Papers by Marcus A Roxburgh
Tutulus, 2021
‘Globalisation and the Estonian Roman Iron Age’. Globalization is considered a modern phenomenon,... more ‘Globalisation and the Estonian Roman Iron Age’. Globalization is considered a modern phenomenon, associated with the formation of the European Union and perceptions of open borders, migration, and the growing connection and integration of nation states. However similar processes are thought to have happened before and understanding such past events helps to better understand the even more complex modern world. In this sense, the Roman Republic and the subsequent Empire were one of the most extensive and "globalizing" phenomena in history. The beginning of Estonia’s Roman Iron Age is placed in the middle of the 1st century AD. It is believed that at this time the inhabitants of North-East Estonia contacted the people living on the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea - in the delta of the Vistula River. In turn, these Vistula inhabitants were connected even further to the powerful Roman world in the south. Just like today, in ancient times the Vistula area was a major amber source. It was valued so highly by the Romans that they tried to find this source. A trade mission took place in 60-62 AD. The participants of this trip visited the local markets in the Vistula and returned home with a large amount of amber. This commercial enterprise certainly strengthened relations between the peoples of the Vistula and the Roman world and increased the amount of Roman trade goods to the north via the ‘Amber Road’. Although there is no amber found on the coast of Estonia, the contacts between Estonia and the Vistula are very evident.
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Estonian Journal of Archaeology, 2024
The craft box recovered from a 13th-century hillfort at Lõhavere, Estonia, contained a well-prese... more The craft box recovered from a 13th-century hillfort at Lõhavere, Estonia, contained a well-preserved selection of copper-alloy objects. The low level of corrosion on these objects allowed a more accurate estimate of their compositions to be achieved using non-destructive surface measurements. Using the resulting pXRF database, this study explored a possible correlation between the object types and their material composition. Comparing the most common contaminants with the alloying metals allowed a qualitative estimate of the material quality to take place. The results showed that despite a considerable overlap between object types, the material composition could differ based on the item’s appearance and function. A movement from brass towards bronze and tinned objects coincided with a greater availability of tin at the hillfort, as well as with a rise in silversmithing. Moreover, objects with a silver appearance seem to be more desirable in this period, apart from some high-status personal ornaments and the traditional spiral tube decorations. The results possibly reflect different metalworking practices when compared to earlier periods and contemporary sites. Some evidence for recycling is present amongst the spiral tubes. This suggests that they came from several different raw material sources, possibly removed from obsolete clothing. Alternatively, this could reflect a varying quality of imported copper-alloy, including wire, through the Hansa trade routes.
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Estonian Journal of Archaeology, 2023
Brass quickly overtook bronze as the dominant copper-alloy across vast areas of the Roman world a... more Brass quickly overtook bronze as the dominant copper-alloy across vast areas of the Roman world and beyond, during the 1st century BC. It has also been established that the quality of this brass changed over time. To establish if a rapid transformation from bronze to brass also took place in the North Eastern Baltic, over 1200 copper-alloy objects were analysed non destructively by pXRF. They were primarily sourced from the tarand cemeteries of Estonia and Northern Latvia which date to the Pre Roman and Roman Iron Ages. The aim was to establish which alloys were in use during these periods, then to determine if any chronological trends were visible and if so for which typological groups. The results show that there was a major shift between bronze to brass towards the end of the pre Roman- and the early Roman Iron Age. This is followed by a decline in brass, in favour of gunmetal over the following centuries. The results also suggest the existence of a introductory period where traditional bronzes and newly arriving brass items circulated together. But this period better matches a time slightly earlier than that traditionally proposed for the start of Estonia’s Roman Iron Age. This pXRF survey presents a better understanding of the arrival of brass in the North Eastern Baltic and It adds to our knowledge about the effectiveness of the long distance trade and communication networks that transfered new objects, ideas, and technologies to these distant communities.
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Archaeometry, 2023
The north eastern Baltic has no copper resources of its own, meaning that copper-alloy was import... more The north eastern Baltic has no copper resources of its own, meaning that copper-alloy was imported either as raw material or finished objects. The north eastern coastline of Estonia during the late pre- Roman and Roman Iron Age was connected to the south by sea to the long-distance ‘Amber’ trade route and to the east by the Russian river systems. This study aims to quantitatively assess the direction of the copper-alloy supply in the region before and after brass enters circulation at the beginning of the Roman Iron Age. After an initial pXRF survey, 18 objects were chosen for lead isotope analysis. This isotope analysis resolved a group of 9 brass artefacts from the Roman iron age amongst a ́melting pot ́of other copper-alloys. The similarity between the isotope ratios found in the Roman world suggest the presence of the same ́melting pot ́ in the north eastern Baltic, possibly created by a large amount of Roman copper-alloy being traded north. No evidence for copper-alloy from Scandinavia or the Ural mountains could be found. The hypothesis from this small study is that the copper-alloy entering Estonia was dominated by metal from southern Europe from the late pre-Roman Iron Age and the Roman period.
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Archaeologia Baltica, 2022
Abstract
This study is dedicated to the head-shield brooches from the tarand cemetery area in Es... more Abstract
This study is dedicated to the head-shield brooches from the tarand cemetery area in Estonia, Latvia and lands west of the Izhora plateau. Its aim is to better understand their development through a combined typological, compositional and chronological analysis and explore their social role in the identity politics of the people wearing them. The compositional evaluation was supported with portable X-ray florescence spectrometry (pXRF), to improve our understanding of the metal choices made by their ancient craftsmen.
The typological study suggests that one of the earliest brooches found in the tarand cemetery area belong to the Almgren100 group. Most of which have a semi-circular shield on the front part of the bow, a multiple-piece spring and a triangular foot. The evidence suggests that they emerged in the 2nd century. Subsequently a local form developed in the north-eastern part of tarand cemetery area, towards the end of the century. This local type has a squared off foot, a multiple-piece spring construction and a short semi-circular head-shield. Many were also tinned, meaning their colour was deliberately changed to a shiny silvery-white. During the 3rd century a further group of locally produced head-shield brooches also emerged. They have a hinged mechanism, a knob and a decorative rib in the end of the foot.
These local brooches likely represented a regional style and aesthetic. They could have played a visual role in connecting the wearer to their affiliated group. Or played a part in a differing social role within the society from which they came.
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Estonian Journal of Archaeology, 2022
This paper presents a new qualitative method for the use of pXRF in archaeological research. A bu... more This paper presents a new qualitative method for the use of pXRF in archaeological research. A bulk, multi-elemental approach applies a non-destructive survey technique to the copper-alloy objects recovered in a Roman period tarand cemetery, in north east Estonia. The aim is to explore the chronological development of the cemetery by comparing the objects and their find locations against historically known changes in alloy composition. Then a more focused destructive analysis is undertaken from a selected group of bracelets commonly found in these northerly cemeteries, but also in greater numbers in the Roman provinces.
The results revealed strong correlations between alloy classification and find location. Furthermore, the quantitative (destructive) analysis of a single bracelet has added to the debate about the nature of long-distance contact between the people of north eastern Estonia, the southern Baltic and the distant Roman frontier. It also raises the possibility that these people were placing Roman produced items into their cemeteries in the decades before the traditionally accepted start of the Roman Iron Age. This suggests that a new assessment for its beginning is called for, one that aligns the earliest imported Roman items to the first half of the 1st century AD.
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Zeeuws Erfgoed, 2020
In 2014 richtte een team van archeologische specialisten zich op het onderzoek van een groep van ... more In 2014 richtte een team van archeologische specialisten zich op het onderzoek van een groep van negentig beslagstukken uit de Vikingperiode, vervaardigd van een koperlegering en gevonden op Walcheren. Het merendeel ervan was afkomstig van het strand tussen Domburg en Oostkapelle. Door het gebruik van een combinatie van oude en nieuwe onderzoeksmethoden zijn er verrassende resultaten geboekt.
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Germania, Aug 27, 2019
Eye brooches are the earliest form of brooch to enter the Eastern Baltic region during the Roman ... more Eye brooches are the earliest form of brooch to enter the Eastern Baltic region during the Roman Iron Age. Its form bears strong similarities to those found much further south in Germania and the northern Roman provinces, leading to the conclusion that they originally arrived as imports, perhaps by sea from an as yet undiscovered production centre in an area formerly known as East Prussia. In contrast, the eye brooches found within the Germanic areas, north of the Roman frontier, are thought to have originated as export goods produced within the Roman provinces, some distance from the areas in which they are found. We re-examine therefore the debate surrounding local production versus foreign imports, through an innovative use of pXRF. The study compares compositional data of both imported and locally produced brooches against the current typological framework with the aim to better understand how, where and when they were made.
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Lietuvos archeologija, 2018
Disc brooches of the Roman Iron Age are very diverse in their style and execution throughout all ... more Disc brooches of the Roman Iron Age are very diverse in their style and execution throughout all of Europe. The diversity in the tarand cemetery areas of modern day Estonia and North Latvia is also very high, with many unique traits being observable as well as some multidirectional influences. Regionality in the tarand cemetery areas is therefore studied through these diverse brooches, to see whether some motifs, typological groups or alloys were more preferred in some areas than in others. A typological and compositional approach is adopted to achieve this. Based on the distribution of certain groups of disc brooches, their surface treatment and direction of influences, two areas come to the fore – Northeast Estonia and Southeast Estonia together with North Latvia. The study shows how people of the tarand cemetery areas adopted foreign techniques and stylistic features in accordance with local preferences and used them in their local culture.
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Archaeometry , 2019
we argue that portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (pXRF) is a suitable elemental measurement... more we argue that portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (pXRF) is a suitable elemental measurement technique to study the production of copper-alloy artefacts. But - rather than try to imitate the accuracy and precision of laboratory techniques - it is more beneficial to deploy it in a survey role, one that attempts to model chronological and geographical changes within large quantities of artefacts.
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Tutulus: Eesti arheoloogia aastakiri, 2017
Eye brooches are the earliest brooches found from Estonia, dating to the beginning of the Roman I... more Eye brooches are the earliest brooches found from Estonia, dating to the beginning of the Roman Iron Age (50–450 AD). To trace their origin, we studied their alloy composition with XRF. The results show that the earliest specimens originate from Germania or Roman provinces. People in Estonia considered the brooches so important that the craftsmen copied them and developed local versions and evolved them over time. The visual side and perhaps their exotic origin suited the local culture and remained in the lives of people of Estonia for centuries.
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Medieval Archaeology, 2018
EARLY MEDIEVAL PINS are found in large quantities on both sides of the North Sea and the English ... more EARLY MEDIEVAL PINS are found in large quantities on both sides of the North Sea and the English Channel, and as a result are one of the few artefact types that can facilitate the exploration of cross-cultural contacts in terms of style, material and manufacture. This paper presents the results of the analyses of two contemporary groups of copper-alloy pins dating from the 7th to the 11th centuries using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. One group of pins considered here was recovered from an excavated Anglo-Saxon settlement at Sedgeford (Norfolk), while the other derives from a coastal settlement at Domburg (Zeeland, the Netherlands). We argue here, on the basis of our results, that while pin production may have been focused around major mercantile, royal or ecclesiastical centres, it was also localised in terms of materials and production methods, suggesting potentially different trajectories in each region for the development and control of specialist production.
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Journal Roman Archaeology, 2016
We present here a compositional study of a large number of copper-alloy brooches using Handheld X... more We present here a compositional study of a large number of copper-alloy brooches using Handheld X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (HHpXRF). The brooches, which come from the area of Nijmegen, date from the Late Iron Age until the 2nd c. A.D. Our aim is to explore the ways in which artefact production was organized both in the context of Roman centres and in the countryside.
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Journal The Medieval Low Countries, 2018
This article presents a combined compositional and typological analysis for a group of ninety Vik... more This article presents a combined compositional and typological analysis for a group of ninety Viking-Age mounts found in Walcheren, the Netherlands.This new analysis is supported by data gathered using Handheld X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (HHpXRF). The new data sheds light not only on the character of the technology available at the time, but also allows us to formulate a new hypothesis of their purpose and cultural associations within a Viking-Age, North Sea world. Similar mounts have been found in other coastal areas of the southern North Sea, but not in great numbers, suggesting that production was more likely to have been local. Their compo- sitional and typological characteristics matched those of certain forms of Viking-Age equestrian gear, but the relatively small size of these mounts allowed for the possibility that these items were more likely used on personal equipment. Although a question over the exact dating remains, the styles suggest that close ties existed between the Frisian, Viking, and Anglo-Scandinavian worlds between the ninth and eleventh centuries. This expression of identity should be considered in a context of continued intensive relations between Frisians, Vikings, and Anglo-Saxons.
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Medieval & Modern Matters, 2016
Aspects of the production and exchange of Carolingian/Ottonian disc brooches are examined through... more Aspects of the production and exchange of Carolingian/Ottonian disc brooches are examined through an analysis of 281 brooches selected from collections across The Netherlands. The composition of the brooches was measured with a p-XRF device and the results showed a sharp deviation from the alloys seen in brooches from earlier periods. The results suggest that production was more likely organised on a regional or even super regional scale. An analysis of production models for royal estates, emporia and the great abbeys found the latter to be the most likely source of these objects. Furthermore, the Christian nature of these brooches, if produced within monastic centres, may have imbued them with religious meaning, allow for a fresh interpretation of their methods of exchange.
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Very little is known as yet about metalworking and brooch productionin Frisia or their role in th... more Very little is known as yet about metalworking and brooch productionin Frisia or their role in the early medieval economy of North West Europe. The raw materials needed for brooch production in bronze (melting copper
with tin) and brass (copper with zinc) should have been readily accessible to metalworkers in the region. For example the two main tin producing areas in medieval Europe were Cornwall in England and the Erzgebirge mountains on the border of southern Germany.4 One source therefore would have been through North Sea trade routes and the other through the hinterland perhaps via the Rhine. The closest source of zinc (for casting in brass) in the medieval period would have been within the Frankish hinterland at la Calamine in Belgium.
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Books by Marcus A Roxburgh
Private, 2019
This thesis presents an investigation into how geopolitical change and religious control are refl... more This thesis presents an investigation into how geopolitical change and religious control are reflected in the composition of copper-alloy costume artefacts, recovered from Roman and early medieval contexts. It engages with the challenging topic of portable X-ray Florescence Spectrometry use in archaeology, especially as applied to corroded copper-alloy artefacts. The relevance is twofold. Firstly it helps us better understand the globalising effects of the Roman Empire on distant cultures and the emergence of the western economy after the end of antiquity. This is investigated by detecting changes in craft production, considered a proxy for understanding changes in past economies and societies. Secondly it advances a methodology for the study of copper-alloy objects. Subsequently the composition of Roman brooches from Germania Inferior, suggested a strong link between brass and Roman military production. This connection was also seen in other parts of the Roman world, suggesting a degree of centralisation or control. The earliest roman objects found in the Baltic States, far north of the Limes frontier, are also in this 'Roman' alloy. These objects had a lasting impact on the peoples of this region. They adopted and adapted them stylistically to suit their local preferences for centuries after they first appeared.
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Prehistorische, Romeinse en middeleeuwse fibulae uit de Lage Landen., 2017
When large numbers of objects of a uniform typology are present in the archaeological record and ... more When large numbers of objects of a uniform typology are present in the archaeological record and can be analysed using appropriate XRF techniques, a major research opportunity presents itself. One avenue of investigation addresses the following question; what kind of organisation was required to produce and distribute large quantities of these items, to an agreed standard, across a large geographic area? For example, were objects produced in a single, regional or even super regional production centre? Then distributed widely along familiar trade routes? Or were they made in many dispersed local workshops that copied and distributed new designs as required, to satisfy local demand? A regularly associated question is whether raw materials involved in production were sourced from widely dispersed locations, or from single supply centres, such as the long established mining areas of Cornwall in England or the Ardennes in Belgium.
A number of objectives were achieved by our research. Firstly, the metal composition of pre-conquest Iron Age brooches was established in order to provide a comparison for Roman period production. Secondly, it was established that alloys used for Roman military types, like the Aucissa series, were considerably different from late Iron Age alloys, and that by comparison to other studies abroad can be considered homogeneous over large areas. This composition therefore can be considered to be a real ‘Roman’ alloy. Then thirdly, sufficient numbers of brooches were measured and of enough different types so that differences in alloy ratios could be compared. Having achieved the above, it was possible to discuss the level of compositional control for the different brooch types. The results gathered from across the Netherlands could be compared meaningfully to published results from other regions, allowing concepts to be formed regarding the organisation of production and also the distribution of finished items.
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The result of a nine year study of brooch collections in Dutch museums, excavation reports and ... more The result of a nine year study of brooch collections in Dutch museums, excavation reports and private collections of detectorists (a dataset of more than 20,000 brooches), is now in print. A list of all forms and types of brooches found in the Netherlands and neighboring areas (northern Belgium and parts of Germany) are presented, from prehistoric to medieval times. The first part of this book is descriptive: 90 types and hundreds of sub-types and variants with description, drawings, date and possibly the origin and dissemination are presented. The second part of this study includes an innovative analysis of the archaeological finds. Brooch types are followed by production and distribution to deposition and recycling. The metal composition of many types of fibulae is measured, on the basis of which new insights have been obtained in production. Also complete collections of brooches, for example Roman army camps are compared with those of urban and rural sites, and grave finds with settlement material. The large quantities of brooches in Northwestern Europe are compared to the scarce finds that are known from the Mediterranean area.
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Edited Books by Marcus A Roxburgh
This book is a celebration of the work of prof. Dr. Frans Theuws and was published in conjunction... more This book is a celebration of the work of prof. Dr. Frans Theuws and was published in conjunction with the symposium held at the University of Leiden, June 29, 2018. It comprises of 38 archaeological papers from over 50 authors. They range from the Roman period, early medieval, early medieval in the near east, late medieval and modern archaeology. A great many reflect on the life and past achievements of Prof. Theuws.
Available at: SPA uitgevers https://spa-uitgevers.securearea.eu/
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Papers by Marcus A Roxburgh
This study is dedicated to the head-shield brooches from the tarand cemetery area in Estonia, Latvia and lands west of the Izhora plateau. Its aim is to better understand their development through a combined typological, compositional and chronological analysis and explore their social role in the identity politics of the people wearing them. The compositional evaluation was supported with portable X-ray florescence spectrometry (pXRF), to improve our understanding of the metal choices made by their ancient craftsmen.
The typological study suggests that one of the earliest brooches found in the tarand cemetery area belong to the Almgren100 group. Most of which have a semi-circular shield on the front part of the bow, a multiple-piece spring and a triangular foot. The evidence suggests that they emerged in the 2nd century. Subsequently a local form developed in the north-eastern part of tarand cemetery area, towards the end of the century. This local type has a squared off foot, a multiple-piece spring construction and a short semi-circular head-shield. Many were also tinned, meaning their colour was deliberately changed to a shiny silvery-white. During the 3rd century a further group of locally produced head-shield brooches also emerged. They have a hinged mechanism, a knob and a decorative rib in the end of the foot.
These local brooches likely represented a regional style and aesthetic. They could have played a visual role in connecting the wearer to their affiliated group. Or played a part in a differing social role within the society from which they came.
The results revealed strong correlations between alloy classification and find location. Furthermore, the quantitative (destructive) analysis of a single bracelet has added to the debate about the nature of long-distance contact between the people of north eastern Estonia, the southern Baltic and the distant Roman frontier. It also raises the possibility that these people were placing Roman produced items into their cemeteries in the decades before the traditionally accepted start of the Roman Iron Age. This suggests that a new assessment for its beginning is called for, one that aligns the earliest imported Roman items to the first half of the 1st century AD.
with tin) and brass (copper with zinc) should have been readily accessible to metalworkers in the region. For example the two main tin producing areas in medieval Europe were Cornwall in England and the Erzgebirge mountains on the border of southern Germany.4 One source therefore would have been through North Sea trade routes and the other through the hinterland perhaps via the Rhine. The closest source of zinc (for casting in brass) in the medieval period would have been within the Frankish hinterland at la Calamine in Belgium.
Books by Marcus A Roxburgh
A number of objectives were achieved by our research. Firstly, the metal composition of pre-conquest Iron Age brooches was established in order to provide a comparison for Roman period production. Secondly, it was established that alloys used for Roman military types, like the Aucissa series, were considerably different from late Iron Age alloys, and that by comparison to other studies abroad can be considered homogeneous over large areas. This composition therefore can be considered to be a real ‘Roman’ alloy. Then thirdly, sufficient numbers of brooches were measured and of enough different types so that differences in alloy ratios could be compared. Having achieved the above, it was possible to discuss the level of compositional control for the different brooch types. The results gathered from across the Netherlands could be compared meaningfully to published results from other regions, allowing concepts to be formed regarding the organisation of production and also the distribution of finished items.
Edited Books by Marcus A Roxburgh
Available at: SPA uitgevers https://spa-uitgevers.securearea.eu/
This study is dedicated to the head-shield brooches from the tarand cemetery area in Estonia, Latvia and lands west of the Izhora plateau. Its aim is to better understand their development through a combined typological, compositional and chronological analysis and explore their social role in the identity politics of the people wearing them. The compositional evaluation was supported with portable X-ray florescence spectrometry (pXRF), to improve our understanding of the metal choices made by their ancient craftsmen.
The typological study suggests that one of the earliest brooches found in the tarand cemetery area belong to the Almgren100 group. Most of which have a semi-circular shield on the front part of the bow, a multiple-piece spring and a triangular foot. The evidence suggests that they emerged in the 2nd century. Subsequently a local form developed in the north-eastern part of tarand cemetery area, towards the end of the century. This local type has a squared off foot, a multiple-piece spring construction and a short semi-circular head-shield. Many were also tinned, meaning their colour was deliberately changed to a shiny silvery-white. During the 3rd century a further group of locally produced head-shield brooches also emerged. They have a hinged mechanism, a knob and a decorative rib in the end of the foot.
These local brooches likely represented a regional style and aesthetic. They could have played a visual role in connecting the wearer to their affiliated group. Or played a part in a differing social role within the society from which they came.
The results revealed strong correlations between alloy classification and find location. Furthermore, the quantitative (destructive) analysis of a single bracelet has added to the debate about the nature of long-distance contact between the people of north eastern Estonia, the southern Baltic and the distant Roman frontier. It also raises the possibility that these people were placing Roman produced items into their cemeteries in the decades before the traditionally accepted start of the Roman Iron Age. This suggests that a new assessment for its beginning is called for, one that aligns the earliest imported Roman items to the first half of the 1st century AD.
with tin) and brass (copper with zinc) should have been readily accessible to metalworkers in the region. For example the two main tin producing areas in medieval Europe were Cornwall in England and the Erzgebirge mountains on the border of southern Germany.4 One source therefore would have been through North Sea trade routes and the other through the hinterland perhaps via the Rhine. The closest source of zinc (for casting in brass) in the medieval period would have been within the Frankish hinterland at la Calamine in Belgium.
A number of objectives were achieved by our research. Firstly, the metal composition of pre-conquest Iron Age brooches was established in order to provide a comparison for Roman period production. Secondly, it was established that alloys used for Roman military types, like the Aucissa series, were considerably different from late Iron Age alloys, and that by comparison to other studies abroad can be considered homogeneous over large areas. This composition therefore can be considered to be a real ‘Roman’ alloy. Then thirdly, sufficient numbers of brooches were measured and of enough different types so that differences in alloy ratios could be compared. Having achieved the above, it was possible to discuss the level of compositional control for the different brooch types. The results gathered from across the Netherlands could be compared meaningfully to published results from other regions, allowing concepts to be formed regarding the organisation of production and also the distribution of finished items.
Available at: SPA uitgevers https://spa-uitgevers.securearea.eu/