Mixtec

The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah [miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.^{[pronunciation?]} etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'.^[8] The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language Ñuu Savi,^{[pronunciation?]} Ñuu Djau,^{[pronunciation?]} Ñuu Davi,^{[pronunciation?]} etc., depending on the local variant. They call their language sa'an davi,^{[pronunciation?]} da'an davi^{[pronunciation?]} or tu'un savi.^{[pronunciation?]}

 

In pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of Tilantongo, as well as the sites of Achiutla, Cuilapan, Huajuapan, Mitla, Tlaxiaco, Tututepec, Juxtlahuaca, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtecs also made major constructions at the ancient city of Monte Albán (which had originated as a Zapotec city before the Mixtecs gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in stone, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica.

According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys."^[9]

At the height of the Aztec Empire, many indigenous people in Oaxaca, including the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, would suffer under at the hands of the Aztecs.^[10] In the 1450s, Mixtecs would be weakened after the Aztec armies crossed the mountains into the Valley of Oaxaca with the intention of extending their hegemony.^[10] Aztec forces triumphed over the Mixtecs in 1458.^[10] In 1486, the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca, which allowed the Aztecs to enforce tribute collection from the Mixtecs and Zapotecs.^[10] However, not all Mixtec towns became vassals. The Mixtecs put up some resistance to Spanish forces led by Pedro de Alvarado.^[11] However, they would be subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by Francisco de Orozco in 1521.^[10] Upon Orozco's arrival to the Valley of Oaxaca on November 25, 1521, the Mixtecs would be peacefully submit to Spanish rule, though some resistance would continue in Antequera before ending by the end of 1521.^[10]

Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec and Triqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups of Amerindians in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City.^[12] Large Mixtec communities exist in the border cities of Tijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California and Tucson, Arizona. Mixtec communities are generally described as transnational or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic communities. (See: Mixtec transnational migration.)

 

 

There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the New Philology. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land.^[13] Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”.^[14]

Despite the development of a local exchange economy, many Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for the obrajes (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca."^[15] There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.^[16]

 

 

The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state of Oaxaca, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state of Puebla to the north-west and also the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: The Mixteca Alta or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of the Valley of Oaxaca; the Mixteca Baja or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and the Mixteca de la Costa or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec.

An ancient Coixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as the Colossal Natural Bridge is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.

• 1090-1097: Lady 6 Monkey War Quexquemitl (usurper, deposed),
  • Sub-rulers Lord 3 Aligator and Lord 1 Movement
• 1097-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)

• ?: Nizainzo Huidzo
• c.357: Mzatzin
• 1084-1097: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)
  • to Tilantongo

• 1120-?: Lord 11 Jaguar Tlaloc Fire Wall

Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty

• ?: Lord 11 Flower Cloud Xicolli, with Lady 13 Wind Cloud Hair (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 4 Wind, King of Nuu Yuchi)
• ?: Lord 10 Aligator Digging Stick (father-in-law of Lord 2 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 8 Wind Smoked Claw (brother-in-law of Lord 12 Deer, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 7 Movement Blood Shedding Rain (son-in-law of 11 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 9 Wind Sun Fire Serpent
• ?: Lord 10 Aligator Jaguar with Claws like Flints (son of the previous)

• ?: Lord 9 Serpent (deposed)
• ?-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)

• c.887: Lord 12 Vulture Golden Eagle
• ?: Lord 3 Monkey Mexican Jaguar

• ?: Lord 10 Movement
• ?: Lord 12 Lizard
• ?-1101: Lord 11 Wind Blood Jaguar (son of the previous)
  • To Tilantongo (1101-1115) and Nuu Yuchi (1115-1164)
• ?: Lord 6 Vulture Jaguar with Knife (son of Lord 9 Rain of Tlaxiaco)^[17]

• ?: Lord 8 Aligator Bloody Coyote
  • ?: Lord 3 Dog (son-in-law of Lord 8 Alligator, in the settlement of Santa Catarina Yuxia, Yuu Usa)
• ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Beard (descendant)

• ?: Lord 1 Lizard Serpent-Decorated Shield, with Lady 11 Serpent Jewel Mouth (wife)
• c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
Apoala-Jaltepec dynasty
Lord 10 Reed Eagle		c.880? Son of Lord 2 Grass Death Serpent, prince of Apoala and Lady 8 Rabbit Sun Headdress, Queen of Whirlpool of Blood-Temple of the Spiderweb and Smoke	? – after 920	Lady 2 Lizard Venus Red and White Band at least one child	after 920
Lord 3 Rain Ballcourt with Lines		? Son of Lord 10 Reed and Lady 2 Lizard	?	Lady 7 Death Rain Flaming Knot no children	?
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lady 9 Wind Stone Quexquemitl		c.1010 Daughter of Lord 8 Wind Twenty Eagles, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl	? – 1090	1041 five children	1090 Jaltepec aged 79-80?	Spouses, ruled jointly. Lord 13 Grass, Lady 9 Wind's brother, ruled in the settlement of Arrow-Red Liquid
Lord 10 Eagle Stone Jaguar		? Son of Lord 10 Flower, King of Tilantongo and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán			?
Lady 6 Monkey War Quexquemitl		1073? Daughter of Lord 10 Eagle and Lady 9 Wind	1090 – 1101	Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino, Bloody Jaguar 1090 two children	1101 Huachino aged 27-28?	Assassinated with her husband in Huachino during the Tilantongo coup d'état of Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw.
Lord 1 Alligator Ballcourt Eagle		1094 Huachino Second son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady 6 Monkey	1101 – after 1122	Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo, Feather Blood Quetzal 1122 one child Lady 6 Flint of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent 1122 no children	after 1122 aged more than 25-26	Younger son of Lady 6 Monkey, inherited her settlement at Jaltepec and married daughters of her assassin.
Lord 5 Lizard Blood Jewel		1122 or after 1122 Son of Lord 1 Alligator and Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo	?	Lady 4 Rain Heartcross Lady 8 Rabbit (Both women were sisters and from the town of Temazcal Cave of Atl Tlachinolli) (three known children in total)	?
Lord 1 Rain Celestial Eagle		? Son of Lord 5 Lizard	?	Lady 2 Alligator Smoke Spiderweb four children	?
Lord 5 Flower Celestial Eagle		? Son of Lord 1 Rain and Lady 2 Alligator	?	Lady 10 Water Xolotl Red Jewel two children	?
Lord 6 Reed Jaguar Sun		? Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 10 Water	?	Lady 5 Movement Copal Ornament two children	?
Lord 13 Wind Tlachtli War		? Son of Lord 6 Reed and 5 Movement	?	Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán, Butterfly Quetzal Blood four children	?
Lord 9 Lizard Fire Face		? Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán	? – after 1381	Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán, War Quexquemitl three children	after 1381	In his reign Zaachila attacked Jaltepec, took the eldest sons of Lord 9 Lizard, and executed them. His minor son was the only one that survived. This son, Lord 2 Jaguar, would eventually succeed his father.
Lord 2 Jaguar		Before 1372 Son of Lord 9 Lizard and Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán	after 1381 – ?	Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco, Sun Fan 1372[18] one child	?
Lord 5 Water Jaguar of Tlaxiaco		? Son of Lord 2 Jaguar and Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco	? – after 1391	Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco, Fan of Tlaxiaco two children	?
Lord 10 Monkey Rain Falling from Heaven		1391[19] Jaltepec Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco	? – after 1414	Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán, Xolotl-Jewel 1414[20] three children	after 1414
Lord 3 Death Grey Eagle		Before 1420 Son of Lord 10 Monkey and Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán	? – 1444	Lady 3 Serpent Flower Garland 1420 three children	1444 Jaltepec aged more than 23-24
Lord 1 Monkey Rain Sun		1416 Jaltepec Son of Lord 3 Death and Lady 3 Serpent	1444 – 1480	Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco, Plumed Sun (d.1477) 1447 at least one child Lady 10 Movement, Plumed Sun, Queen of Quetzaltepec no children	1480 Jaltepec aged 63-64
Lord 4 Serpent Bloody Eagle		1451 Jaltepec Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco	1480 – 1520	Lady 5 Monkey of Teozacoalco, Seed of the Broken Mountain (1466-1518) two children	1520 Jaltepec aged 68–69
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 13 Grass Fire Serpent		1516 Jaltepec Son of Lord 4 Deer, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec	1520 – 1541	Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco, Jewel Red Objects Package 1523 five children Lady 5 Jaguar Cocoa Garland	1541 Jaltepec aged 24-25	Maternal grandson of his predecessor.
Lord 10 Grass Jaguar Smoke Tlaltecuhtli		1527 Jaltepec Son of Lord 13 Grass and Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco	1541 – after 1556	Lady 10 Serpent Flowered Tree Golden Band 1546 unknown children	After 1556	Last known ruler in the settlement.

• ?: Lord 1 Death Sun Serpent, with Lady 11 Serpent Flower Quetzal Feathers (wife)

• ?: Lord 7 Grass Bloody Jaguar

• ?: Lord 1 Monkey

• ?: Lord 11 Jaguar

• ?: Lady 1 Death

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lord 4 Wind Fire Serpent		1092 Huachino Son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady 6 Monkey, Queen of Jaltepec	1115 – 1164	Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo, Rain Spiderweb 1124 one child Lady 5 Lizard of Deep Valley, Zacate-Pulque Vase 1124 or 1125 three children Lady 5 Wind of Tilantongo, Jade and Fur Ornament 1125 no children~	1164 Pedernales aged 71–72	First known ruler of the settlement, which seems to have been separated either from Tilantongo or Jaltepec.
Lady 13 Flower Precious Bird		c.1124/25 Daughter of Lord 4 Wind and Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo	1164 – ?	Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo, Sacred Serpent c.1138 ten children	?
Lord 7 Eagle Flames		1138 Pedernales First son of Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Flower	?	Lady 3 Serpent of Achiutla, Sacred Jewel no children	?	Left no children and was succeeded by his brother.
Lord 4 Jaguar War Jaguar		1144 Pedernales Second son of Lord Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Flower	?	Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla, Serpent Jewel at least one child	?
Lord 1 Eagle Rain		c.1160 Son of Lord 4 Water, prince of Pedernales and Lady 1 Grass of Achiutla	? – after 1171	Unmarried	After 1171	Nephew of his predecessors.
Lord 7 Reed Pheasant		? Son of Lord 13 Serpent, Prince of Pedernales and Lady 11 Deer, Princess of Pedernales	?	?	?	Cousin of his predecessor.
Pedernales annexed to Teozacoalco

• ?: Lord 4 Stone Face with Quetzal Feathers

• ?: Lord 3 Eagle

Teozacoalco dynasty

• ?: Lord 1 House Jaguar Sky Assassin (son of Lord 8 Rabbit, King of Teozacoalco)
• ?: Lord 6 Death Sun Rain (descendant, brother-in-law of Lord 6 Deer, King of Teozacoalco)
• ?: Lord 3 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 3 Monkey (grandson of the previous)

• ?: Lord 4 Jaguar Serpent War Snare

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lord 8 Wind Stone Eagle/ Twenty Eagles		? Son or descendant of Lord 3 Rain, King of Jaltepec	? – 1027	Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl 1009 Lady 10 Grass 1010 Lady 10 Eagle 1011 seven children in total	1027 Suchixtlán or Jaltepec
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 12 Movement Jaguar that Burns the Mexicans		?	?	Lady 1 Jaguar Divine Fan at least one child	?
Lord 13 Eagle Bloody Jaguar		? Son of Lord 12 Movement and Lady 1 Jaguar	?	Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo four children	?
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 2 Flower Rising Jewel		? Daughter of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 12 Flower of Tilantongo	? – 1461	c.1450? two children	?	Spouses and explicitly co-rulers in Suchixtlán (according to Codex Muro). Lord 6 Death possibly also inherited his kingdom at San Pedro Cántaros.
Lord 6 Death Sun Rain		? Son of Lord 10 Alligator, king of Cántaros and Lady 7 Vulture (of Tilantongo?)			1461
Lady 11 Monkey Jade Spiderweb		? Son of Lord 6 Death and Lady 2 Flower	?	three children	?	Probably ruled jointly, as despite she inherited the kingdom, her husband is said to have also ruled there.
Lord 4 Death War Venus		? Son of Lord 6 Deer, king of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	?		?
Lord 8 Monkey		? Son of Lord 4 Death and Lady 11 Monkey	?	Lady 4 Water of Tilantongo, Butterfly with Red Spots no children	?
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 8 Movement Jaguar Tlaloc Wall		?	?	Lady 8 Flint of Jaltepec, Venus Legs Bent Strip (born 1528) c.1530/40? no children	?	Last known ruler of the town.

• ?: Lord 10 Rabbit Heart
• ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Eagle

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 4 Dog Coyote Hunter		1110 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino	1115 – after 1132	Lady 4 Death Jewel (born 1115) 1125 two children	after 1132
Lord 13 Dog Venus Eagle		1132 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Dog and Lady 4 Death	after 1132 – after 1149	Lady 8 Vulture Stone Quechquemitl Lady 4 Rabbit Feathers on the Sand two children in total	after 1149
Lord 7 Water Red Eagle		1149 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 13 Dog	?	Lady 11 Water Precious Serpent two children	?
Lord 13 Eagle Sacred Rain		Son of Lord 7 Water and Lady 11 Water	? – after 1189	Lady 13 Death Jade Quechquemitl two children Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quechquemitl three children Lady 8 Reed Precious Girl one child Lady of the Staff of Respect no children Lady 11 Movement Jewel with Quetzal Feathers two children Lady 9 Monkey one child	after 1189
Lord 8 Rabbit Fire of Tlaxiaco		1189 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 8 Reed	?	Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo, Transparent Butterfly five children	?
Lord 12 House Fire Serpent Flying in the Sky		? Son of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo	?	five children	?	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Their brother, Lord 1 House ''Jaguar Assassin from the Sky'', ruled at the settlement of Nuu Naha .
Lady 11 Alligator Quetzal Jewel		? Daughter of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo			?
Lord 9 Movement Precious Water		? Son of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator	? – 1321[17]	no children	1321 Teozacoalco	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Left no children.
Lady 2 Jaguar Jade Spiderweb		? Daughter of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 2 Dog Rope and Knives		? Son of Lord 5 Flower, King of Zaachila and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco	1321[17] – after 1323	Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo, Plumed Serpent three children	?
Lord 9 House Mexican Jaguar		1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 2 Dog and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo	? – after 1372	Lady 3 Rabbit Divine Flame, Queen of Tilantongo (born 1345) 1353 no children	after 1372	Also, by marriage, king of Tilantongo.
Lord 2 Water Fire Serpent		1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco	after 1372 – after 1402	Lady 2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady 12 Flint of Teita one child Lady 4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children	after 1402 aged more than 44-45	After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lord 5 Rain Water Falling from the Sky		1402? Son of Lord Lord 2 Water and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila	? – after 1416	Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco, Quetzal Sun 1416 four children	after 1416	His children inherited their mother's realm. Teozacoalco reunited with Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer Sacred Rain		1393 Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo	after 1416 – ?	Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children	after 1416 aged more than 22-23	Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower Pheasant		1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	? – after 1438	Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children	after 1438 aged more than 28-29	Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain Sun Rain		1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Flower and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo	? – after 1476	Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children	after 1476 aged more than 37-38
Lord 4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco		1476 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 10 Rain and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán	? – 1521	Lady 11 Serpent Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total	1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45	His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Teozacoalco occupied by the Spanish

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
1st Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 10 House Jaguar		?	?	Lady 1 Grass Puma one child	?	First known ruler of the settlement.
Lord 3 Eagle Eagle of the Serpent Place		? Son of Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass	? – after 942	Lady 4 Rabbit Quexquemitl of Mitlatongo two children	after 942
Lord 9 Wind Stone Skull		942 Tilantongo Son of Lord Lord 3 Eagle and Lady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo	? – 1020	Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán, Rain Hill c.990 three children	1020 aged 77-78	His brother, Lord 1 Monkey, inherited their mother's city of Mitlatongo.
Lord 10 Flower Burnt-Eyed Jaguar		992 Tilantongo Son of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán	1020 – 1043	Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán, Plumed Serpent (born 1005) 1013 six children	1043 aged 50-51	Many of his relatives are known to have sit exclusively in some thrones: ?: Lord 10 Flower (II) Tail Arc (his brother-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Dark Speckled Mountain ) ?: Lord 13 Death (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Head ; he would also become father-in-law of Lord 8 Deer) ?: Lord 10 Reed (I) Precious Jaguar (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Tataltepec (Yucu Tatnu)) ?: Lord 10 Reed (II) (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Topiltepec, Yucu Quesi/Nuu Ñañu )
Lord 12 Lizard Arrow Feet		c.1013 Son of Lord 10 Flower and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán	1043 – c.1080?	Lady 4 Flint of Topiltepec, Face Quetzal Feathers Lady 4 Alligator of Topiltepec, Jewel Face four children in total	c.1080? Tilantongo aged around 66-67	Married his nieces, daughters of his sister.
Lord 5 Movement Smoked Sky		? Son of Lord 12 Lizard	1080 – ?	Lady 4 Death of Jaltepec, Jewel of the People no children Lady 2 Grass 1073 one child	?	The succession of the son and grandson of Lord 12 Lizard is debated, as Lord 12 Lizard is the last of his dynasty explicitly depicted as king of Tilantongo before Lord 8 Deer's conquest (1097). Even his grandson, who died young in a mysterious suicide ritual, is sometimes called by experts as an heir, instead of an official ruler. There isn't also any indication of the time of death of Lord 12 Lizard, which confuses matters. What is known is that, as Lady 2 Grass (Lord 2 Rain's mother) came from Visible Stones (a place under domination of Suchixtlán), Suchixtlán became influent in Tilantongo during this period of uncertainty. It's also possible that Lord 12 Lizard's sister, Lady 4 Rabbit ''Precious Quetzal'', was his next heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her and her husband in their town at Sosola (Acuchi).
Lord 2 Rain Twenty Jaguars		1075 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Movement and Lady 2 Grass	? – 18 June 1097	Unmarried	18 June 1097 Tilantongo aged 21–22
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw		1063 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Alligator Sun Rain, Priest and Lady 11 Water Jewel Bird	18 June 1097 – 10 November 1115	Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino, Flowered Serpent 1103 five children Lady 6 Eagle of Chalcatongo, Jaguar Spiderweb 1105 one child Lady 10 Vulture Shining Quexquemitl 1105 two children Lady 11 Serpent of Totomihuacan, Jaguar Flower Turquoise Teeth 1105 two children Lady Lady 6 Wind of Cuyotepeji, Great Feathers of Noble Blood no children	10 November 1115 Tilantongo aged 51–52	Usurper and founder of a new royal line at Tilantongo. After his death the influence in Mixtec realms passed to Pedernales, but the succession continued in Tilantongo. Lord 8 Deer was related to other settlements: His father-in-law, Lord 1 Deer Coanacoch is the only known ruler in the settlement of Cuyotepeji.
Regency of Lady 6 Eagle Jaguar Spiderweb of Chalcatongo during Lord 6 House's minority
Lord 6 House Jaguar Falling from Heaven		1109 Tilantongo Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 6 Eagle of Chacaltongo	10 November 1115 – ?	Lady 9 Movement Heart of Juquila one child	?
Lord 5 Water Stone Jaguar Heaven		? Son of Lord 6 House and Lady Lady 9 Movement of Juquila	?	Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo, Quetzal Jewel eight children	?	Married his cousin, daughter of his father's half-brother.
Lord 8 Reed Pheasant		? Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo	?	two children	?	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 5 Rabbit Jewel		? Daughter of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo			?
Lord 2 Movement Serpent with Markings		? Son of Lord 8 Reed and Lady 5 Rabbit	?-1206	Lady 4 Eagle of Teita, Blood Quechquemitl Lady 12 Flint of Mountain of Flowers, Hummingbird Jewel Lady 10 Eagle of Mountain of Flowers, Serpent Spiderweb three children in total	1206 Tilantongo	Apparently survived his own sons and heirs, Lord 8 Grass ''Coyote Sacrificer'' and Lord 1 Lizard ''Bloody Jaguar'', and was succeeded by his grandchildren.
Lord 12 Reed Coyote Sun		? Son of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain	1206-?	before or c.1206 three children	?	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 3 Jaguar Precious Butterfly Sun		? Daughter of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain			?
Lord 5 Rain Sun Movement		? Son of Lord 12 Reed and Lady 3 Jaguar	?	Lady 13 Lizard of Puma, Truly Precious Butterfly one child	?	Lord 5 Rain was related to other settlements' rulers: ?: Lord 7 Movement Bloody Jaguar, his father-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Puma .
Lord 13 Wind Fire Serpent		? Son of Lord 5 Rain and Lady 13 Lizard of Puma	? – after 1277	Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco, Venus Quechquemitl 1277 one child	after 1277
Lord 9 Serpent Jaguar War Illuminator		? Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco	?	Lady 8 Flint of Yucuita Lady 7 Flower of Yucuita four children in total	?
Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle		? Son of Lord 9 Serpent	? – 1341	Lady Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War no children	1341 Tilantongo	Left no children, and his dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his widow.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War		? Daughter of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo	1341 – after 1345	Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle no children Prince Lord 4 Death of Tlaxiaco, War Venus 1343 four children	after 1345	Widow and niece of the previous. As the eldest child of the only sister of Lord 4 Water that had children, she became the inheritor of his uncle-husband's kingdom. She inherited it not as widow of her husband, but as a rightful heir of her uncle.
Lady 3 Rabbit Divine Flame		1345 Tilantongo Daughter of Lord Lord 4 Death, Prince of Tlaxiaco and Lady 6 Water	after 1345-after 1372	1353 six children	after 1372	Like her mother, she married her own uncle (her mother's brother), keeping the kingdom in the family, and made possible the reunion of Tilantongo and Teozacoalco.
Lord 9 House Mexican Jaguar		1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo
Lord 2 Water Fire Serpent		1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco	after 1372 – after 1402	Lady 2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady 12 Flint of Teita one child Lady 4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children	after 1402 aged more than 44-45	After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lady 12 Flower Broken Mountain Butterfly		? Daughter of Lord 2 Water and 2 Vulture of Teita	after 1402 – ?	Lord Lord 12 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán, Bloody Jaguar no children	?	First separate ruler of Tilantongo since 1341. At her death, her children inherited Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer Sacred Rain		1393 Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo	after 1416?	Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children	after 1416 aged more than 22-23	Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower Pheasant		1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	? – after 1438	Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children	after 1438 aged more than 28-29	Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain Sun Rain		1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Flower and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo	? – after 1476	Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children	after 1476 aged more than 37-38
Lord 4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco		1476 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 10 Rain and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán	? – 1521	Lady 11 Serpent Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total	1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45	His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Tilantongo occupied by the Spanish

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
Tlaxiaco dynasty[17]
Lord 8 Jaguar Bloody Coyote		1113 Tlaxiaco	?	Lady 2 Vulture ''Jewel Fan'' two children	?	First known king at Tlaxiaco, partition from Teozacoalco.
Lord 4 Grass Sun Face		? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar	?	Lady 6 Reed ''Venus Face'' one child	?
Lord 2 Wind Bloody Rain		? Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed ''Venus Face''	?	Lady 4 Death of Achiutla no children	?	Left no children. Tlaxiaco was inherited by his uncle.
Lord 2 Movement Fire Serpent in Flames		? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar	?	Lady 2 Death ''Plumed Sun'' one child	?
Lord 3 Serpent Flame Rain		? Son of Lord 2 Movement and Lady 2 Death	?	Lady 12 Wind ''Quetzal Jewel'' Lady 7 Death two children in total	?
Lord 1 Deer Eagle		? Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind ''Quetzal Jewel''!Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death	?	Lady 10 Grass ''Precious Butterfly'' two children	?
Lord 12 Rain Bloody Jaguar		? Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death	? – 1305	Lady 1 Monkey of Tilantongo, Jade Quexquemitl one child	1305 Tlaxiaco
Lord 12 Deer Serpent that Lightens the War		? Son of Lord 3 Dog and Lady 8 Serpent, heiress of Tlaxiaco	1305 – ?	Lady 11 Lizard of Achiutla, Flame Jewel 1305 no children Lady 6 Rabbit of Tilantongo, Jewel Seed no children	?	It 's possible that he succeeded his maternal grandfather in his mother's lifetime; she chose to follow her husband (12 Deer's father) in a peregrination.[17] The male line is explicitly broken off after 12 Deer's death: he had no children. A succession crisis is opened, and is ultimately won by Lady 11 Rabbit, who was cleverly allied with Tilantongo-Teozacoalco.
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lady 11 Rabbit Jewel of the Rising Sun		? Daughter of Lord 8 Wind, King of Achiutla and Lady 10 Dog of Tlaxiaco	c.1330	two children	?	Spouses, ruled jointly. Lady 11 Rabbit (from Achiutla on paternal side) was a niece of Lord 12 Deer.
Lord 10 Rabbit Jaguar of Tlaxiaco		? Son of Lord 4 Movement ''Rain Falling from the Sky'' and Lady 2 Eagle ''Sunflower''			?
Lord 9 Rain Bloody Jaguar		? Son of Lord 10 Rabbit and Lady 11 Rabbit	? – after 1343	Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco 1343 three children	After 1343
Lord 11 Wind Smoked Claw		? Son of Lord 9 Rain and Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco	?	Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla, Jewel Flower five children	?	Lord 1 Dog, his brother-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Feline Mountain .
Lord 1 Monkey Sun Rain		? Son of Lord 11 Wind and Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla	?	Lady 5 Flint Heavenly Fan three children	?
Lord 13 Eagle Eagle of Tlaxiaco		? Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 5 Flint	?-after 1400	Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla c.1400 one child	After 1400	His heiress didn't succeed in the kingdom; his successor was his granddaughter. Lord 3 Reed Smoked Eye, his brother, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Cuilapán.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty[17]
Lady 8 Deer Quetzal Spiderweb		? Daughter of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?	Lord 10 Alligator, King of Achiutla, Stone Claw no children	?	Her twin brother ascended in the Zapotec throne of Zaachila.
Lord 3 Serpent Venus Sun		? Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?	Lady 10 Movement Sun Jewel no children	?	Younger brother of the twins.
Lord 8 Grass/ Malinaltzin Sun Rain		c.1435 Tlaxiaco Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?-1503	Lady 9 Deer of Teozacoalco, Jewel Flower 1460 one child Lady 1 Serpent Butterfly Quetzal Feathers no children	1511 Tlaxiaco aged 75–76	Younger brother of the former. In 1503 Tlaxiaco was defeated by the Aztec Empire.
Tlaxiaco annexed to the Aztec Empire

• ?: Lord 5 Eagle

• c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

• ?: Lord 12 Dog Eagle, with Lady 5 Lizard Pulque-Zacate Vase (wife)

• c.1320: Lord 6 Water Multicolored Feathers
• c.1500?: Lady 1 Flower Jaguar Quexquemitl, with Lord 8 Death Fire Serpent (husband; son of Lord 10 Rain, King of Teozacualco)

Ruler		Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
Zaachila Zapotec dynasty[17]
Lord 9 Serpent		?	?	Lady 11 Rabbit Venus Quexquemitl at least one child	?
Lord 5 Flower Xipe		? Son of Lord 9 Serpent and Lady 11 Rabbit	? – 1328	Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco, Quetzal six children	1328 Zaachila
Lord 3 Alligator (Ozomatli)		? Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco	1328 – 1361	Lady 12 Flint Staff of Respect Lady 10 House ''Jewel'' five children in total	1361 Zaachila
Lord 11 Water Stone Rain (Cosijoeza I; Huijatoo)		? Son of Lord 3 Alligator	1361 – 1386	Lady 8 Movement of Zaachila, Fire Serpent no children Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli, Plumed Serpent six children	1386 Zaachila
Lord 6 Water Cracked Boards (Zaachila I)		c.1350 Son of Lord 11 Water and Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli	1386 – 1415	Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco, Sun Jewel one child	1415 Zaachila aged 64–65
Lord 3 Reed Smoked Eye (Zaachila II)		? Son of Lord 6 Water and Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco	1415 – 1454	Unmarried	1454 Zaachila	Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a cousin.
Lord 5 Reed Twenty Jaguars (Cosijopii I; Zaachila III)		1397 Son of Lord 2 Water, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila	1454 – 1487	Unmarried	1487 Zaachila aged 89–90	Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a nephew.
Lord 8 Deer Fire Serpent (Cosijoeza II)		? Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	1487 – 1504	Xilabela of the Aztec Empire two children	1504 Zaachila	Nephew of the predecessor. Had a twin sister, Lady 8 Deer, who ascended to the throne of Tlaxiaco.
Regency of Xilabela of the Aztec Empire (1504-1518)						Siblings, it's possible that they ruled jointly.
Cosijopii II		30 December 1502 Zaachila Son of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire	1504 – 1523	?	1563 Zaachila aged 60–61
Pinopija		? Zaachila Daughter of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire	1504 – 1520	?	c.1520 Zaachila
Zaachila annexed to the Aztec Empire

• ?: Lord 1 Rain
• ?: Lord 9 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Deer (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Flint (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Alligator (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 7 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Movement (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 9 Flint (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Water (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Eagle (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Flower (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 House (son of the previous)
• ?-1519/20: Unknown (son of the previous)
  • To the Spanish

• ?: Lord 10 Flint
• ?: Lord 4 Deer (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 2 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Movement (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 3 House (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Wind (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Rabbit (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Death (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 1 House (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 5 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?-1519/20: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
  • To the Spanish

 

 

The Mixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique).

The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures^{[clarification needed]} in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region.

They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history.^{[21][unreliable source?]} Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions.^[22] These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.^[23]

• Kevin Terraciano (2004). The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Nudzahui History, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804751049.
• Pérez Jiménez, Gabina Aurora; Jansen, Marteen (2010). The Mixtec Pictorial Manuscripts - Time, Agency and Memory in Ancient Mexico. ISBN 978-90-04-19358-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

  Media related to Mixtec at Wikimedia Commons