Eficiencia y Equidad

EFICIENCIA Y EQUIDAD
Métodos de asignación de recursos
 Precio de mercado
 Mando
 Regla de la mayoría ( votación)
 Concurso
 Atender al primero en llegar
 Lotería
 Características personales
 Fuerza
© 2016 Pearson Education

Precio de mercado
Cuando es el precio de mercado el que asigna un recurso
escaso, las personas que están dispuestas y tienen la
capacidad de pagar dicho precio son quienes obtienen el
recurso.

Mando
Un Sistema de mando asigna asigna recursos por medio
de las órdenes ( instrucciones, mandos) que da alguien
con autoridad.
Por ejemplo, si Usted tiene un empleo, es muy probable
que alguien le diga lo que debe hacer. Su tiempo de
trabajo es asignado a tareas específicas por medio de una
orden.
Un Sistema de mando funciona bien en organizaciones en
las cuales las líneas de autoridad y responsabilidad son
claras y se facilita supervisar las actividades que se llevan
a cabo.
Regla de la mayoría ( votación)
La regla de la mayoría asigna los recursos según como lo
decida una mayoría de votantes.
Las sociedades usan la regla de la mayoría para elegir
gobiernos representativos que tomen las decisions más
importantes.
Por ejemplo, con esta regla se decide las tasas fiscales con
que se asignan los recursos escasos entre el uso público y
el privado.
La regla de la mayoría funciona bien cuando las decisions
que se toman afectan a muchas personas y se vuelve
necesario supeditar los intereses personales al uso más
eficaz de los recursos.
Concurso
Un concurso asigna los recursos a un ganador ( o grupo
de ganadores). Es el método más usado en los eventos
deportivos.
Cuando un gerente ofrece a todos en la empresa la
oportunidad de ganar un premio, los empleados se sienten
motivados a trabajar con empeño para tratar de ser los
ganadores. Sólo pocas personas consiguen el premio,
pero muchas trabajan con más empeño durante el proceso
de tratar de ganarlo.
De este modo, la producción total de los trabajadores
resulta mucho mayor de los que sería sin el concurso.

Atender al primero en llegar

Este método asigna los recursos a los que son los
primeros en la fila.
El método atender al primero en llegar funciona mejor
cuando los recursos escasos satisfacen en secuencia sólo
a un usuario a la vez.
Gracias a que se atiende al usuario que llega primero,
este método minimiza el tiempo dedicado a esperar a que
el recurso se libere.

Loteria
Las loterías asignan los recursos a los que escogen el
número ganador, toman las mejores cartas o tienen suerte
en algún otro sistema de juego de azar.
Por ejemplo, en algunos aeropuertos los espacios de
aterrizaje se asignan a las líneas aéreas mediante
sistemas de lotería.
Las loterías funcionan mejor cuando no existe una manera
eficaz de distinguir los usuarios potenciales de un recurso
que es escaso.

Características personales
Cuando los recursos se asignan con base en las
características personales, quienes los obtienen son sólo
aquellos que poseen las características “adecuadas”.
No obstante, este método también se utiliza en formas
inaceptables, como es asignar los mejores empleos a
trabajadores anglosajones de sexo masculino,
discriminando con ello a las minorías y a las mujeres.

Fuerza
La fuerza desempeña un papel fundamental en la
asignación de recursos escasos, tanto para bien como
para mal.
Caso negativo: Por ejemplo, la Guerra esto es, el uso de la
fuerza militar de un país contra otro. El robo, es decir,
tomar la propiedad de otros sin su consentimiento.
Caso positivo: la fuerza ofrece al Estado un método eficaz
para transferir la riqueza de ricos a pobres y otorga el
marco legal dentro del cual tiene lugar el intercambio en
los mercados.

Beneficio, Costo y excedente
Demanda, disposición a pagar y valor

El valor es lo que obtenemos, precio es lo que pagamos.
El valor de una unidad adicional de un bien o servicio es
su beneficio marginal.
Medimos este beneficio marginal mediante el precio
máximo que se está dispuesto a pagar.
La disposición a pagar es lo que determina la demanda.
Una curva de demanda es una curva de beneficio
marginal.

Elisa y Nicolás son los únicos compradores en el Mercado de
pizza. At $1 a slice, the quantity demanded by Lisa is 30
slices and by Nick is 10 slices.
The quantity demanded by all buyers is 40 slices.

Demanda individual y demanda del mercado

La relación entre el precio de un bien y la cantidad
demandada de una persona se denomina demanda
individual.
La relación entre el precio de un bien y la cantidad
demandada por todos los compradores en el Mercado se
denomina demanda del mercado.
Figure 5.1 on the next slide shows the connection between
individual demand and market demand.

La curva de demanda del mercado es la suma horizontal de las curvas de demanda individual,
y se forma al sumar las cantidades demandadas por todos los individuos a cada precio.

Excedente del consumidor
Es un beneficio adicional que se recibe de un bien, por encima de la
cantidad que se paga por él. No siempre tenemos que pagar tanto
como estamos dispuestos a hacerlo. A veces obtenemos gangas.
Cuando la gente compra algo por menos de lo que está dispuesta a
pagar, obtiene un excedente del consumidor.
Podemos calcular el excedente del consumidor restando el precio del
bien a su beneficio (o valor) marginal y sumando el excedente
producido por cada unidad de la cantidad total comprada.
Esta suma es el área del triángulo verde, ubicada debajo de la curva
de demanda y arriba de la línea del precio de mercado.
Figure 5.2 on the next slide shows the consumer surplus from pizza
when the market price is $1 a slice.

La figura 5.2(a) muestra el excedente del consumidor obtenido por Elisa a partir de la compra de
pizzas, cuando el precio es de $1 por rebanada. A ese precio Elisa compra 30 rebanadas al mes, ya
que la rebanada número 30 vale exactamente $1 para ella. Pero Elisa estaría dispuesta a pagar $2
por la rebanada número 10, así que su beneficio marginal por esta rebanada es de $1 más de lo que
paga por ella; en otras palabras, Elisa recibe un excedente de $1 por la décima rebanada de pizza.

At $1 a slice, Lisa buys 30 slices.
So her consumer surplus is the area of the green triangle.

At $1 a slice, Nick buys 10 slices.
So his consumer surplus is the area of the green triangle.

At $1 a slice, the consumer surplus for the economy is
green area under the market demand curve above the
market price, summed over the 40 slices bought.

At $1 a slice, Lisa spends $30, Nick spends $10, and together
they spend $40 on pizza.
The consumer surplus is the value from pizza in excess of the
expenditure on it.

Oferta y Costo marginal

La conexión entre la oferta y el costo es muy similar a la
que existe entre los conceptos de demanda y beneficio.
Las empresas participan en negocios para obtener una
utilidad.
Para conseguirlo, deben vender su producción a un precio
que supere el costo de fabricación.
¿ cuál es la relación entre el costo y el precio?.

Oferta, Costo y precio mínimo de oferta

Cost is what the producer gives up, price is what the
producer receives.
The cost of one more unit of a good or service is its
marginal cost.
Marginal cost is the minimum price that a firm is willing to
accept.
But the minimum supply-price determines supply.
A supply curve is a marginal cost curve.

Maria and Max are the only producers of pizza.
At $15 a pizza, the quantity supplied by Maria is 100
pizzas.

Maria and Max are the only producers of pizza.
At $15 a pizza, the quantity supplied by Max is 50 pizzas.

At $15 a pizza, the quantity supplied by Maria is 100 pizzas
and by Max is 50 pizzas.
The quantity supplied by all producers is 150 pizzas.

The market supply curve is the horizontal sum of the
individual supply curves.

Individual Supply and Market Supply

The relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity supplied by one producer is called individual
supply.
The relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity supplied by all producers in the market is called
market supply.
Figure 5.3 on the next slide shows the connection between
individual supply and market supply.

Producer Surplus
Producer surplus is the excess of the amount received from
the sale of a good over the cost of producing it.
We calculate it as the price received for a good minus the
minimum-supply price (marginal cost), summed over the
quantity sold.
On a graph, producer surplus is shown by the area below the
market price and above the supply curve, summed over the
quantity sold.
Figure 5.4 on the next slide shows the producer surplus from
pizza when the market price is $15 a pizza.

The market price of a pizza is $15 and Maria is willing to
produce the 50th pizza for $10.
Maria’s surplus from the 50th pizza is the price minus the
marginal cost, which is $5.

At $15 a pizza, Maria sells 100 pizzas.
So her producer surplus is the area of the blue triangle.

At $15 a pizza, Max sells 50 pizzas.
So his producer surplus is the area of the blue triangle.

At $15 a pizza, the producer surplus for the economy is
the area under the market price above the market supply
curve, summed over the 150 pizzas sold.

The red areas show the cost of producing the pizzas sold.
The producer surplus is the value of the pizza sold in
excess of the cost of producing it.

¿ Es eficiente el Mercado competitivo?
Efficiency of
Competitive Equilibrium
Figure 5.5 shows that a
competitive market
creates an efficient
allocation of resources at
equilibrium.
In equilibrium, the quantity
demanded equals the
quantity supplied.

When production is …
less than the equilibrium
quantity, MSB > MSC.
greater than the
equilibrium quantity,
MSC > MSB.
equal to the equilibrium
quantity, MSC = MSB.

Resources are used

efficiently when marginal
social benefit equals
marginal social cost.
When the efficient quantity
is produced, total surplus
(the sum of consumer
surplus and producer
surplus) is maximized.

The Invisible Hand

Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” idea in the Wealth of
Nations implied that competitive markets send resources
to their highest valued use in society.
Consumers and producers pursue their own self-interest
and interact in markets.
Market transactions generate an efficient—highest valued
—use of resources.

Market Failure
Markets don’t always achieve an efficient outcome.
Market failure arises when a market delivers an inefficient
outcome.
Market failure can occur because
Too little of an item is produced (underproduction) or
Too much of an item is produced (overproduction).

Underproduction
The efficient quantity is
10,000 pizzas a day.
If production is restricted to
5,000 pizzas a day, there is
underproduction and the
quantity is inefficient.
A deadweight loss equals
the decrease in total
surplus—the gray triangle.
This loss is a social loss.
Overproduction
Again, the efficient quantity
is 10,000 pizzas a day.
If production is expanded
to 15,000 pizzas a day, a
deadweight loss arises
from overproduction.
This loss is a social loss.

Sources of Market Failure

In competitive markets, underproduction or overproduction
arise when there are
 Price and quantity regulations
 Taxes and subsidies
 Externalities
 Public goods and common resources
 Monopoly
 High transactions costs

Price and Quantity Regulations

Price regulations sometimes put a block on the price
adjustments and lead to underproduction.
Quantity regulations that limit the amount that a farm is
permitted to produce also lead to underproduction.

Taxes and Subsidies

Taxes increase the prices paid by buyers and lower the
prices received by sellers.
So taxes decrease the quantity produced and lead to
underproduction.
Subsidies lower the prices paid by buyers and increase
the prices received by sellers.
So subsidies increase the quantity produced and lead to
overproduction.

Externalities
An externality is a cost or benefit that affects someone
other than the seller or the buyer of a good.
An electric utility creates an external cost by burning coal
that creates acid rain.
The utility doesn’t consider this cost when it chooses the
quantity of power to produce. Overproduction results.

An apartment owner would provide an external benefit if

she installed an smoke detector.
But she doesn’t consider her neighbor’s marginal benefit
and decides not to install a smoke detector.
The result is underproduction.

Public Goods and Common Resources

A public good benefits everyone and no one can be
excluded from its benefits.
It is in everyone’s self-interest to avoid paying for a public
good (called the free-rider problem), which leads to
underproduction.

A common resource is owned by no one but can be used

by everyone.
It is in everyone’s self interest to ignore the costs of their
own use of a common resource that fall on others (called
tragedy of the commons).
The tragedy of the commons leads to overproduction.

Monopoly
A monopoly is a firm that is the sole provider of a good or
service.
The self-interest of a monopoly is to maximize its profit. To
do so, a monopoly sets a price to achieve its self-
interested goal.
As a result, a monopoly produces too little and
underproduction results.

High Transactions Costs

Transactions costs are the opportunity cost of making
trades in a market.
To use the market price as the allocator of scarce
resources, it must be worth bearing the opportunity cost of
establishing a market.
Some markets are just too costly to operate.
When transactions costs are high, the market might
underproduce.

Alternatives to the Market

When a market is inefficient, can one of the non-market
methods of allocation do a better job?
Often, majority rule might be used.
But majority rule has its own shortcomings. A group that
pursues the self-interest of its members can become the
majority.
Also, with majority rule, votes must be translated into
actions by bureaucrats who have their own agendas.

There is no one efficient mechanism for allocating

resources efficiently.
But supplemented majority rule, bypassed inside firms by
command systems, and occasionally using first-come,
first-served, markets do an amazingly good job.

¿ Es justo el Mercado competitivo?
Ideas about fairness can be divided into two groups:

It’s not fair if the result isn’t fair.
It’s not fair if the rules aren’t fair.

It’s Not Fair if the Result Isn’t Fair

The idea that only equality brings efficiency is called
utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism is the principle that states that we should
strive to achieve “the greatest happiness for the greatest
number.”

If everyone gets the same marginal utility from a given

amount of income, and
if the marginal benefit of income decreases as income
increases,
then taking a dollar from a richer person and giving it to a
poorer person increases the total benefit.
Only when income is equally distributed has the greatest
happiness been achieved.

Figure 5.7 shows how

redistribution increases
efficiency.
Tom is poor and has a high
marginal benefit of income.
Jerry is rich and has a low
marginal benefit of income.
Taking dollars from Jerry and
giving them to Tom until they
have equal incomes increases
total benefit.

The Big Tradeoff

Utilitarianism ignores the cost of making income transfers.
Recognizing these costs leads to the big tradeoff
between efficiency and fairness.
Because of the big tradeoff, John Rawls proposed that
income should be redistributed to the point at which the
poorest person is as well off as possible.

It’s Not Fair If the Rules Aren’t Fair

The idea that “it’s not fair if the rules aren’t fair” is based
on the symmetry principle.
The symmetry principle is the requirement that people in
similar situations be treated similarly.

In economics, this principle means equality of opportunity,

not equality of income.
Robert Nozick suggested that fairness is based on two
rules:
1. The state must create and enforce laws that establish
and protect private property.
2. Private property may be transferred from one person to
another only by voluntary exchange.
This means that if resources are allocated efficiently, they
may also be allocated fairly.

Eficiencia y Equidad

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Eficiencia y Equidad

Cargado por

Información del documento

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Eficiencia y Equidad

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

EFICIENCIA Y EQUIDAD

Métodos de asignación de recursos

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Atender al primero en llegar

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Demanda, disposición a pagar y valor

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Demanda individual y demanda del mercado

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

So her consumer surplus is the area of the green triangle.

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Oferta y Costo marginal

© 2016 Pearson Education

Oferta, Costo y precio mínimo de oferta

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Individual Supply and Market Supply

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Resources are used

© 2016 Pearson Education

The Invisible Hand

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

Sources of Market Failure

© 2016 Pearson Education

Price and Quantity Regulations

© 2016 Pearson Education

Taxes and Subsidies

© 2016 Pearson Education

© 2016 Pearson Education

An apartment owner would provide an external benefit if

© 2016 Pearson Education

Public Goods and Common Resources

© 2016 Pearson Education

A common resource is owned by no one but can be used

© 2016 Pearson Education