IiKkEe

− − Imagawa, et al. Structure-Function Studies of Human Leptin. JBC. 1998, December; 52(273): 35245-35249 y

− Cterminal necessary for secretion, stability, solubility.

− − mammary epithelial cells, bone marrow, pituitary sites of leptin

− − Kline, et al. Leptin is a four-helix bundle: secondary structure by NMR. FEBS Letters.1997, February; 407(2): 239-242 - exhibits a short strand segment and two long random coil loops. Determined secondary structure by NMR. Long chain short helix cytokine fold.

− − Peelman, et al. Mapping of the leptin binding sites and design of a leptin antagonist. JBC. 2004, September; 39(279): 41038-41046 - synthesized first leptin antagonist, caused obesity, altered immune system, hypogonadism. Binding site is the N terminal 94 AA

− − Zhang, F., et al. Crystal Structure of the obese protein leptin-E100. Nature. 1997, May; 387(6629):206-209. First to crystallize. Leptin aggregates so cannot be crystallized

− . Disulfide bonding critical. structure unique

− − Cannot crystallize AA 27-38 As od 2008, don't fully know structure, Rigid hydrophobic core: unique. Core has a hydrophobic cap which buries the lipophilic residues on the the surface of the BD helical bundle

− Pathophysiology

The major mechanism of lead toxicity is due to increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interference with generation of antioxidants. Lead causes the generation of ROS like hydroperoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and singlet oxygen. ROS are stabilized by glutathione in the body. Ninety percent of glutathione in the cell exists in reduced form and 10% in oxidative form, and it typically acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. Glutathione stabilizes ROS, and after being converted (oxidizing) to glutathione disulfide, it is reduced back to GSH by glutathione reductase. Lead inactivates glutathione by binding to GSH’s sulfhydryl group, which causes GSH replenishment to become inefficient, thereby increasing oxidative stress. Lead also interferes with the activity of other antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase and catalase. The increase in oxidative stress leads to cell membrane damage due to lipid peroxidation. Lead blocks the activity of 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase and leads to hemoglobin oxidation, which along with the lipid peroxidation can result in red cell hemolysis. [9]

Lead entering the intravascular space binds quickly to red blood cells. Lead has a half-life of approximately 30 days in the blood, from where it diffuses into the soft tissues, including the kidneys, brain, liver, and bone marrow.

Lead then diffuses into bone and is stored there for a period that corresponds to a half-life of several decades. Increased bone turnover with pregnancy, menopause, lactation, or immobilization can increase blood lead levels. Estimations of blood lead levels are more useful for diagnosing acute lead poisoning, whereas the extent of past lead exposure can

TRANSITION METALS

Post-transition metals are a group of metallic elements in the periodic table located between the transition metals to their left, and the metalloids to their right. Depending on where these adjacent groups are judged to begin and end, there are at least five competing proposals for which elements to include, ranging from six to fourteen elements. All proposals include gallium, indium, tin, thallium, lead, and bismuth.

Physically, post-transition metals are soft (or brittle), have poor mechanical strength, and have melting points lower than those of the transition metals. Being close to the metal-nonmetal border, their crystalline structures tend to show covalent or directional bonding effects, having generally greater complexity or fewer nearest neighbours than other metallic elements.

Chemically, they are characterised—to varying degrees—by covalent bonding tendencies, acid-base amphoterism and the formation of anionic species such as aluminates, stannates, and bismuthates (in the case of aluminium, tin, and bismuth, respectively). They can also form Zintl phases (half-metallic compounds formed between highly electropositive metals and moderately electronegative metals or metalloids).

There is no officially sanctioned name for this term, such as by the IUPAC. The origin of the term is unclear: one early use was in 1940 in a chemistry text.^[8] Alternate names for this group are B-subgroup metals, other metals, and p-block metals; and by at least eleven other labels.

Names for sets of chemical elements From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

There are currently 118 known chemical elements exhibiting a large number of different physical and chemical properties. Amongst this diversity, scientists have found it useful to use names for various sets of elements, that illustrate similar properties, or their trends of properties. Many of these sets are formally recognized by the standards body IUPAC.[1]

The following names are approved by IUPAC:

   Alkali metals – The metals of group 1: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.
   Alkaline earth metals – The metals of group 2: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra.
   Pnictogens – The elements of group 15: N, P, As, Sb, Bi. (Mc had not yet been named when the 2005 IUPAC Red Book was published, and its chemical properties are not yet experimentally known.)
   Chalcogens – The elements of group 16: O, S, Se, Te, Po. (Lv had not yet been named when the 2005 IUPAC Red Book was published, and its chemical properties are not yet experimentally known.)
   Halogens – The elements of group 17: F, Cl, Br, I, At. (Ts had not yet been named when the 2005 IUPAC Red Book was published, and its chemical properties are not yet experimentally known.)
   Noble gases – The elements of group 18: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. (Og had not yet been named when the 2005 IUPAC Red Book was published, and its chemical properties are not yet experimentally known.)
   Lanthanoids – Elements 57–71: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu.
   Actinoids – Elements 89–103: Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr.
   Rare-earth elements – Sc, Y, plus the lanthanoids.
   Transition metals – Elements in groups 3 to 11 or 12.

Another common classification is by degree of metallic – metalloidal – nonmetallic behaviour and characteristics. There is no general agreement on the name to use for these sets: in this English Wikipedia, the name used is category without any claim to universality. Very often these categories are marked by a background color in the periodic table. Category names used are:

   Alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, noble gases, and transition metals: Same as the IUPAC system above.
   Lanthanoids and actinoids are instead referred to as lanthanides and actinides respectively.
   Rare-earth elements, pnictogens, chalcogens, and halogens are not used as category names, but the latter three are valid as group (column) names.
   Additional element category names used:
       Post-transition metals – The metals of groups 13–17: Al, Ga, In, Tl, Sn, Pb, Bi, Po. Nh, Fl, Mc, Lv, and Ts are additionally predicted to be post-transition metals. The metals of group 12 are often also included.
       Metalloids – Elements with properties intermediate between metals and non-metals: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At.
       Polyatomic nonmetals – Nonmetals distinguished by polyatomic bonding in their standard states, in either discrete or extended molecular forms: C, P, S and Se.
       Diatomic nonmetals – Nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules in their standard states: H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I.
       Superactinides – Hypothetical series of elements 121 to 157, which includes a predicted "g-block" of the periodic table.

Many other names for sets of elements are in common use, and yet others have been used throughout history. Usually those sets do not aim to cover the whole periodic table (as for example period does). Some examples:

   Precious metal – Variously-defined group of non-radioactive metals of high economical value.
   Coinage metals – Various metals used to mint coins, primarily the group 11 elements Cu, Ag, and Au.
   Platinum group – Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt.
   Noble metal – Variously-defined group of metals that are generally resistant to corrosion. Usually includes Ag, Au, and the platinum-group metals.
   Heavy metals – Variously-defined group of metals, on the base of their density, atomic number, or toxicity.
   Native metals – Metals that occur pure in nature, including the noble metals and others such as Sn and Pb.
   Earth metal – Old historic term, usually referred to the metals of groups 3 and 13, although sometimes others such as beryllium and chromium are included as well.
   Transuranium elements – Elements with atomic number greater than 92.
   Transactinide elements – Elements after the actinides (atomic number greater than 103).
   Transplutonium elements – Elements with atomic number greater than 94.
   Minor actinides – Actinides found in significant quantities in nuclear fuel, other than U and Pu: Np, Am, Cm.
   Heavy atom – term used in computational chemistry to refer to any element other than hydrogen and helium.

I am posting 10 versions of the Lead here, and invite comment: are any additional deletions, reversions, or additions needed for the current veersion? Would like to recruit additional opinions. Some of the text under discussion is in Boldface'.

21 Aug 2017 Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia (also called Metazoa). The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs: they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance.

Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs (clams, oysters, octopuses, squid, snails); arthropods (millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, shrimp); annelids (earthworms, leeches), nematodes (filarial worms, hookworms), flatworms (tapeworms, liver flukes), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals), ctenophores (comb jellies), and sponges. The study of animals is called zoology.

23 Aug 2017 IiKkEe An animal is any member of a group of biological organisms classified in taxonomy as the kingdom Animalia', based on eight specific shared characteristics. They are 1)multicellular, 2)eukaryotic (their cells have a nucleus), and 3)motile (they can move spontaneously and independently). They are 4)heterotrophs (they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance). To perpetuate their species they engage in 5)sexual reproduction, and during early development they form a 6)blastocyst. They have 7)specialized tissues and an 8)advanced nervous system.

Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. The study of animals is called zoology.

Animals can be divided broadly into the subphyla vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and constitute less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Invertebrates lack a backbone. These include molluscs (clams, oysters, octopuses, squid, snails); arthropods (millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, shrimp); annelids (earthworms, leeches), nematodes (filarial worms, hookworms), flatworms (tapeworms, liver flukes), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals), ctenophores (comb jellies), and sponges.

24Aug 2017 IiKkEe An animal is any member of a group of biological organisms classified in taxonomy as the kingdom Animalia, based on certain shared characteristics. They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms. They are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed (stable) as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs: they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance.

Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. The study of animals is called zoology.

Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs (clams, oysters, octopuses, squid, snails); arthropods (millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, shrimp); annelids (earthworms, leeches), nematodes (filarial worms, hookworms), flatworms (tapeworms, liver flukes), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals), ctenophores (comb jellies), and sponges.

later 24 Aug 2017 (1st paragraph only - the rest unchanged) IiKkEe An animal is an organism which is classified by taxonomy to the kingdom Animalia, based on the following characteristics. Animals are multicellular, and during development these cells differentiate into specialized tissues and organs. They are eukaryotic: their chromosomes are contained within a distinct nucleus. They are motile: they move spontaneously and independently. They are heterotrophs: they ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance. They use sexual reproduction (with some exceptions) to perpetuate their species, and during early embryonic development they pass through a stage called a blastocyst.

later 24 Aug 2017 - 1st paragraph only IiKkEe An animal is any member of a group of biological organisms classified in taxonomy as the kingdom Animalia, based on certain shared characteristics. They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms. They are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed (stable) as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs: they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance.

27Aug 2017 IiKkEe Animals are organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. They are eukaryotic and multicellular. They are motile: they move spontaneously and independently. They are heterotrophs: they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance. They use sexual reproduction to perpetuate their species, and during early embryonic development they pass through a stage called a blastula which allows for differentiation into specialized tissues and organs. Some organisms have most but not all of these features, but are nevertheless classified as an animal.

Most known animal phyla emerged in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. The study of animals is called zoology.

Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The remaining roughly ninety five per cent are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs (clams, oysters, octopuses, squid, snails); arthropods (millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, shrimp); annelids (earthworms, leeches), nematodes (filarial worms, hookworms), flatworms (tapeworms, liver flukes), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals), ctenophores (comb jellies), and sponges.

Animals can also be categorized based on the symmetry of their bodies. Sponges have no regular symmetry; cnidarians and ctenophores are radially symmetrical; all other animals are bilaterally symmetrical, and are called Bilateria.

28 Aug 2017 Animals are eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are multicellular, able to move, and consumers of organic material. Almost all reproduce sexually, and animal embryonic development includes the characteristic blastula stage.

Although animals may undergo metamorphoses as they develop, their body plans eventually stabilize and are helpful in their classification. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates—fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. All vertebrate species and most invertebrate species—arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia—are bilaterally symmetric. Cnidarians and echinoderms (later in development) are radially symmetric while ctenophores are biradially symmetric. Sponges have no symmetry.

The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates. Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago.

Zoology is the study of animals.

28 Aug 2017 later Animals are eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are multicellular, able to move, and consumers of organic material. Almost all reproduce sexually, and animal embryonic development includes the characteristic blastula stage.

Although animals may undergo metamorphoses as they develop, their body plans eventually stabilize and are helpful in their classification. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates—fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. All vertebrate species and most invertebrate species—arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia—are bilaterally symmetric. Cnidarians and echinoderms (later in development) are radially symmetric while ctenophores are biradially symmetric. Sponges have no symmetry.

Zoology is the study of animals. Taxonomy classifies organisms into groups. There are two taxonomic approaches: the Linnaean system, which classifies organisms according to an eight (or more) level hierarchy based on features; and a cladistic system, which classifies organisms into clades and creates branching diagrams (trees) based on the evolutionary principle of the most recent common ancestor.

The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates. Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago.

29 Aug 2017 IiKkEe Animals are eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are multicellular, motile (able to move), and are heterotrophs (consumers of organic material). Almost all reproduce sexually, and animal embryonic development includes the characteristic blastula stage.

Although animals may undergo metamorphoses as they develop, their body plans eventually stabilize and are helpful in their classification. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates—fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. All vertebrate species and most invertebrates - arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia—are bilaterally symmetric. Echinoderm larvae are bilaterally symmetrical, although they develop into radially symmetrical adults. Cnidarians are radially symmetric, while ctenophores are biradially symmetric. Sponges have no symmetry.

Zoology is the study of animals. Taxonomy is the naming, and classification into groups, of organisms.

The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates. Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago.

30 Aug 2017 - current - Rhinopias Animals are eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are multicellular, motile (able to move), and are heterotrophs (consumers of organic material). Almost all reproduce sexually, and animal embryonic development includes the characteristic blastula stage.

Although animals may undergo metamorphoses as they develop, their body plans eventually stabilize and are helpful in their classification. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates—fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. All vertebrate species and most invertebrates—arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia—are bilaterally symmetric. Echinoderm larvae are bilaterally symmetrical, although they develop into radially symmetrical adults. Cnidarians are radially symmetric, while ctenophores are biradially symmetric. Sponges have no symmetry.

Zoology is the study of animals.

The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates. Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago.

IiKkEe (talk) 12:37, 31 August 2017 (UTC)

Evolution of the holozoan ribosome biogenesis regulon

   Seth J Brown, Michael D ColeEmail author and Albert J ErivesEmail author

BMC Genomics20089:442

https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-9-442

© Brown et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2008

Received: 19 June 2008

Accepted: 24 September 2008

Published: 24 September 2008 Abstract Background

The ribosome biogenesis (RiBi) genes encode a highly-conserved eukaryotic set of nucleolar proteins involved in rRNA transcription, assembly, processing, and export from the nucleus. While the mode of regulation of this suite of genes has been studied in the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, how this gene set is coordinately regulated in the larger and more complex metazoan genomes is not understood. Results

Here we present genome-wide analyses indicating that a distinct mode of RiBi regulation co-evolved with the E(CG)-binding, Myc:Max bHLH heterodimer complex in a stem-holozoan, the ancestor of both Metazoa and Choanoflagellata, the protozoan group most closely related to animals. These results show that this mode of regulation, characterized by an E(CG)-bearing core-promoter, is specific to almost all of the known genes involved in ribosome biogenesis in these genomes. Interestingly, this holozoan RiBi promoter signature is absent in nematode genomes, which have not only secondarily lost Myc but are marked by invariant cell lineages typically producing small body plans of 1000 somatic cells. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of 10 fungal genomes shows that this holozoan signature in RiBi genes is not found in hemiascomycete fungi, which evolved their own unique regulatory signature for the RiBi regulon. Conclusion

These results indicate that a Myc regulon, which is activated in proliferating cells during normal development as well as during tumor progression, has primordial roots in the evolution of an inducible growth regime in a protozoan ancestor of animals. Furthermore, by comparing divergent bHLH repertoires, we conclude that regulation by Myc but not by other bHLH genes is responsible for the evolutionary maintenance of E(CG) sites across the RiBi suite of genes. Asgard Archaea

Odinarchaeota

Lokiarchaeota

Thorarchaeota

Heimdallarchaeota

Eukaryota

Sections[edit]

Shortcuts: WP:MEDORDER WP:MEDSECTIONS The following lists of suggested sections are intended to help structure a new article or when an existing article requires a substantial rewrite. Changing an established article simply to fit these guidelines might not be welcomed by other editors. The given order of sections is also encouraged but may be varied, particularly if that helps your article progressively develop concepts and avoid repetition. Do not discourage potential readers by placing a highly technical section near the start of your article. An appropriate list of appendices follows at the end of articles for citations and other resources. Diseases or disorders or syndromes[edit] 'Clinical articles can achieve a level of consistency by limiting their top-level headers to those specified below. However, the spectrum of medical conditions is huge, including infectious and genetic diseases, chronic and acute illness, the life-threatening and the inconvenient. Some sections will necessarily be absent or may be better merged, especially if the article is not (yet) fully comprehensive. A disease that is now only of historical significance may benefit from having its History section moved towards the top. Establishing the forms of the disease (Classification) can be an important first section. However, if such classification depends heavily on understanding the cause, pathogenesis or symptoms, then that section may be better moved to later in the article. If a disease is incurable, then the Prognosis section can be moved up, and a section called Management is more appropriate than Treatment.

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Signs or symptoms[edit] Most articles about medical signs and symptoms should follow the below recommended structure. Omit sections that your sources do not address and combine sections when this seems sensible. For example, the definition of some signs is amply covered by an explanation of the mechanism, so having a section dedicated to the definition would be redundant. Definition (current definitions) Differential diagnoses or Associated medical conditions Pathophysiology or Mechanism Diagnostic approach or Evaluation Treatment or Management (for the symptom itself, if any: e.g., analgesics for pain) Epidemiology (incidence, prevalence, risk factors) History (of the science, not of the patient: e.g., "The oldest surviving description is in a medical text written by Avicenna.") Society and culture (e.g., cachexia was a literary symbol for tuberculosis in the 19th century and for AIDS in the 1980s.) Research (Is anything important being done?) Other animals

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Do not add images: just because they are pretty; that are too similar to existing images; or several images of the same thing in different levels of zoom—assume instead that readers can use the gallery tool or click to see the image/more images on Commons. The

 

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