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Reconsidering Gender Bias in Intrahousehold Allocation in India

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  • Laura Zimmermann
Abstract
Finding evidence of gender discrimination among children in the intrahousehold allocation of goods has often proven to be difficult. This article uses data on education expenditures in India to test whether data aggregation, data reliability and the statistical method used help explain this pattern. Results suggest that discrimination against girls is increasing in age and robust to the statistical method and the expenditure measure at the all-India level, although state-level results are more sensitive. I find that data aggregation and statistical method are important factors in detecting gender bias, while data reliability does not seem to play a major role.

Suggested Citation

  • Laura Zimmermann, 2012. "Reconsidering Gender Bias in Intrahousehold Allocation in India," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 48(1), pages 151-163, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:taf:jdevst:v:48:y:2012:i:1:p:151-163
    DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2011.629652
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Rozana Himaz, 2008. "Intrahousehold Allocation of Education Expenditure and Returns to Education: The Case of Sri Lanka," Economics Series Working Papers 393, University of Oxford, Department of Economics.
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    4. Jin-Long Liu & Ching-Chun Hsu, 2004. "Economies of scale, gender discrimination, and cost of children," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 11(6), pages 377-382.
    5. Monazza Aslam & Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, 2008. "Gender and household education expenditure in Pakistan," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 40(20), pages 2573-2591.
    6. Subramanian, S. & Deaton, A., 1990. "Gender Effects In Indian Consumption Patterns," Papers 147, Princeton, Woodrow Wilson School - Development Studies.
    7. Morduch, Jonathan J. & Stern, Hal S., 1997. "Using mixture models to detect sex bias in health outcomes in Bangladesh," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 77(1), pages 259-276, March.
    8. Anne Case & Angus Deaton, 2002. "Consumption, health, gender and poverty," Working Papers 197, Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Research Program in Development Studies..
    9. Gong, X. & van Soest, A.H.O. & Zhang, P., 2000. "Sexual Bias and Household Consumption : A Semiparametic Analysis of Engel curves in Rural China," Other publications TiSEM 896cf4d1-37e5-490b-9e05-4, Tilburg University, School of Economics and Management.
    10. Sonia Bhalotra & Cliff Attfield, 1998. "Intrahousehold resource allocation in rural Pakistan: a semiparametric analysis," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 13(5), pages 463-480.
    11. Deaton, Angus S, 1989. "Looking for Boy-Girl Discrimination in Household Expenditure Data," The World Bank Economic Review, World Bank, vol. 3(1), pages 1-15, January.
    12. Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, 2007. "The progress of school education in India," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Oxford University Press and Oxford Review of Economic Policy Limited, vol. 23(2), pages 168-195, Summer.
    13. Lee, Yiu-fai Daniel, 2008. "Do families spend more on boys than on girls? Empirical evidence from rural China," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 19(1), pages 80-100, March.
    14. Messer, Ellen, 1997. "Intra-household allocation of food and health care: Current findings and understandings--Introduction," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 44(11), pages 1675-1684, June.
    15. John Gibson, 1997. "Testing for boy-girl discrimination with household expenditure data: results for Papua New Guinea," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 4(10), pages 643-646.
    16. Rose, Elaina, 2000. "Gender Bias, Credit Constraints and Time Allocation in Rural India," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 110(465), pages 738-758, July.
    17. Kingdon, Geeta Gandhi, 2005. "Where Has All the Bias Gone? Detecting Gender Bias in the Intrahousehold Allocation of Educational Expenditure," Economic Development and Cultural Change, University of Chicago Press, vol. 53(2), pages 409-451, January.
    18. Subramaniam, Ramesh, 1996. "Gender-Bias in India: The Importance of Household Fixed-Effects," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 48(2), pages 280-299, April.
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    Cited by:

    1. Heath, Rachel & Tan, Xu, 2018. "Worth fighting for: Daughters improve their mothers' autonomy in South Asia," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 255-271.
    2. Jacob, Arun, 2016. "Gender Bias in Educational Attainment in India : The Role of Dowry Payments," MPRA Paper 76338, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    3. Chayanika Mitra, 2024. "Gender Bias in Education Expenditure among Religious and Social Groups: A Case Study for Below Class 10 Level in West Bengal," Arthaniti: Journal of Economic Theory and Practice, , vol. 23(1), pages 101-117, June.
    4. Klaus Prettner & Holger Strulik, 2017. "Gender equity and the escape from poverty," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 69(1), pages 55-74.
    5. Sutirtha Bandyopadhyay & Bipasha Maity, 2021. "Widowhood and Consumption of Private Assignable Goods: The Role of Socio-Economic Status, Rainfall Shocks and Historical Institutions," Working Papers 73, Ashoka University, Department of Economics.
    6. Santiago Acerenza & Néstor Gandelman, 2019. "Household Education Spending in Latin America and the Caribbean: Evidence from Income and Expenditure Surveys," Education Finance and Policy, MIT Press, vol. 14(1), pages 61-87, Winter.
    7. Balakrishnan, Uttara & Tsaneva, Magda, 2021. "Air pollution and academic performance: Evidence from India," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 146(C).
    8. Abel, Martin & Buchman, Daniel, 2020. "The Effect of Manager Gender and Performance Feedback: Experimental Evidence from India," IZA Discussion Papers 13871, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    9. Madhulika Khanna & Milan Thomas, 2024. "Gendered time poverty in three developing countries: An intra‐household analysis of children's time use," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 36(1), pages 316-342, January.
    10. Zimmermann, Laura V, 2012. "Remember When It Rained: The Elusiveness of Gender Discrimination in Indian School Enrollment," IZA Discussion Papers 6833, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    11. Swati Dutta, 2015. "Identifying Single or Multiple Poverty Trap: An Application to Indian Household Panel Data," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 120(1), pages 157-179, January.
    12. Masahiro Hori & Nahoko Mitsuyama & Satoshi Shimizutani, 2016. "New Evidence on Intra-Household Allocation of Resources in Japanese Households," The Japanese Economic Review, Japanese Economic Association, vol. 67(1), pages 77-95, March.
    13. Chen Lin & Yuxin Chen & Jeongwen Chiang & Yufei Zhang, 2021. "Do “Little Emperors” Get More Than “Little Empresses”? Boy-Girl Gender Discrimination as Evidenced by Consumption Behavior of Chinese Households," Marketing Science, INFORMS, vol. 40(6), pages 1123-1146, November.
    14. Momoe Makino, 2018. "Birth Order and Sibling Sex Composition Effects Among Surviving Children in India: Enrollment Status and Test Scores," The Developing Economies, Institute of Developing Economies, vol. 56(3), pages 157-196, September.
    15. Amita Majumder & Chayanika Mitra, 2017. "Gender Bias in Education in West Bengal," Journal of Quantitative Economics, Springer;The Indian Econometric Society (TIES), vol. 15(1), pages 173-196, March.
    16. Chandan Jain, 2019. "Analysing Changes in Gender Difference in Learning in Rural India over Time," Journal of Quantitative Economics, Springer;The Indian Econometric Society (TIES), vol. 17(4), pages 913-935, December.
    17. repec:ags:aaea22:335745 is not listed on IDEAS
    18. Mancini, Giulia, 2020. "Breadwinner, bread maker. Gender division of labor and intrahousehold inequality in 1930s rural Italy," MPRA Paper 102142, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    19. repec:cte:wsrepe:28146 is not listed on IDEAS

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    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • I24 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Education and Inequality
    • I25 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Education and Economic Development
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • O15 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Economic Development: Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration

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