Journal Articles by Joshua Emmitt
The Holocene, 2024
Identifying continuity and discontinuity in Holocene hunter-gatherer burial sites is often challe... more Identifying continuity and discontinuity in Holocene hunter-gatherer burial sites is often challenging. Roonka, is the largest excavated burial area in Australia. Despite preliminary analysis in the 1970-1980s chronology was challenging given the complex record of dune formation, intrusive burials, erosion and exposure. As part of collaboration with the River Murray and Mallee Aboriginal Corporation, we have re-analysed the legacy data. We have combined three tools: 3D reconstruction and spatial analysis of the site; Bayesian analysis of the radiocarbon sequence, and archaeothanatology to gain a deeper understanding of the relationships between burials and dune formation and hence the connection between changes in burial practices and environmental change. Analysis confirms that the site was used as a burial place over the last 8000 years, but the burial record has been significantly impacted by erosion. The most likely cause of erosion is ENSO-driven climatic change. Other changes that are not coincident with climatic change but alter the intensity of site use were identified by tracing the number of burials over time. Analysis indicates a shift from occasional and specialised use to increasing use in the mid to Late-Holocene. We argue that burial practices became more diverse and demographically inclusive over time. In summary, our analysis clearly demonstrates that it was not a place for everybody all the time. The selection of 'who' and 'when' demonstrates access to and maintenance of a broader set of persistent burial places in the Murray Valley region during the Holocene.
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PLoS ONE, 2022
Stone artifacts are often the most abundant class of objects found in archaeological sites but th... more Stone artifacts are often the most abundant class of objects found in archaeological sites but their consistent identification is limited by the number of experienced analysts available. We report a machine learning based technology for stone artifact identification as part of a solution to the lack of such experts directed at distinguishing worked stone objects from naturally occurring lithic clasts. Three case study locations from Egypt, Australia, and New Zealand provide a data set of 6769 2D images, 3868 flaked artifact and 2901 rock images used to train and test a machine learning model based on an openly available PyTorch implementation of Faster R-CNN ResNet 50. Results indicate 100% agreement between the model and original human derived classifications, a better performance than the results achieved independently by two human analysts who reassessed the 2D images available to the machine learning model. Machine learning neural networks provide the potential to consistently assess the composition of large archaeological assemblages composed of objects modified in a variety of ways.
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Advances in Archaeological Practice, 2022
YouTube is now a common public face for archaeology and history. Professionals and amateurs alike... more YouTube is now a common public face for archaeology and history. Professionals and amateurs alike make videos, whether it be for monetary gain, outreach, or a combination of the two. The YouTube channel Ghost Town Living is no exception. It features the town's current owner, Brent Underwood, modifying the "abandoned" mining town of Cerro Gordo into a tourist destination. During this process, as is documented in his videos, it becomes clear that Underwood is not only conserving the town but also transforming it into an amalgam of California's mining history. In doing so and by presenting it on YouTube, Underwood is sharing the heritage of Cerro Gordo with the public. Although Underwood is not an archaeologist and is not pretending to be one, some of the methods employed are far from "best practice." Despite this, I argue that perhaps the overall goals and processes of Underwood should be encouraged to some degree, and in this case, that they do more good than harm for the "preservation" of Cerro Gordo.
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Archaeology in Oceania, 2022
Archaeological settlement models involve the identification of functional site types like base ca... more Archaeological settlement models involve the identification of functional site types like base camps and extraction sites based, in part, on differences in the range and frequency of artefact types and fauna. Using reports describing such assemblages from Aotearoa (New Zealand) archaeological sites dating to the first 300 years after initial colonisation, differences in assemblage composition are assessed against total assemblage size. Aotearoa provides a particularly useful test case for the archaeological identification of site types since human colonisation was relatively late in world human history meaning that assemblage accumulation should show functional site types like those identified in the ethnographic record. To test this, SHE (Richness, Heterogeneity, Evenness) diversity analysis is used to examine 18 artefact and ten faunal assemblages dated pre-1500 CE from a variety of Aotearoa locations. Results suggest artefact and faunal diversity measures perform poorly when employed to differentiate functional site types, suggesting that the null hypothesis of assemblage size dependency cannot be rejected. This result allows for comment on the appropriateness of ethnographically derived functional site types for the study of the archaeological record even when this record accumulated over short time periods.
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Remote Sensing, 2021
Collection of 3D data in archaeology is a long-standing practice. Traditionally, the focus of the... more Collection of 3D data in archaeology is a long-standing practice. Traditionally, the focus of these data has been visualization as opposed to analysis. Three-dimensional data are often recorded during archaeological excavations, with the provenience of deposits, features, and artefacts documented by a variety of methods. Simple analysis of 3D data includes calculating the volumes of bound entities, such as deposits and features, and determining the spatial relationships of artifacts within these. The construction of these volumes presents challenges that originate in computeraided design (CAD) but have implications for how data are used in archaeological analysis. We evaluate 3D construction processes using data from Waitetoke, Ahuahu Great Mercury Island, Aotearoa, New Zealand. Point clouds created with data collected by total station, photogrammetry, and terrestrial LiDAR using simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) are compared, as well as different methods for generating surface area and volumes with triangulated meshes and convex hulls. The differences between methods are evaluated and assessed in relation to analyzing artifact densities within deposits. While each method of 3D data acquisition and modeling has advantages in terms of accuracy and precision, other factors such as data collection and processing times must be considered when deciding on the most suitable.
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Applied Sciences, 2021
The presentation of X-ray fluorescence data (XRF) assays is commonly restricted to tables or grap... more The presentation of X-ray fluorescence data (XRF) assays is commonly restricted to tables or graphical representations. While the latter may sometimes be in a 3D format, they have yet to incorporate the actual objects they are from. The presentation of multiple XRF assays on a 3D model allows for more accessible presentation of data, particularly for composite objects, and aids in their interpretation. We present a method to display and interpolate assay data on 3D models using the PyVista Python package. This creates a texture of the object that displays the relative differences in elemental composition. A crested helmet from Tomb 1036 from the Casale del Fosso necropolis, Veii, Italy, is used to exemplify this method. The results of the analysis are presented and show variation in composition across the helmet, which also corresponds with macroscopic and decorrelation stretching analyses.
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Minerals, 2021
Despite the importance of weapons and armour as part of material culture in the Mediterranean dur... more Despite the importance of weapons and armour as part of material culture in the Mediterranean during the first millennium BCE, such objects have generally not been studied beyond stylistic analyses. Bronze was extensively used in the construction of these materials; however, its characterisation is complicated due to patination and the different manufacturing techniques used. We used portable XRF (pXRF) to non-destructively characterise bronze material in a way that mitigates the distorting effects of patina. Analysis was conducted on 23 pieces of pre-Roman Italian bronze armour. Assays were taken using two different techniques; ‘single point’ assays and ‘cluster’ assays. There is variability visible across assays both on and between items, grouped both geographically and chronologically. We highlight significant trends visible in the results over time and different object types and discuss the utility of pXRF on ancient bronze with recommendations for best practice.
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Geosciences, 2021
Elinor Wight Gardner (1892–1981) was the first female geologist who worked and published as a geo... more Elinor Wight Gardner (1892–1981) was the first female geologist who worked and published as a geoarcheologist. During her career, she worked in arid lands of North Africa, Mediterranean and the Near East, and was regarded as a pioneering geoscientist who made important contributions in multiple fields, including archeology, geomorphology, paleontology and Quaternary science. Despite her ground-breaking work at many archeological sites, Gardner’s impact has been largely unrecognized. Few details are known about her personal life; she was a private and reserved person who left limited first-hand accounts of her opinions and motivations. Gardner worked with charismatic figures such as her life-long friend and primary collaborator, the archeologist Gertrude Caton Thompson (1888–1985). This biography synthesizes primary sources and draws insights about Gardner’s character from her bibliography, publications and notebooks, and mentions by contemporary peers. Much attention has focused on the historical “ancestral passions” of characters working in the fields of geology and archeology, with much emphasis on the ‘founding fathers’ and significantly less recognition of its ‘grandmothers’. We bring attention to the full scope of Gardner’s insightful contributions through analysis of her important collaborative research projects linking archeology and landscape studies during the early twentieth century.
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Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology, 2021
Public, and particularly museum-based, collections provide invaluable opportunities for analysis.... more Public, and particularly museum-based, collections provide invaluable opportunities for analysis. The objects in these collections typically offer relatively complete examples which often become reference points for newly excavated material or analyses. However, aside from issues of provenance and occasionally authenticity, one of the biggest challenges with the analysis of objects in museum collections is, perhaps ironically, their public and collection-based context. Objects on display are often only directly analysed immediately following their initial discovery and are then increasingly restricted for direct analysis (e.g. placed behind glass, displayed in such a way that their removal is difficult, etc.). Although visible to millions, once in a collection the level of analysis possible is often limited and superficial. In this paper we discuss the analysis of three collections of ancient Italian armour now housed in collections, both public and private. We examine some of the ethical considerations when looking at such collections. We also discuss the issues faced when analysing and making digital models of objects, which are used to explore the nature and importance of military equipment in Italy during the first millennium BCE. In addition, we argue that, although famous, many of the pieces held in collections are currently being underutilized in studies of the ancient world. We suggest digitization, even when conducted quickly, can help to unlock more information from previously excavated and analysed items and we highlight the pros and cons of various techniques when working in museum-based contexts.
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Journal of the Polynesian Society, 2020
Large stone trolling lure shanks, greater than 100 mm, are rare and stylistically associated with... more Large stone trolling lure shanks, greater than 100 mm, are rare and stylistically associated with the early period of Māori occupation of Aotearoa New Zealand. The triangular-sectioned shank is distinctive and reminiscent of Polynesian forms. The 2016 find during excavations at T10/360 at Waitapu in Coralie Bay, Ahuahu Great Mercury Island, is the first to be recovered in an archaeological context and only the third large shank attributed to the North Island. Moreover, the shank is the largest complete example known. Radiocarbon dates from contexts in direct association with the shank indicate deposition in the early 15th century, slightly later than other sites such as Wairau Bar and Shag River Mouth where similar shanks have been found. A comparative analysis of the attributes of all 28 shanks in New Zealand museum collections indicates no regional patterns are evident. We review the context in which the Ahuahu shank was found, and its importance, along with the other items recovered, for the interpretation of the Waitapu occupation. We also consider the various reported interpretations of large trolling shanks and, based on Polynesian examples where symbolism and function are discussed, suggest large shanks were not used directly in fishing but had a fishing-related role.
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Queensland Archaeological Research, 2020
Shell mounds are a prominent part of the Cape York Peninsula archaeological record. A short perio... more Shell mounds are a prominent part of the Cape York Peninsula archaeological record. A short period of fieldwork allowed initial assessment of their presence, size, and shape in the Kwokkunum region, Albatross Bay. Shell mounds found in this area vary in size with some examples amongst the largest found in the Cape York Peninsula. Comparison of terrestrial and airborne LiDAR data suggests that shell mounds in areas like Kwokkunum may be identified remotely where mound slopes exceed 5-10°. However, vegetation provides significant challenges for shell mound recording and vegetation on the mounds impacts on their form and preservation. Some of the challenges the largest mounds pose for investigation are reviewed.
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African Archaeological Review, 2020
The twentieth-century excavations of stratified deposits at Kom W, adjacent to Lake Qarun in Fayu... more The twentieth-century excavations of stratified deposits at Kom W, adjacent to Lake Qarun in Fayum north shore, Egypt, led to a variety of interpretations, including the argument for the presence of a Neolithic village. This has influenced the evaluation of early to mid-Holocene occupation in Egypt. Here, we report our recent study of the erosion and deposition processes at the site and its environs in order to reassess these interpretations. Changes in the level of Lake Qarun, evidence for wind erosion, deflation, and deposition, and analyses of artifact density provide a geomorphic context for Kom W and its immediate environs. Radiocarbon determinations from surface hearths that surround the Kom are reported. From the time of its initial formation, Kom W was subject to post-depositional processes, particularly wind erosion, which have affected the site’s current form, and the preservation of features and artifact within the deposits. These changes need to be considered when deriving behavioral interpretations from the archaeological record at Kom W and in the surrounding area. The composition of deflated deposits that surround Kom W suggests that the site is not as unique as once imagined. Remains that might have allowed interpretations of a village occupation have not survived. Instead, deposits are consistent with other early to mid-Holocene occupations interpreted as locations with the use of domesticates but without villages.
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Quaternary International, 2019
Pottery from Kom W, a Neolithic stratified site on the Fayum north shore, includes intact vessels... more Pottery from Kom W, a Neolithic stratified site on the Fayum north shore, includes intact vessels as well as sherd fragments, with fragmented pottery also found on adjacent deflated surfaces. In part because of this material, Kom W was previously interpreted as a village associated with the introduction of domestic plants and animals from southwest Asia. Here pottery recovered from Kom W by Caton Thompson and Gardner during their 1920s excavations is reviewed and compared to pottery from other north shore sites. Vessel size is reconstructed as well as placement of the vessels within Kom W. It is suggested that a number of vessels found at Kom W were used for storage, in line with similar evidence from the Fayum north shore and from northeast Africa more generally.
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2019
Polynesians introduced the tropical crop taro (Colocasia esculenta) to temperate New Zealand afte... more Polynesians introduced the tropical crop taro (Colocasia esculenta) to temperate New Zealand after 1280 CE, but evidence for its cultivation is limited. This contrasts with the abundant evidence for big game hunting, raising longstanding questions of the initial economic and ecological importance of crop production. Here we compare fossil data from wetland sedimentary deposits indicative of taro and leaf vegetable (including Sonchus and Rorippa spp.) cultivation from Ahuahu, a northern New Zealand offshore island, with Raivavae and Rapa, both subtropical islands in French Poly-nesia. Preservation of taro pollen on all islands between 1300 CE and 1550 CE indicates perennial cultivation over multiple growing seasons, as plants rarely flower when frequently harvested. The pollen cooccurs with previously undetected fossil remains of extinct trees, as well as many weeds and commensal invertebrates common to tropical Polynesian gardens. Sedimentary charcoal and charred plant remains show that fire use rapidly reduced forest cover, particularly on Ahuahu. Fires were less frequent by 1500 CE on all islands as forest cover diminished, and short-lived plants increased, indicating higher-intensity production. The northern offshore islands of New Zealand were likely preferred sites for early gardens where taro production was briefly attempted, before being supplanted by sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), a more temperate climate-adapted crop, which was later established in large-scale cultivation systems on the mainland after 1500 CE. Polynesia | crop husbandry | commensal species | fire | extinction
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Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2019
The site of Roonka, South Australia, is the largest excavation of an Aboriginal burial ground in ... more The site of Roonka, South Australia, is the largest excavation of an Aboriginal burial ground in Australia. Excavated in the 1960s-70s, the site has never been fully analysed, partly because of the difficulties of interpreting the complex of burials and other features that had accumulated over at least 7000 years. Here we use a combination of geographical information systems (GIS) and computer aided design (CAD) programs to create a 3D representation of the main excavation, Trench A, at Roonka. Questions regarding the depositional history of the site are examined, with the reconstruction suggesting multiple occupations of the area and potential differentiations in the use of space. The results show the utility of the 3D reconstruction of archaeological sites from paper excavation records and the potential for further interpretations from such data.
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Records of the Auckland Museum, 2018
The Auckland War Memorial Museum houses nearly 2000 Egyptian artefacts dating from the Palaeolith... more The Auckland War Memorial Museum houses nearly 2000 Egyptian artefacts dating from the Palaeolithic to the modern era. Artefacts were obtained from professional institutions and societies including Cairo Museum, the Egypt Exploration Society, and the British Museum in the early 20th century. In addition, a number of objects were obtained from ‘soldier collectors’ during World Wars I and II. The collection is made up of objects from around Egypt, but mainly consists of collections from Amarna, Saqqara, Kharga, Abydos, and Matmar, amongst others. Here the history of the collection is examined.
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Archaeology in Oceania, 2019
The lateness and prominence of Polynesian colonisation of New Zealand make it an ideal place to i... more The lateness and prominence of Polynesian colonisation of New Zealand make it an ideal place to investigate the Anthropocene. We review the Anthropocene as a process and the information needed to understand the consequences of ongoing human–environmental interaction. Elsewhere in the world, a lengthy history complicates the ability to differentiate between the impact of people on the environment and the consequences of engagement. In New Zealand, engagement is not only of short duration but the landmass has a long coastline, with numerous offshore islands. These characteristics provide the scope to study the impact of engagement where it is particularly discernible. We introduce one such island, Ahuahu (Great Mercury Island). Upon arrival, Polynesian colonists found a temperate, geologically complex land covered in forest, populated by a diverse endemic flora and fauna. They knew how to produce crops and exploit wild food sources but had to rapidly adapt to new conditions marginal to production and new technological possibilities. The New Zealand case study allows consideration of whether the processes involved in creating the phenomena described by the Anthropocene are global, directional and inevitable, or are due to local, small‐scale changes related to particular forms of production by Māori, and their capacity to construct environmental change.
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Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2018
If archaeology is to deal with the “big questions” of the human past, large datasets are required... more If archaeology is to deal with the “big questions” of the human past, large datasets are required with common data structures that allow for comparison of data derived from markedly different times and places. However, archaeological comparisons using datasets consisting of lots of detailed records remain elusive. Large archaeological datasets are difficult to integrate because it is often functional and therefore interpretative categories that are recorded rather than the phenomena upon which these interpretations are based. Here, we describe a system that maintains a structural separation between recording a simple set of archaeological phenomena, and the functional, behavioral meanings, and temporal associations of these phenomena. Rather than construct a schema that integrates the description of high-level units and relationships, we consider what minimum data entities that might be needed to integrate datasets in relation to archaeological phenomena while still offering the flexibility needed to allow for regional variability in unit construction. We describe the implementation of this system to field recording on Ahuahu (Great Mercury Island), New Zealand, and consider examples of comparative analyses of material recorded using this system from our projects in Australia and Egypt.
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Antiquity, 2018
From 1924–1928, Gertrude Caton-Thompson and Elinor Gardner surveyed and excavated Epipalaeolithic... more From 1924–1928, Gertrude Caton-Thompson and Elinor Gardner surveyed and excavated Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites across the Fayum north shore in Egypt, publishing a volume entitled The Desert Fayum (1934). Since then, a number of researchers have worked in the Fayum (e.g. Wendorf & Schild 1976; Hassan 1986; Wenke et al . 1988; Kozłowski & Ginter 1989), and most recently the UCLA/RUG/UOA Fayum Project. The long history of research in the area means that the Fayum is a testament to changing archaeological approaches, particularly regarding the Neolithic. Caton-Thompson and Gardner's study is recognised as one of the most progressive works on Egyptian prehistory, and their research provided the foundation for many subsequent studies in the region (e.g. Wendrich & Cappers 2005; Holdaway et al . 2010, 2016; Shirai 2010, 2013, 2015, 2016a; Emmitt 2011; Emmitt et al . 2017; Holdaway & Wendrich 2017). A recent article in Antiquity , however, uses Caton-Thompson and Gardner's preliminary interpretations of their excavations at a stratified deposit in the Fayum, Kom W, to generate a series of speculative statements concerning agricultural origins in the region (Shirai 2016b). The majority of these statements are very similar to conclusions initially made by Caton-Thompson and Gardner in the first half of the twentieth century, and new data and theory needed to reassess earlier conclusions are not considered. Recently published studies concerning the Fayum north shore and adjacent regions provide a different view of the state of research in this region and the Egyptian Neolithic in general. Here we acquaint Antiquity readers with current archaeological approaches to the Fayum north shore Neolithic, with the intent of stimulating academic debate.
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Records of the Auckland Museum, 2017
The 1955-56 excavation of Matakawau, a pa (fortified site) on the western side of Ahuahu Great Me... more The 1955-56 excavation of Matakawau, a pa (fortified site) on the western side of Ahuahu Great Mercury Island, is described. A terrace low on the slope above the natural cliff defences contained five storage pits, dug at different times, and some with multi-period use. The terrace seems to have been used exclusively for storage, with unusual drainage features not reported elsewhere.
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Journal Articles by Joshua Emmitt
ceramics from museum and field contexts from Kom W. Sherds identified in the field can be analysed on site or collected for further analysis in a field laboratory. I make use of the entire
ceramic assemblage, regardless of position or state of preservation. Focusing on vessel form, supplemented by some material analysis, I intend to estimate the number of vessels represented by sherds based on geometric data from complete vessels from the same assemblage. Complete vessels were recovered during Caton-Thompson and Gardner’s investigations in the early twentieth century. Preliminary results of this study suggest some vessels were used for storage on Kom W, which has implications for the nature of occupation of the Fayum during the Neolithic.
While domestic plants and animals were indeed introduced to the Fayum from elsewhere, when a number of aspects of the archaeological record are compared, a settlement system is suggested that has no obvious analogues with the Neolithic in southwest Asia. The results obtained from the Fayum are used to assess other contemporary sites in Egypt.
SESSION 1 - NEW SITES FROM OLD
Session Organizers: David Frankel, La Trobe University and Jenny Webb, La Trobe University and the University of Cyprus
SESSION 2 - PLACE AND BEYOND: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD OF LOCALITY AND EXTERNAL CONTACTS
Session Organizer: Stavros A. Paspalas, Australian Archaeological Institute at Athens
SESSION 3 - MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE RISE AND CONTINUING DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX SOCIETY
Session Organizer: Holly Winter, University of Sydney
SESSION 4 - WOMEN FROM AUSTRALASIA IN MEDITERRANEAN STUDIES: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE (PANEL SPONSORED BY AWAWS)
Session organisers: Candace Richards, The University of Sydney and Amelia Brown, University of Queensland
SESSION 5 - MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS IN AUSTRALIA IN 2021 – RESEARCH, ACCESS AND LEGACY
Session Organizers: Candace Richards, The University of Sydney/The Nicholson Museum, Josh Emmitt, University of Auckland and Rebecca Phillips, University of Auckland
SESSION 6 - FROM FIELD TO TABLE: FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION, PROCESSING, AND CONSUMPTION
Session Conveners: Sophia Aharonovich, Macquarie University and Emlyn Dodd, Macquarie University
SESSION 7 - PAPHOS THEATRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT 25: A QUARTER CENTURY OF AUSTRALIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF HELLENISTIC-ROMAN CYPRUS
Session Organizer: Craig Barker, The University of Sydney
SESSION 8 - PRE- AND EARLY ROMAN ITALY: SETTLEMENT, SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
Session Organizers: Gijs Tol, University of Melbourne and Jeremy Armstrong, University of Auckland
SESSION 9 – SACRED GEOGRAPHIES: LANDSCAPE AND RELIGION IN THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN
Session Organizers: Larissa Tittl, University of Melbourne and Caroline Tully, University of Melbourne