Papers by Riley Snyder
Oxbow Books, Feb 16, 2023
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City Walls in Late Antiquity, 2020
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The result of recent research (Snyder, 2013 - PhD thesis) on construction materials and workforce... more The result of recent research (Snyder, 2013 - PhD thesis) on construction materials and workforce has shown that the Water Supply of Constantinople was one of the largest construction projects undertaken in the ancient world, requiring as much stone as the Great Pyramid of Giza and five times more manpower than of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. However, with lacking archaeological and textual evidence, many vital questions remain about macro--level outcomes of this massive undertaking and the organisation of the labourers involved. This project provides the unique opportunity to explore one of the most under--appreciated aspects of modern classical scholarship: the spectrum of large--scale construction from the role of the individual to the function of the empire in the late antiquity
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Heritage Turkey, Dec 1, 2012
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Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) is an established method for simulating the actions, interactions and... more Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) is an established method for simulating the actions, interactions and behaviours of autonomous agents. These agents can be individuals or collective organisations and the tool is able to assess the effects of these agents on the system as a whole. Based on theories of emergence and computational sociology, the ideas behind ABM were first developed many years ago but computational power of recent decades has allowed their utility to provide success in areas such as pollution, transmission of disease, culture, effective teams and cognition. Research is not yet widespread in the construction field, but successes have been seen in areas such as supply chain and network management. The aims of this paper are twofold. We ultimately intend to demonstrate the applicability of ABM in construction management and archaeological engineering; but initially we will outline its potential use via an overview of the Byzantine Water Supply system for the ancient city of Co...
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The Caspian Gates in the Caucasus from Antiquity to the Age of the Huns in the Middle Ages, 2020
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E. Bukowiecki, A. Pizzo, R. Volpe (a cura di), Demolire, riciclare, reinventare. La lunga vita e l'eredità del laterizio romano nella storia dell'architettura, 2021
Brick masonry construction was an unsurprising choice for the late antique city of Ravenna. The a... more Brick masonry construction was an unsurprising choice for the late antique city of Ravenna. The abundance of quality clay found throughout the Po Valley delta not only created the perfect environment for the manufacture of terracotta building materials such as bricks, roof tiles, and vaulting tubes, but also a scarcity in locally viable stone outcrops suitable for building. While there is thorough evidence of widespread brick reuse in Ravenna during the 5th and 6th centuries, new archaeological evidence has revealed that brick production continued in the region during this period, similar to ceramic industries. By applying these new findings with reverse quantity surveying and architectural energetic (labour rate analysis) of major infrastructural projects of the late antique city, this paper aims to provide a cleared perspective of the economies of construction in Ravenna during such a pivotal point in its history. From reclaiming versus producing bricks to the production of copious quantities of mortar, the organisation of Ravenna’s building boom would have been fraught with challenges. The reliance on local and regional raw material resources and manufacturing industries helped transform Ravenna from a deteriorating former naval base into the formidable administrative capital of the Western Roman Empire.
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In order to meet the needs of its growing populace, the infrastructure of the new capital of Cons... more In order to meet the needs of its growing populace, the infrastructure of the new capital of Constantinople was bolstered by many vital megaprojects, many rivalling the scale and intricacy of Imperial Rome. A prime example of this is the extensive channel networks of the fourth and fifth centuries, built in the hinterland of Constantinople to supply fresh water from springs hundreds of kilometres away.
This paper examines the nature of construction processes and management in the hinterland of late-antique Constantinople using qualitative and quantitative studies of the remaining structures of the long-distance water supply. Through mortar analysis, volumetric and manpower estimations, and simulation modelling, it has become evident that the fourth- and fifth-century lines of water supply of Constantinople would have been two of the largest projects prior to the industrial era.
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Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) is an established method for simulating the actions, interactions and... more Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) is an established method for simulating the actions, interactions and behaviours of autonomous agents. These agents can be individuals or collective organisations and the tool is able to assess the effects of these agents on the system as a whole. Based on theories of emergence and computational sociology, the ideas behind ABM were first developed many years ago but computational power of recent decades has allowed their utility to provide success in areas such as pollution, transmission of disease, culture, effective teams and cognition. Research is not yet widespread in the construction field, but successes have been seen in areas such as supply chain and network management. The aims of this paper are twofold. We ultimately intend to demonstrate the applicability of ABM in construction management and archaeological engineering; but initially we will outline its potential use via an overview of the Byzantine Water Supply system for the ancient city of Constantinople. Unlike similar counterparts in Classical Antiquity, the Eastern Roman Empire’s 4th- and 5th-century water supply megaprojects, whose channels and bridges spanned hundreds of kilometres to bring fresh water to the burgeoning capital of Constantinople and its complex system of reservoirs and cisterns, is relatively under-explored. The paper demonstrates that ABM is able to provide greater and richer understanding of the use of resources in these ancient constructions.
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Books by Riley Snyder
Oxbow books, 2020
The construction of urban defences was one of the hallmarks of the late Roman and late-antique pe... more The construction of urban defences was one of the hallmarks of the late Roman and late-antique periods (300–600 AD) throughout the western and eastern empire. City walls were the most significant construction projects of their time and they redefined the urban landscape. Their appearance and monumental scale, as well as the cost of labour and material, are easily comparable to projects from the High Empire; however, urban circuits provided late-antique towns with a new means of self-representation. While their final appearance and construction techniques varied greatly, the cost involved and the dramatic impact that such projects had on the urban topography of late-antique cities mark city walls as one of the most important urban initiatives of the period.
To-date, research on city walls in the two halves of the empire has highlighted chronological and regional variations, enabling scholars to rethink how and why urban circuits were built and functioned in Late Antiquity. Although these developments have made a significant contribution to the understanding of late-antique city walls, studies are often concerned with one single monument/small group of monuments or a particular region, and the issues raised do not usually lead to a broader perspective, creating an artificial divide between east and west. It is this broader understanding that this book seeks to provide.
The volume and its contributions arise from a conference held at the British School at Rome and the Swedish Institute of Classical Studies in Rome on June 20-21, 2018. It includes articles from world-leading experts in late-antique history and archaeology and is based around important themes that emerged at the conference, such as construction, spolia-use, late-antique architecture, culture and urbanism, empire-wide changes in Late Antiquity, and the perception of this practice by local inhabitants.
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Published Articles by Riley Snyder
Construction Management and Economics, 2017
Archaeological remains around the world are testament that large-scale construction projects have... more Archaeological remains around the world are testament that large-scale construction projects have been successfully carried out for millennia. This success is particularly evident through the great infrastructural works of the Roman Empire. Yet, it was when the capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople that the largest of these projects was undertaken. This megaproject of the fourth-and fifth-century water supply was made of hundreds of kilometres aqueduct channels and bridges that brought fresh water to the city's complex system of reservoirs and cisterns. Unlike projects of the previous centuries, we are left with no written record of how this titanic project was undertaken and existing archaeological and historical commentaries on structures of this period do not provide details of organization of construction. We explore the nature of building Constantinople's water supply through diverse sources of knowledge and the application of agent-based modelling – a method for simulating the actions, interactions and behaviours of autonomous agents and the resulting emergent properties of the system in which they are a part. This paper demonstrates the ability of ABM to develop and test richer hypotheses about historical construction organization and management than physical and historical evidence on their own.
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In the 4th and 5th centuries, the new city of Constantinople underwent a rapid transformation fro... more In the 4th and 5th centuries, the new city of Constantinople underwent a rapid transformation from a small town into a great metropolis. The ood of migration to the city created an immediate need for many infrastructural works, most importantly a supply system to furnish large quantities of fresh water. The construction of channels and great bridges of the long-distance Water Supply of Constantinople, starting in the mid-4th century, stretched far to the West of the city, relying on springs hundreds of kilometres away. Before this water was to reach the population of the booming city, man’s reliance on the hinterland environment of Constantinople is nowhere more evident than in the construction of this mas- sive water supply system.
This paper presents a quantitative examination of the materials used to construct the Late Antique Water Sup- ply of Constantinople. From its overall structural volume to the quantity of fuel necessary to produce its components, this system was as much a marvel of logistical prowess as engineering might. However, it is the ultimate aim of this study to uncover the planners’, builders’, and administrators’ reliance on the environment through a comprehensive sum- mation of the raw materials removed from and reapplied to Constantinople’s hinterland landscape.
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CITY WALLS IN LATE ANTIQUITY: AN EMPIRE-WIDE PERSPECTIVE, 2020
The reliance on reused materials for new construction projects in late antiquity cannot be unders... more The reliance on reused materials for new construction projects in late antiquity cannot be understated and the building of fortifications is no exception. The systematic incorporation of spoliated decorative stone elements is found in some of the most iconic late antique and early medieval defensive architecture in both the east and west. Less immediately apparent but just as prevalent was the reuse of bricks in the expansion or rebuilding of late antique defences, where brickstamps provide a clear evidence of salvage from the surrounding built environment. However, brick size variations are commonly referenced where brickstamps are lacking to also conclude that bricks were reused. Recent research on the construction programmes of fast-expanding imperial cities in late antiquity has placed the supposition of wholesale reuse into question. This paper reflects upon the construction of Ravenna’s late antique circuit wall in light of the industries required for its completion as well as the competition of labour and material resources. Furthermore, this paper will explore how the rapid investment in urban infrastructure as Ravenna was designated an administrative capital does not stand as a unique case in late antiquity.
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Quantitative Studies and Production Cost of Roman Public Construction, 2020
Cement has become the most used building material around the world today due in part to its affor... more Cement has become the most used building material around the world today due in part to its affordability, versatility and resilience. Because of this heavy reliance, its production plays a substantial role in the economics of the modern construction industry. In scholarship on the Roman building economy, the stone trade and brick production have received considerable attention while discussions of lime-based hydraulic cements have been, for the most part, limited to manufacturing techniques and technological capability. However, quantitative analysis of large-scale projects in Rome and Ostia have suggested that Roman cement also had a considerable economic impact.
This paper investigates the role of mortar production on the building economy in late antiquity, specifically in the eastern capital of Constantinople. Through qualitative and quantitative approaches focusing on the changes in material technology and architectural practice, late antique mortar and the industries involved in its production have been shown to be much more significant than previously considered. These findings suggest more a complex organisation of resource management, creating interdependencies of seemingly unrelated industries to ensure that supply met the high demand for mortar.
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Papers by Riley Snyder
This paper examines the nature of construction processes and management in the hinterland of late-antique Constantinople using qualitative and quantitative studies of the remaining structures of the long-distance water supply. Through mortar analysis, volumetric and manpower estimations, and simulation modelling, it has become evident that the fourth- and fifth-century lines of water supply of Constantinople would have been two of the largest projects prior to the industrial era.
Books by Riley Snyder
To-date, research on city walls in the two halves of the empire has highlighted chronological and regional variations, enabling scholars to rethink how and why urban circuits were built and functioned in Late Antiquity. Although these developments have made a significant contribution to the understanding of late-antique city walls, studies are often concerned with one single monument/small group of monuments or a particular region, and the issues raised do not usually lead to a broader perspective, creating an artificial divide between east and west. It is this broader understanding that this book seeks to provide.
The volume and its contributions arise from a conference held at the British School at Rome and the Swedish Institute of Classical Studies in Rome on June 20-21, 2018. It includes articles from world-leading experts in late-antique history and archaeology and is based around important themes that emerged at the conference, such as construction, spolia-use, late-antique architecture, culture and urbanism, empire-wide changes in Late Antiquity, and the perception of this practice by local inhabitants.
Published Articles by Riley Snyder
This paper presents a quantitative examination of the materials used to construct the Late Antique Water Sup- ply of Constantinople. From its overall structural volume to the quantity of fuel necessary to produce its components, this system was as much a marvel of logistical prowess as engineering might. However, it is the ultimate aim of this study to uncover the planners’, builders’, and administrators’ reliance on the environment through a comprehensive sum- mation of the raw materials removed from and reapplied to Constantinople’s hinterland landscape.
This paper investigates the role of mortar production on the building economy in late antiquity, specifically in the eastern capital of Constantinople. Through qualitative and quantitative approaches focusing on the changes in material technology and architectural practice, late antique mortar and the industries involved in its production have been shown to be much more significant than previously considered. These findings suggest more a complex organisation of resource management, creating interdependencies of seemingly unrelated industries to ensure that supply met the high demand for mortar.
This paper examines the nature of construction processes and management in the hinterland of late-antique Constantinople using qualitative and quantitative studies of the remaining structures of the long-distance water supply. Through mortar analysis, volumetric and manpower estimations, and simulation modelling, it has become evident that the fourth- and fifth-century lines of water supply of Constantinople would have been two of the largest projects prior to the industrial era.
To-date, research on city walls in the two halves of the empire has highlighted chronological and regional variations, enabling scholars to rethink how and why urban circuits were built and functioned in Late Antiquity. Although these developments have made a significant contribution to the understanding of late-antique city walls, studies are often concerned with one single monument/small group of monuments or a particular region, and the issues raised do not usually lead to a broader perspective, creating an artificial divide between east and west. It is this broader understanding that this book seeks to provide.
The volume and its contributions arise from a conference held at the British School at Rome and the Swedish Institute of Classical Studies in Rome on June 20-21, 2018. It includes articles from world-leading experts in late-antique history and archaeology and is based around important themes that emerged at the conference, such as construction, spolia-use, late-antique architecture, culture and urbanism, empire-wide changes in Late Antiquity, and the perception of this practice by local inhabitants.
This paper presents a quantitative examination of the materials used to construct the Late Antique Water Sup- ply of Constantinople. From its overall structural volume to the quantity of fuel necessary to produce its components, this system was as much a marvel of logistical prowess as engineering might. However, it is the ultimate aim of this study to uncover the planners’, builders’, and administrators’ reliance on the environment through a comprehensive sum- mation of the raw materials removed from and reapplied to Constantinople’s hinterland landscape.
This paper investigates the role of mortar production on the building economy in late antiquity, specifically in the eastern capital of Constantinople. Through qualitative and quantitative approaches focusing on the changes in material technology and architectural practice, late antique mortar and the industries involved in its production have been shown to be much more significant than previously considered. These findings suggest more a complex organisation of resource management, creating interdependencies of seemingly unrelated industries to ensure that supply met the high demand for mortar.
This contribution aims to reflect on the benefits of approaching fortifications through a high-definition methodology. In so doing, it takes as a case study the walls on the citadel at Tsikhisdziri, in western Georgia. The remains at Tsikhisdziri have traditionally been interpreted as those of Petra Pia Justiniana, which is reported by Procopius as being constructed by Justinian in the first half of the sixth century AD and destroyed soon thereafter. Procopius’ account has often steered archaeological investigations at the site towards early Byzantine remains, whilst there is evidence to suggest that the site survived well into the seventh century AD and beyond.
Through a traditional study of the remains coupled with petrographic study and X-Ray fluorescence analyses on brick and mortar amples, thse authors have managed to reach a better understanding of the relative chronology of the fortifications at Tsikhisdiziri. The investigation has proven the existence of an important late antique phase at this site, but has also found evidence to suggest that the walls remained in use and were constantly repaired well after the events glorified by Procopius.