Graduate School of Public Policy

In seinem Beitrag untersucht George R. Lucas ein grundlegendes ethisches Dilemma in Hobbes' ursprünglicher, ansonsten streng amoralischer Darstellung des Naturzustands: Wie sollte der Mensch einen scheinbar moralisch notwendigen Übergang zu einer stabile-ren, rechtsstaatliche Grundsätze beinhaltenden politischen Ord-nung bewerkstelligen, durch die die Interessen der verschiedenen Bewohner an Leben, Eigentum und Sicherheit besser gewährleistet wären? Hobbes' Beschreibung zufolge erwächst der Widerstand gegen diesen moralisch gebotenen Übergang aus einer "universellen Zurückhaltung", dem gegenseitigen Misstrauen unter Individuen, gepaart mit dem fehlgeleiteten Glauben jedes oder jeder Einzelnen an seine oder ihre Überlegenheit. Dieser moralische Rahmen, so die Argumentation des Autors, eigne sich daher perfekt für die Analyse der Aussichten auf Frieden im Cyberspace. Innerhalb dieses Rahmens lässt sich schnell feststellen, dass sich die bedeutendsten moralischen Fragen darauf beziehen, ob bereits eine allmähliche freiwillige Anerkennung und Akzeptanz all-gemeingültiger Normen für das Verhalten des Einzelnen und des Staates im Cyberspace erkennbar ist, die sich aus Erfahrung und daraus folgendem aufgeklärtem Eigeninteresse ableiten lassen, oder ob die Interessen der verantwortungsbewussten Mehrheit letztlich einen wie auch immer gearteten Übergang vom Naturzustand er-zwingen, indem sie sich im Interesse des Allgemeinwohls über die Wünsche vermeintlich unverantwortlicher oder böswilliger Außen-seiter hinwegsetzen. Lucas lässt keinen Zweifel daran, dass wir uns dem Prozess der Normbildung deskriptiv annähern und die relative Rechtsfreiheit des Cyberraums aushalten müssen, anstatt uns für die moralisch inakzeptable zweite Lösung zu entscheiden. Autor: George R. Lucas

Text for ethics seminars in the Naval Postgraduate School, edited by Patricia J. Cook, including essays by George R Lucas Jr.  Includes selected readings and case studies focusing on military and defense procurement and government/military interface with private commercial firms.

First monograph linking ethics and conduct of cyber conflict, including for the first time a description of "state-sponsored hacktivism" as the preferred mode of cyber warfare.  Offers the first sustained critique of the Tallinn Manual on international law pertaining to cyber conflict.
Discusses the emergence of norms of responsible state behavior for nations engaged in cyber conflict, as well as a voluntary "code of ethics" for each nation's cyber warriors.

In a volume on "Soft War" ("ethics of unarmed conflict") edited by Michael Gross and Tamar Meisels, the author of this chapter discusses cyber security and cyber conflict, especially state-sponsored hacktivism, as a principle mode of "soft" war.

Written shortly following the Snowden affair in July 2013, this was the first analysis of the significance of the material he had stolen and revealed on WikiLeaks.  Discusses the NSA Enterprise system, TreasureMap software, and the significance of data storage and analysis on individual privacy.

This book examines the importance of "military ethics" in the formulation and conduct of contemporary military strategy. Clausewitz's original analysis of war relegated ethics to the sidelines in favour of political realism, interpreting the proper use of military power solely to further the political goals of the state, whatever those may be. This book demonstrates how such single-minded focus no longer suffi ces to secure the interest of states, for whom the nature of warfare has evolved to favor strategies that hold combatants themselves to the highest moral and professional standards in their conduct of hostilities. Waging war has thus been transformed in a manner that moves beyond Clausewitz's original conception, rendering political success wholly dependent upon the cultivation and exercise of discerning moral judgment by strategists and combatants in the fi eld. This book utilizes a number of perspectives and case studies to demonstrate how ethics now plays a central role in strategy in modern armed confl ict. This book will be of much interest to students of just war, ethics, military strategy, and international relations.

Recently discovered text of Alfred North Whitehead's first lecture to students and faculty in "Philosophy of Science" (PHIL 3b) in September, 1924.  This is the unedited typescript of that long-missing lecture, whose content has been the object of intense speculation for nearly a century.

In this Article, I review the military and security uses of robotics and "un-manned" or "uninhabited" (and sometimes "remotely piloted") vehicles in a number of relevant conflict environments that, in turn, raise issues of law and ethics that bear significantly on both foreign and domestic policy initiatives. My treatment applies to the use of autonomous unmanned platforms in combat and low-intensity international conflict, but also offers guidance for the increased domestic uses of both remotely controlled and fully autonomous unmanned aerial , maritime, and ground systems for immigration control, border surveillance, drug interdiction, and domestic law enforcement. I outline the emerging debate concerning "robot morality" and computational models of moral cognition and examine the implications of this debate for the future reliability, safety, and effectiveness of autonomous systems (whether weaponized or unarmed) that might come to be deployed in both domestic and international conflict situations. Likewise , I discuss attempts by the International Committee on Robot Arms Control (ICRAC) to outlaw or ban the use of autonomous systems that are lethally armed, as well an alternative proposal by the eminent Yale University ethicist, Wendell Wallach, to have lethally armed autonomous systems that might be capable of making targeting decisions independent of any human oversight specifically designated "mala in se" under international law. Following the approach of Marchant, et al., however, I summarize the lessons learned and the areas of provisional consensus reached thus far in this debate in the form of "soft-law" precepts that reflect emergent norms and a growing international consensus regarding the proper use and governance of such weapons.

A young Canadian mathematician and philosopher, Winthrop Bell,
who was Edmund Husserl s first doctoral student from North America, taught as a postdoc at Harvard in the 1920s, where he took a complete set of notes in the first class at Harvard taught by Alfred North Whitehead during the 1924-1925 academic year. These notes, missing for over 80 years, have recently been found. The notes transform scholarship concerning the early development o f Whitehead’s mature metaphysical views, while the note-taker's own career illuminates a remarkable collaboration between the pragmatists in the U. S. and Canada and the early phenomenology movement in Europe, an intellectual exchange that was shattered during the tumultuous events of World War I and its aftermath.

This is the second installment in a series that reports on the progress of some of the more interesting discoveries emerging from ongoing work on the new and comprehensive critical edition of Whitehead being published by Edinburgh University Press. This installment deals, as the subtitle indicates, with the emergence of Whitehead's metaphysics from 1925 until 1929. The first installment appeared in Process Studies 45.1. In 1982, Victor Lowe wrote: As he [Whitehead] had requested, his widow destroyed (along with letters he had received) his unpublished papers and the manuscripts of his books. He idealized youth and wanted young thinkers to develop their own ideas, not spend their best years on a Nachlass. Hence Whitehead's intellectual biography, so far as we can be certain about it, depends mainly on the external facts of his life and the prefaces to his books. A valiant endeavor to discover, from the texts of his metaphysical publications, just how they were written, has been made with great ingenuity by Lewis Ford. ("Alfred" 137) In this paragraph, Lowe succinctly summarizes two major, quite distinct, items of controversy upon which the Critical Edition of Whitehead (CEW), following the appearance of the first volume in February 2017, promises to shed considerable new light. The first controversy regards the extended mythology regarding the fate of Whitehead's Nachlass, i.e., regarding what actually became of the letters, manuscript drafts, volumes in Whitehead's personal library, and other materials (such as notes taken by students or colleagues in classes) that might have been "left behind" following the scholar's death (for, after PS 46_1 text.indd 52 12/18/17 3:40 PM

In lieu of the present range of rival and only partial ethical accounts, this
essay proposes an underling interpretive framework for the cyber domain as a Hobbsean state of nature, with its current status of unrestricted conflict constituting a ‘war of all against all’. The fundamental ethical dilemma in Hobbes’s original account of this “original situation” was how to bring about the morally required transition to a more stable political arrangement, comprising a rule of law under which the interests of the various inhabitants in life, property and security would be more readily guaranteed. Hobbes described opposition to this morally requisite transition as arising from ‘universal diffidence’, the mutual mistrust between individuals, coupled with the misguided belief of each in his or her own superiority. His is thus a perfect moral framework from which to analyse agents in the cyber domain, where individual arrogance often seems to surpass any aspirations for moral excellence. With this framework in place, it is briefly noted that the chief moral questions pertain to whether we may already discern a gradual voluntary recognition and acceptance of general norms of responsible individual and state behaviour within the cyber domain, arising from experience and consequent enlightened self-interest (As, for example, in the account of emergent norms found in Lucas (The ethics of cyber
warfare. Oxford University Press, New York, 2017)), or whether the interests of the responsible majority must eventually compel some sort of transition from the state of nature by forcibly overriding the wishes of presumably irresponsible or malevolent outliers in the interests of the general welfare (the moral paradox of universal diffidence).

A comprehensive encyclopedia of ethics for advanced high school students, college undergraduates and graduate students, as well as public libraries.  Vol 1:  introductory and basic theoretical approaches; Vol 2: Political Practices (Law, Human Rights, Government & War); Vol 3:  Ethics and Professional Practices; Vol 4: Ethics & Human Identities

What is the “history of philosophy?” What exactly is this the “history” of, and how is that history to be understood in relationship to “philosophy” itself? In particular, can philosophy’s history, on any of a number of diverse descriptions, ever be said in its own right to constitute a unique and genuine source of philosophical wisdom or insight? What, in particular does its history reveal about the nature of philosophical enquiry itself, as constituting a collaborative venture with profound social consequences, rather than its more familiar characterization as a solitary and individual quest for wisdom, truth, or understanding? What do such discoveries teach us, in turn, about philosophy’s “forgotten” figures, whose work may yet deserve our respect and attention?

Toward the end of the 20th century, these questions were often raised, anxiously discussed, but seldom resolved. This new approach constitutes a reconsideration and critique of that earlier fin de siècle philosophical anxiety. In this book, the author sweeps aside the constraints of traditional methodological and cultural boundaries in order to reflect broadly on a variety of answers to these questions, as posed by many of the major philosophical figures of the past century. Inviting a re-consideration of the work of scholars as diverse as Alasdair MacIntyre, Leo Strauss, Jacque Derrida, Michel Foucault, Richard Rorty, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Bertrand Russell, Arthur Danto, Martha Nussbaum, Paul Ricoeur, Charles Taylor, Keith Lehrer and Jerome Schneewind, the author ranges widely over the history of philosophy itself in search of original, probing answers to these profound and perennial issues. The author outlines a new historico-philosophical methodology termed “reflective historical engagement,” and proceeds to employ this methodology in forging dramatic and moving reinterpretations of the recent history of philosophy. Lucas offers profound and original analyses of the works of Hegel, Whitehead, Russell, Moore, Wittgenstein, Heidegger and other foundational figures, alongside the many “forgotten” or marginalized historical figures who nonetheless have helped shape contemporary philosophy.