in an electrolyte is used, And have completed the present invention.

Accordingly, the present invention provides an electrolyte solution for a lithium secondary battery comprising a lithium salt and a non-aqueous solvent, wherein the solvent in the electrolyte solution comprises 5 to 50% by weight of a dioxolane- And 95% by weight of an ether-based solvent.

In the present invention, the dioxolane-based solvent refers to 1,3-dioxolane and 1,3-dioxolane derivatives, and specifically refers to 1,3-dioxolane and 1,3- , 3-dioxolane, 4,5-diethyl-dioxolane, 4,5-dimethyl-dioxolane, 4-methyl- , And more particularly, 1,3-dioxolane.

The ether solvent may be at least one selected from tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, dimethyl ether and dibutyl ether, and specifically may be dimethyl ether.

The solvent in the electrolytic solution may be 15 to 35% by weight of a dioxolane-based solvent and 65 to 85% by weight of an ether-based solvent, based on the total weight of the non-aqueous solvent.

The electrolytic solution may further contain a carbonate-based solvent.

In this case, when the weight of the dioxolane-based solvent and the ether-based solvent is A and the weight of the carbonate-based solvent is B, the ratio of A: B is 60:40 to 90:10 .

The carbonate-based solvent may be, for example, a cyclic carbonate, and the cyclic carbonate may be ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), 1,2-butylene carbonate, 2,3-butylene carbonate - pentylene carbonate, and 2,3-pentylene carbonate.

In addition, the carbonate-based solvent may further include a linear carbonate, and the linear carbonate may be at least one selected from the group consisting of dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), dipropyl carbonate (DPC), ethyl methyl carbonate (MPC) and ethyl propyl carbonate (EPC). In this case, the cyclic carbonate and the linear carbonate may have a mixing ratio of 1: 4 to 4: 1 based on the volume ratio of the carbonate-based solvent.

The lithium salt may be LiCl, LiBr, LiI, LiClO₄, LiBF₄, LiB₁₀Cl₁₀, LiPF₆, LiCF₃SO₃, LiCF₃CO₂, LiAsF₆, LiSbF₆, LiPF₆, LiAlCl₄, CH₃SO₃Li, CF₃SO₃Li, (CF₃SO₂)₂NLi, chloroborane lithium, lithium 4-phenylborate, and imide. The concentration of the lithium salt may be 0.5 to 3 M in the electrolytic solution, and more specifically, 0.8 to 2 M in the electrolytic solution.

The present invention provides a lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte for the lithium secondary battery.

The lithium secondary battery comprises: (i) a positive electrode comprising a lithium metal phosphate represented by the following formula (1) as a positive electrode active material; And

Li _{1 + a} M (PO _4-b ) X _b (1)

Wherein M is at least one member selected from the group consisting of metals of Groups 2 to 12; X is at least one selected from the group consisting of F, S and N, -0.5? A? +0.5, and 0? B? 0.1.

(ii) an anode including amorphous carbon as a negative electrode active material.

In detail, the lithium metal phosphate may be lithium iron phosphate having an olivine crystal structure represented by the following formula (2).

Li _{1 + a} Fe _1-x M ' _x (PO _4-b ) X _b (2)

M is at least one selected from Al, Mg, Ni, Co, Mn, Ti, Ga, Cu, V, Nb, Zr, Ce, In, Zn and Y, X is at least one of F, S and N -0.5? A? + 0.5, 0? X? 0.5, and 0? B? 0.1.

More specifically, the lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure may be LiFePO ₄ .

The lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure may be coated with conductive carbon.

In the present invention, the amorphous carbon may be a carbon-based compound other than crystalline graphite, for example, hard carbon and / or soft carbon.

The present invention provides a device including the battery module including the lithium secondary battery as a unit cell, the battery pack including the battery module, and the battery pack, A hybrid electric vehicle, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, or a system for power storage.

As described above, the secondary battery according to the present invention can increase the ionic conductivity by using a predetermined amount of dioxolane-based solvent and ether-based solvent, and thus can provide excellent room temperature and low-temperature output characteristics Lt; / RTI >

When used in combination with lithium iron phosphate and amorphous carbon having an olivine crystal structure, the internal resistance of the battery can be reduced, and the rate characteristics and the output characteristics can be further improved, so that it can be suitably used for a hybrid electric vehicle.

1 is a graph showing an XRD spectrum of a cathode to which amorphous carbon of the present invention is applied.

Accordingly, the present invention provides an electrolyte solution for a lithium secondary battery comprising a lithium salt and a non-aqueous solvent, wherein the solvent in the electrolyte solution comprises 5 to 50% by weight of a dioxolane- And 95% by weight of an ether-based solvent.

Generally, the carbonate solvent has a problem of a large viscosity and a low ionic conductivity. On the other hand, the dioxolane-based solvent has a relatively low viscosity, a large dielectric constant, and a low melting point as compared with the linear carbonate-based solvent, so that it can improve the lithium ion mobility and the dissolution degree of the lithium salt. A lithium secondary battery capable of exhibiting excellent room temperature and low temperature output characteristics.

In the present invention, the dioxolane-based solvent refers to 1,3-dioxolane and 1,3-dioxolane derivatives, and specifically refers to 1,3-dioxolane and 1,3- , 3-dioxolane, 4,5-diethyl-dioxolane, 4,5-dimethyl-dioxolane, 4-methyl- , And more particularly, 1,3-dioxolane.

The ether solvent may be at least one selected from tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, dimethyl ether and dibutyl ether, and specifically may be dimethyl ether.

That is, in the electrolytic solution according to the present invention, when 1,3-dioxolane is used as a dioxolane-based solvent and dimethyl ether is used as an ether-based solvent, the effect can be maximized have.

When the amount of the dioxolane-based solvent is too large, the discharge capacity and the charge-discharge characteristics may be deteriorated. When the amount of the dioxolane-based solvent is too small, . Accordingly, the solvent in the electrolytic solution may be composed of 15 to 35% by weight of a dioxolane-based solvent and 65 to 85% by weight of an ether-based solvent, based on the total weight of the non-aqueous solvent.

The electrolytic solution may further contain a carbonate-based solvent.

In this case, when the weight of the dioxolane-based solvent and the ether-based solvent is A and the weight of the carbonate-based solvent is B, the ratio of A: B is 60:40 to 90:10 .

If the carbonate-based solvent content is too high, the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte may be lowered due to the carbonate-based solvent having a high viscosity. When the carbonate-based solvent content is too low, the lithium salt does not dissolve well in the electrolyte solution, Which is undesirable.

The carbonate-based solvent may be, for example, a cyclic carbonate, and the cyclic carbonate may be ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), 1,2-butylene carbonate, 2,3-butylene carbonate - pentylene carbonate, and 2,3-pentylene carbonate.

In addition, the carbonate-based solvent may further include a linear carbonate, and the linear carbonate may be at least one selected from the group consisting of dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), dipropyl carbonate (DPC), ethyl methyl carbonate (MPC) and ethyl propyl carbonate (EPC). In this case, the cyclic carbonate and the linear carbonate may have a mixing ratio of 1: 4 to 4: 1 based on the volume ratio of the carbonate-based solvent.

The lithium salt may be LiCl, LiBr, LiI, LiClO₄, LiBF₄, LiB₁₀Cl₁₀, LiPF₆, LiCF₃SO₃, LiCF₃CO₂, LiAsF₆, LiSbF₆, LiPF₆, LiAlCl₄, CH₃SO₃Li, CF₃SO₃Li, (CF₃SO₂)₂NLi, chloroborane lithium, lithium 4-phenylborate, and imide. The concentration of the lithium salt may be 0.5 to 3 M in the electrolytic solution, and more specifically, 0.8 to 2 M in the electrolytic solution.

The present invention provides a lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte for the lithium secondary battery.

The lithium secondary battery comprises: (i) a positive electrode comprising a lithium metal phosphate represented by the following formula (1) as a positive electrode active material; And

Li _{1 + a} M (PO _4-b ) X _b (1)

Wherein M is at least one member selected from the group consisting of metals of Groups 2 to 12; X is at least one selected from the group consisting of F, S and N, -0.5? A? +0.5, and 0? B? 0.1.

(ii) an anode including amorphous carbon as a negative electrode active material.

In detail, the lithium metal phosphate may be lithium iron phosphate having an olivine crystal structure represented by the following formula (2).

Li _{1 + a} Fe _1-x M ' _x (PO _4-b ) X _b (2)

M is at least one selected from Al, Mg, Ni, Co, Mn, Ti, Ga, Cu, V, Nb, Zr, Ce, In, Zn and Y, X is at least one of F, S and N -0.5? A? + 0.5, 0? X? 0.5, and 0? B? 0.1.

When the values of a, b, and x are out of the above ranges, the conductivity may be lowered, the lithium iron phosphate may not be able to maintain the olivine structure, and the rate characteristic may deteriorate or the capacity may decrease.

Be mentioned more particularly, a lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure is _{LiFePO 4, Li (Fe, Mn} ) PO 4, Li (Fe, Co) PO 4, Li (Fe, Ni) PO 4 and that, more detail can be _{the 4th} LiFePO.

That is, the lithium secondary battery according to the present invention comprises LiFePO 4₄And amorphous carbon was applied as an anode active material to obtain LiFePO₄of Can solve the problem of increase in internal resistance that can occur due to low electron conductivity, and can exhibit excellent high temperature stability and output characteristics.

Furthermore, when the predetermined electrolyte according to the present invention is applied together, superior room temperature and low temperature output characteristics can be obtained as compared with the case where a carbonaceous solvent is used.

The lithium metal phosphate may be a secondary particle physically agglomerated with primary particles and / or primary particles.

The primary particles may have an average particle diameter of 1 to 300 nm and the secondary particles may have an average particle diameter of 1 to 40 탆. Specifically, the primary particles may have an average particle diameter of 10 to 100 nm, The average particle diameter may be 2 to 30 占 퐉, and more particularly, the average particle diameter of the secondary particles may be 3 to 15 占 퐉.

If the average particle size of the primary particles is excessively large, the desired ion conductivity can not be improved. If the primary particles are too small, the battery manufacturing process is not easy. If the average particle size of the secondary particles is too large, , Whereas if it is too small, the process efficiency can not be exerted.

The specific surface area (BET) of such secondary particles may be from 3 to 40 m ² / g.

The lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure may be coated with conductive carbon, for example, in order to increase the electron conductivity. In this case, the content of the conductive carbon may be 0.1 to 10% by weight based on the total weight of the cathode active material By weight, specifically 1 to 5% by weight. When the amount of the conductive carbon is excessively large, the lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure is relatively decreased and battery characteristics are decreased. When the amount of the conductive carbon is too small, the effect of improving the electron conductivity can not be exhibited.

The conductive carbon may be applied to the surface of each of the primary particles and the secondary particles. For example, the surface of the primary particles may be coated to a thickness of 0.1 to 100 nm and the surface of the secondary particles may be coated to a thickness of 1 to 300 nm Thickness can be coated.

When the conductive carbon is a primary particle coated with 0.5 to 1.5 wt% based on the total weight of the cathode active material, the thickness of the carbon coating layer may be about 0.1 to 2.0 nm.

In the present invention, the amorphous carbon may be a carbon-based compound other than crystalline graphite, for example, hard carbon and / or soft carbon. When crystalline graphite is used, decomposition of the electrolyte may occur, which is not preferable.

The amorphous carbon may be prepared by heat-treating the amorphous carbon at a temperature of 1800 ° C or less. For example, the hard carbon may be manufactured by pyrolyzing a phenol resin or a furan resin. The soft carbon may be coke, needle coke, As shown in FIG.

The XRD spectrum of the negative electrode to which such amorphous carbon is applied is shown in FIG.

The hard carbon and the soft carbon may be mixed with each other or used as a negative electrode active material. For example, the hard carbon and the soft carbon may be mixed in a weight ratio of 5:95 to 95: 5 based on the total weight of the negative electrode active material.

Hereinafter, the configuration of a lithium secondary battery according to the present invention will be described.

The lithium secondary battery includes a cathode prepared by coating a mixture of a cathode active material, a conductive material and a binder on the anode current collector, followed by drying and pressing, and a cathode manufactured using the same method. In this case, A filler is further added to the mixture.

The cathode current collector generally has a thickness of 3 to 500 mu m. Such a positive electrode current collector is not particularly limited as long as it has high conductivity without causing chemical changes in the battery. Examples of the positive electrode current collector include stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium, sintered carbon, aluminum or stainless steel A surface treated with carbon, nickel, titanium, silver or the like may be used. The current collector may have fine irregularities on the surface thereof to increase the adhesive force of the cathode active material, and various forms such as a film, a sheet, a foil, a net, a porous body, a foam, and a nonwoven fabric are possible.

The conductive material is usually added in an amount of 1 to 50% by weight based on the total weight of the mixture including the cathode active material. Such a conductive material is not particularly limited as long as it has electrical conductivity without causing chemical changes in the battery, for example, graphite such as natural graphite or artificial graphite; Carbon black such as carbon black, acetylene black, ketjen black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, and summer black; Conductive fibers such as carbon fiber and metal fiber; Metal powders such as carbon fluoride, aluminum, and nickel powder; Conductive whiskey such as zinc oxide and potassium titanate; Conductive metal oxides such as titanium oxide; Conductive materials such as polyphenylene derivatives and the like can be used.

The binder is a component that assists in bonding of the active material and the conductive material and bonding to the current collector, and is usually added in an amount of 1 to 50 wt% based on the total weight of the mixture containing the cathode active material. Examples of such binders include polyvinylidene fluoride, polyvinyl alcohol, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), starch, hydroxypropylcellulose, regenerated cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, tetrafluoroethylene, polyethylene , Polypropylene, ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer (EPDM), sulfonated EPDM, styrene butylene rubber, fluorine rubber, and various copolymers.

The filler is optionally used as a component for suppressing expansion of the anode, and is not particularly limited as long as it is a fibrous material without causing a chemical change in the battery. Examples of the filler include olefin-based polymerizers such as polyethylene and polypropylene; Fibrous materials such as glass fibers and carbon fibers are used.

The negative electrode current collector is generally made to have a thickness of 3 to 500 mu m. Such an anode current collector is not particularly limited as long as it has electrical conductivity without causing chemical changes in the battery, and examples of the anode current collector include copper, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium, sintered carbon, a surface of copper or stainless steel A surface treated with carbon, nickel, titanium, silver or the like, an aluminum-cadmium alloy, or the like can be used. In addition, like the positive electrode collector, fine unevenness can be formed on the surface to enhance the bonding force of the negative electrode active material, and it can be used in various forms such as films, sheets, foils, nets, porous bodies, foams and nonwoven fabrics.

Such a lithium secondary battery may have a structure in which a lithium salt-containing electrolyte is impregnated in an electrode assembly having a separator interposed between an anode and a cathode.

The separation membrane is interposed between the anode and the cathode, and an insulating thin film having high ion permeability and mechanical strength is used. The pore diameter of the separator is generally 0.01 to 10 mu m and the thickness is generally 5 to 300 mu m. Such separation membranes include, for example, olefinic polymers such as polypropylene, which are chemically resistant and hydrophobic; A sheet or nonwoven fabric made of glass fiber, polyethylene or the like is used. When a solid electrolyte such as a polymer is used as an electrolyte, the solid electrolyte may also serve as a separation membrane.

The lithium salt-containing electrolytic solution is composed of the non-aqueous organic solvent electrolyte and the lithium salt as described above, and may further include organic solid electrolytes, inorganic solid electrolytes, and the like, but is not limited thereto.

Examples of the organic solid electrolyte include a polymer electrolyte such as a polyethylene derivative, a polyethylene oxide derivative, a polypropylene oxide derivative, a phosphate ester polymer, an agitation lysine, a polyester sulfide, a polyvinyl alcohol, a polyvinylidene fluoride, A polymer containing an ionic dissociation group and the like may be used.

Examples of the inorganic solid electrolyte include Li ₃ N, LiI, Li ₅ NI ₂ , Li ₃ N-LiI-LiOH, LiSiO ₄ , LiSiO ₄ -LiI-LiOH, Li ₂ SiS ₃ , Li ₄ SiO ₄ , Nitrides, halides and sulfates of Li such as Li ₄ SiO ₄ -LiI-LiOH and Li ₃ PO ₄ -Li ₂ S-SiS ₂ can be used.

For the purpose of improving the charge / discharge characteristics and the flame retardancy, the electrolytic solution is preferably mixed with an organic solvent such as pyridine, triethylphosphite, triethanolamine, cyclic ether, ethylenediamine, glyme, Benzene derivatives, sulfur, quinone imine dyes, N-substituted oxazolidinones, N, N-substituted imidazolidines, ethylene glycol dialkyl ethers, ammonium salts, pyrrole, 2-methoxyethanol, . In some cases, halogen-containing solvents such as carbon tetrachloride and ethylene trifluoride may be further added to impart nonflammability. In order to improve the high-temperature storage characteristics, carbon dioxide gas may be further added. FEC (Fluoro-Ethylene Carbonate, PRS (Propene sultone), and the like.

The present invention provides a battery module including the lithium secondary battery as a unit cell, and a battery pack including the battery module.

The battery pack can be used as a power source for devices requiring high temperature stability, long cycle characteristics, and high rate characteristics.

Examples of the device may be an electric vehicle including an electric vehicle, a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), etc. However, Exhibits excellent room temperature and low temperature output characteristics, and can be preferably used in a hybrid electric vehicle in detail.

In recent years, studies have been actively carried out to use a lithium secondary battery in a power storage device which can store unused power into physical or chemical energy and use it as electric energy when necessary.

Claims (20)

A lithium salt, and a non-aqueous solvent, wherein the solvent in the electrolyte is selected from the group consisting of 15 to 35% by weight of a dioxolane-based solvent and 65 to 85% by weight of an ether-based solvent Solvent, and
Wherein the dioxolane-based solvent is 1,3-dioxolane, and the ether-based solvent is dimethyl ether. delete delete delete delete delete delete delete delete The method of claim 1, wherein the lithium salt is, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, LiClO 4, LiBF 4, LiB 10 Cl 10, LiPF 6, LiCF 3 SO 3, LiCF 3 CO 2, LiAsF 6, LiSbF 6, LiPF 6, At least one selected from the group consisting of LiAlCl ₄ , CH ₃ SO ₃ Li, CF ₃ SO ₃ Li, (CF ₃ SO ₂ ) ₂ NLi, chloroborane lithium, lithium tetraphenylborate and imide, 3 < RTI ID = 0.0 > M. ≪ / RTI > A lithium secondary battery comprising the electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery according to claim 1. The lithium secondary battery according to claim 11,
(i) a positive electrode comprising a lithium metal phosphate represented by the following formula (1) as a positive electrode active material; And
Li _{1 + a} M (PO _4-b ) X _b (1)
Wherein M is at least one member selected from the group consisting of metals of Groups 2 to 12; X is at least one selected from the group consisting of F, S and N, -0.5? A? +0.5, and 0? B? 0.1.
(ii) a negative electrode comprising amorphous carbon as a negative electrode active material. 13. The lithium secondary battery according to claim 12, wherein the lithium metal phosphate is lithium iron phosphate having an olivine crystal structure represented by the following formula (2)
Li _{1 + a} Fe _1-x M ' _x (PO _4-b ) X _b (2)
In this formula,
M 'is at least one selected from Al, Mg, Ni, Co, Mn, Ti, Ga, Cu, V, Nb, Zr, Ce, In,
X is at least one selected from F, S and N,
-0.5? A? + 0.5, 0? X? 0.5, and 0? B? The lithium secondary battery according to claim 13, wherein the lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure is LiFePO ₄ . 15. The lithium secondary battery according to claim 14, wherein the lithium iron phosphate of the olivine crystal structure is coated with conductive carbon. 13. The lithium secondary battery according to claim 12, wherein the amorphous carbon is hard carbon and / or soft carbon. A battery module comprising the lithium secondary battery according to claim 11 as a unit cell. A battery pack comprising the battery module according to claim 17. A device comprising a battery pack according to claim 18. 20. The device of claim 19, wherein the device is a hybrid electric vehicle, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, or a system for power storage.

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