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Lynkestis

"Lyncestis" redirects here. For genus of moths, see Lyncestis (moth).

Lynkestis, Lyncestis, Lyngistis, Lynkos or Lyncus (Ancient Greek: Λυγκηστίς or Λύγκος Latin: Lyncestis or Lyncus) was a region and principality traditionally located in Upper Macedonia. It was the northernmost mountainous region of Upper Macedonia, located east of the Prespa Lakes.[1]

Lynkestis had been originally an autonomous kingdom in Upper Macedonia outside the original territory of the Kingdom of Macedon (blue area). After Philip II's expansion in the second half of the 4th century BC Lynkestis was incorporated into his kingdom (light blue area).

In its earlier history, Lynkestis was an independent polity ruled by a local dynasty which claimed descent from the Bacchiadae, a Greek aristocratic family from ancient Corinth.[2][3][4] They were ruled by a basileus, as did the rest of the tribes in Lower and Upper Macedonia.[5] The few existing primary sources show that before the rise of Macedon it maintained connections with the Illyrians and was frequently in hostilities with the Argeads.[3]

The inhabitants of Lynkestis were known as Lyncestae or Lynkestai (Greek: Λυγκῆσται). Hecataeus (6th century BC) included them among the Molossians,[6][7] while Thucydides (5th century BC) considered them Macedonians.[8][9] Most later ancient authors considered them Macedonians,[10] while others included them among the Illyrians.[8][note 1] Modern scholars regard them as either Macedonians,[15] Epirotes (Molossians)[16] or Illyrians.[17] Some generally consider them to be Greeks of Upper Macedonia.[18][19]

In the second half of the 5th century BC Lynkestis was the strongest tribal state in Upper Macedonia under king Arrhabaeus, son of Bomerus.[20] During the Peloponnesian War the combined army of Lyncestians under king Arrhabaeus and Illyrians won against the joined forces of the Macedonian king Perdiccas II and the Spartan leader Brasidas at the Battle of Lyncestis in 423 BC.[21]

Lynkestis was annexed or retained by the Illyrian king Bardylis after his victory against Perdiccas III of Macedon in 360 BC.[22][23][24] At the Battle of Erigon Valley in 358 BC, the Illyrians under Bardylis were defeated by Phillip II and Lynkestis became part of Macedon. After his conquest, Philip founded Heraclea Lyncestis, which would become the main city of the area in antiquity. Although they became part of Macedon, Lynkestians retained their own basileus.[5]

According to Hammond, the locals were recruited by Philip II to serve in the king’s army due to their common language as well as because they were accorded equal terms with the population of Lower Macedonia.[25] Later they contributed to the Indian campaign led by Alexander the Great.[26]

Name

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The etymology of the geographical name Lynkos/Lynkestis and tribal name Lynkestai is uncertain. The geographical names that contain the root Λυγκ- Lynk- either may refer to the "lynx" or not, and they may well be of Pre-Greek origin. It seems possible that the Greek word for "lynx" (λύγξ, λύγκος) came from those toponyms.[27] The tribal name Lynkestes bears the typical Illyrian suffix -st-.[28][29]

Geography

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Lynkestis was the northernmost mountainous region of Upper Macedonia, located east of the Prespa Lakes. Lynkestis bordered with Pelagonia to the northeast, Emathia and Almopia to the southeast, and Orestia, Eordaia and the Haliacmon river at some distance to the south. To the west Lynkestis bordered with Illyria. Lynkestis was strategically very important because the major east–west route and one of the north–south routes passed through the core of this region.[30]

 
Ruins at Heraclea Lyncestis, founded by Philip II.

Lynkestis was a small region but strategically situated as it was the entry point for Illyrian movements into central Macedonia.[3] The constant threat of Illyrian invasions through the region of Lynkestis into the Argead realm made its subjugation amongst the principal aims of the Argeads.[3] The Tsangon Pass was a mountain pass in the south of Little Prespa that linked the region of Lynkestis to southern Illyria.[31] Another important east–west route between Illyria and Macedonia was controlled by Heraclea Lyncestis, which was founded by Philip to prevent Illyrian raids from the west into Macedon.[32]

Lynkestis and the rest of Upper Macedonia was characterized by cold winters with rainfalls that were very heavy, and hot summers. In this region life was hard and mainly a matter of survival. According to the season of the year the mostly nomadic pastoralist people of the area moved their flocks of cattle, goats and sheep to the various pasture lands.[33]

There were perhaps no towns of any size in Lynkestis prior to the foundation of Heraclea Lyncestis in the mid 4th century BC. The settlements were described only as "villages", which are typical of tribal peoples.[20] In Roman times, the Via Egnatia crossed the area and there were several Roman stations in it.[34]

History

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Early period

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Lyncestis and the rest of Upper Macedonia is marked in the Late Bronze Age by the appearance of finds of Mycenaean Greek manufacture, and in the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age by the appearance and spread of matt-painted pottery known as "Macedonian matt-painted ware", "north-western matt-painted ware", "Doric ware", etc. The latter is believed by older and modern scholars to have been manufactured by local northwestern Greek tribes that were mentioned in the narratives of Herodotus, including Macedonians and Dorians, who according to the Ancient Greek author travelled from the south northwards before settling in the Pindus mountain range.[35]

Lynkestis was among the districts that constituted the heartland of Upper Macedonia in the Archaic and early Classical period.[36] The inhabitants of Lynkestis, like other peoples in Upper Macedonia, were mostly nomadic tribes, who were ruled by individual chieftains and who probably lived in basic settlements in the tribal areas instead of actual towns.[37] Their way of life was based on conditions which in general combined sedentary agriculture and transhumant pasturing.[38] Lynkestians, like other Upper Macedonians as well as Lower Macedonians, might well have believed they were descendants of the mythical figure of Makedon, claiming he was a son of Zeus, the chief god of the Greek pantheon. However, their chieftains had more in common with their Illyrian and Paeonian neighbors than their supposed countrymen, the Lower Macedonians.[37] Though it is noted that the populations of both Upper and Lower Macedonia apparently shared a common language and a common way of life which differed from those inhabiting Illyria and Thrace.[39] From early times the Lynkestians were ruled by a basileus as the rest of Upper Macedonia and Lower Macedonia.[5]

Following the withdrawal of the Bryges in c. 800 BC the Lyncestae formed their separate political entity like the rest of the Upper Macedonian populations.[40] As early as the 7th century BC occasional Illyrian invasions against Argead Macedonia inevitably also involved the Upper Macedonian regions of Lynkestis, Orestis, Eordaea, Elimea and Tymphaea, because they were located between Illyrian territory and the lands of the Argeads, who were based at Aegae.[41][42] Before the rise of Macedon Upper Macedonia had been under constant attacks and raids by Illyrians: from the rise of the Argead dynasty until unification with Lower Macedonia.[40][43] Worthington (2008) says that the Illyrians had dominated Upper Macedonia for centuries and had invaded the Lower areas frequently.[44] On the other hand, Billows (2018) says that the Illyrian invasions constituted more of a threat to raid and pillage against Upper Macedonia than to occupy or dominate Macedonia territory.[45]

Lynkestian kingdom

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Lynkestis was originally an autonomous kingdom in the region of Upper Macedonia.[37] It remained outside the region of power of the Macedonian Argead kings[46] until Philip's conquest in 358 BC.[47] Lynkestis' lack of loyalty to the Argeads and their Macedonian kingdom was due in part to the Illyrian non-Macedonian elements of that region, and in part to the rivalries of its ruling families towards the Argeads.[48] The initial strengthening of the positions of the various basileus in Macedonia may rest in the common ethnic and linguistic affinities of most people of Upper Macedonia, but it was fragile, as testified by the claim of independence of Lynkestis under its ruler Arrhabaeus during the Peloponnesian War.[39] There were also periods of cooperation: during the reign of the Macedonian king Alexander I (r. 494 – 454 BC), recognition of a common way of life and concern for more distant neighbors led to the creation of a nominal confederacy between the cantons of Upper Macedonia (Elimeia, Orestis, Lyncestis and Pelagonia) and those of Lower Macedonia (Pieria and Bottiaea).[49] It was probably a mutual concern over the expansionism undertaken by the Argeads that forged military cooperation between certain Illyrians and Lynkestians.[50] Upper Macedonia was not a culturally isolated region of the Greek world before the reign of Philip.[51] About mid 5th century BC a royal dynasty claiming descent from aristocratic Bacchiad exiles from Corinth, who went to Lynkestis through Corcyra and Illyria, established itself ruling over Lynkestian Macedonians.[30] The kings of Lynkestis were Greek-speaking.[2] It is suggested that the royal family was generally considered to be outsiders by the Lynkestian citizens,[52][53] and Herodotus noted that the Bacchiadae practiced endogamy.[54] In the second half of the 5th century BC Lynkestis was the strongest tribal state in Upper Macedonia under Bomerus' son Arrhabaeus,[20] who was the first attested Lynkestian ruler.[55]

Classical era

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Lynkestis in the north-west of the traditional region of Macedonia.

A nominal confederacy between Lynkestis and the Upper Macedonian regions of Elimeia, Orestis and Pelagonia as well as Lower Macedonia (Pieria and Bottiaea) was created during the reign of Alexander I of Macedon (c. 495–454 B.C.).[56][39] Arrhabaeus entered into conflict with Perdiccas II of Macedon.[57] During the Peloponnesian War, a coalition of Lynkestians under Arrhabaeus and Illyrians defeated the joined forces of the Macedonian king Perdiccas II, who had wanted to invade Lynkestis, and the Spartan leader Brasidas, at the Battle of Lyncestis in 423 BC.[21] Besides Brasidas' forces, Perdiccas' faction was supported by Chalcidians, however the campaign against Lynkestis was a disaster because of Macedonian incompetence, resulting in the end of Brasidas' alliance with Perdiccas.[58] A pacification between Arrhabaeus and Perdiccas was started by Athenians. Perdiccas was interested in peace with Lynkestis due to his recent defeat in the Lynkestian campaign, the Lynkestian-Illyrian collaboration, and his new enmity with Brasidas. On the other hand, Arrhabaeus was interested in peace with the Argeads to avert future invasions of his realm by Macedon.[59]

In 413 Perdiccas's son Archelaus obtained the throne of Macedon, and he evidently continued his father's conflict against the Lynkestians, probably involving Illyrians. The Macedonian king undertook a war against the Lynkestian Arrhabaeus and his Illyrian or Lynkestian ally, Sirras.[60][61] Seeking help from the king of Elimeia, the marriage of Archelaus' eldest daughter with the king of Elimeia ensured a solid Upper Macedonian ally for Archelaus' war against Arrhabaeus and Sirras.[60] Additionally, Archelaus made general ameliorations to the military and reinforced the borders of his kingdom,[62] which apparently held the Illyrians momentarily at bay.[63]

The Illyrians (or an Illyrian-Lynkestian coalition) under king Bardylis invaded Macedon in 393 BC,[64] reaching Lower Macedonia as far as the Thermaic Gulf.[65] They expelled the Macedonian king Amyntas III out of Macedonia, and a puppet king, Argaeus II, who may have been a Lynkestian ruler,[66] was appointed to the throne of Macedon.[67] After two years, with the aid of Thessalians, Amyntas retook the throne of Macedon. Another possible Illyrian invasion of Macedon occurred around mid 380s. Amyntas retained his throne, but had to pay tribute to Bardylis.[67] After Bardylis' victory against Perdiccas III of Macedon in 360 BC Lynkestis was annexed or retained by the Illyrian king.[22][23][24]

Macedonian rule

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Map of the Kingdom of Macedon with Lynkestis (Lynkos) located in the western districts of the kingdom after Philip II's expansion in 358 BC.

Illyrian dominion in Upper Macedonia, in particular in Lynkestis, and their incursions in Lower Macedonia in 360–359 BC have been the main impetus for Argead's incorporation of Upper Macedonia into the Macedonian kingdom.[68][24][69][70] After his ascension to the throne of Macedon Philip II wanted the total end of Illyrian influence in Upper Macedonia.[71] In 359 BC, negotiations took place between Bardylis and Philip II of Macedon, following the latter's ascension to the throne that year. In the negotiations, Bardylis demanded, and Philip refused, the continuing occupation of "Macedonian poleis" (i.e. Lynkestian strongholds). In 358 BC Philip mounted a major invasion of Illyrian-held territory, and decisively defeated the Illyrians under Bardylis in the Battle of Erigon Valley in 358 BC.[72] Philip's victories against the Illyrians in 358 BC overturned decades of Illyrian raids upon Macedonia,[73] and he was able to unite Upper and Lower Macedonia for the first time in the history of those regions.[71][73] After his victory, Philip II is said to have subdued all the area as far as Lake Ohrid, northwest of the Prespa Lakes region in Deuriopus. Soon after his victory in 358 BC Lynkestis, Pelagonia, Orestis and Tymphaea, were incorporated into Philip's greater Macedonia.[73] In the same year, Philip founded Heraclea Lyncestis, which would go on to become the chief city of the region until Late Antiquity.

The Lyncestae after incorporation retained their local ethnonym like the rest of the Upper Macedonian and Epirote tribes that became part of Macedon. This was not the case of the non-Greek populations (Thracians and Paeonians) indicating that the Lynkestae shared a common Greek identity with the core of the Macedonian kingdom.[74] The locals were recruited by Philip to serve in the king’s army due to their common language as well as due to the fact that they were accorded equal terms with the population of Lower Macedonia.[25]

In civilian life all Upper Macedonian populations retained the epithet "Macedonians" (Greek: Λυγκισταί Μακεδόνες etc.) in contrast to the non-Macedonian conquered populations; Illyrians, Paeonians, Chalkidians etc.[75]

The populations of Upper Macedonia contributed decisively to Alexander's victorious Indian campaign; three out of six brigades of Alexander's military in 330 BC came from Upper Macedonia and an essential part of them were men from Lyncestis. [26] Regional infantry regiments (taxeis) served in Alexander's army were composed of men from various Upper Macedonian regions including Lyncestis. In contrast to non-Macedonians who served in their own units and were general listed separately in the sources.[76]

Lynkestian dynasty

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Lynkestian king Arrhabaeus who ruled in the second half of the 5th century BC was the son of Bomerus.[20] According to Strabo, Irra was the daughter of Arrhabaeus, and his granddaughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip II.[77] Amyntas, one of the commanders sent by Philip II to defeat some of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, was a son of the Lynkestian king Arrhabaeus.[78]

Aeropus of Lynkestis, who was exiled by Philip II when he suspected him of treason, had three sons: Arrhabaeus, Heromenes, and Alexander.[79]

Culture

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Language

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The available inscriptional evidence suggests that the people of Lynkestis spoke Northwest Greek,[80] in contrast to those of Lower Macedonia who spoke Aeolic Greek.[12] The Greek geographer Hecateus when describing the region in 6th century BC placed the Lynkestians in the Molossian cluster of tribes, an indication that Lynkestians were Greek speakers from that time.[6][81] Moreover, Hammond asserts that their dialect was similar to that of the Molossians.[11]

The Macedonian population residing in Upper and Lower Macedonia appears to have spoken a language that belonged to the same branch of the Indo-European family. Whereas the adjacent populations in Illyria and Thrace spoke different languages that belong to separate branches of the Indo-European linguistic family.[39] Based on the fact that Lynkestis was one of the regions that was previously inhabited by the Bryges, it has been suggested that there may have been a 'Brygian' substratum or a strong influence by this Paleo-Balkan people.[82]

A corpus of inscriptions from the region of Lynkestis (city of Heraclea Lyncestis and its vicinity), was published by Fanula Papazoglou et al. in 1999. Of the inscriptions, 2.4% can be dated to the Hellenistic period, and the rest to the Roman period. The great majority of the inscriptions is in Greek, but quite a few are in Latin, and also bilingual (Greek-Latin) inscriptions appear.[83]

Religion

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A temple of Zeus Hypsistos (Greek: Διός Υψίστου) was erected in Heraclea during the Roman period or earlier.[84] Findings, linked to the specific cult, are found all over Upper Macedonia.[85] Based on the archaeological findings other cults include those of Demeter,[86] Appolo, Artemis,[87] Dioskouroi, Athena,[88] Aphrodite and Dionysos.[89]

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Concerning Strabo's account (1st century BC/AD), some scholars (including N. G. L. Hammond) believe that he included the Lyncestae among the Epirote tribes,[7][10][11][12] others believe that he included them among the Illyrian tribes.[13][14]

Citations

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  1. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: Lynkestis (or Lynkos), was the northernmost of the mountainous Upper Makedonian regions; Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 224: "Lynkos (Lynkestai), region and principality in Upper Macedonia"; Worthington 2014, p. 14: "Upper Macedonia, on the other hand, had a far harsher climate and was the highlands of the country. Here, Elimiotis (in the south), Orestis (to the west), and Lyncestis (to the northwest, by Lake Lychnitis) had been originally autonomous kingdoms"; Bowden 2014, p. 42: "Two men from the leading family of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia"; Lane Fox 2011, p. 342; Salmon 2012, p. 220; Cartledge 2011, p. 227.
  2. ^ a b Plant 2004, p. 43: "The kings of Lyncestae, however, were Greek-speaking, and claimed descent from the Bacchiadae, an important aristocratic Corinthian family."
  3. ^ a b c d Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 138: Although it was rather small, L. controlled a route into Central Makedonia that made it a corridor of Illyrian invasions into the Argead realm. (..) While evidence for L. during the rule of the Argeads is scarce, the few existing snippets indicate that its rulers were well connected with the Illyrians and frequently hostile to the Argeads
  4. ^ Strabo, Geographica: 7, 7, 8.
  5. ^ a b c Worthington, Ian (12 March 2012). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-136-64004-9.
  6. ^ a b Malkin, Irad (2001). Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity. Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-674-00662-1. Hecataeus calls the Eliminiotae, Orestae, Lyncastae, and Pelagones of Uppers Macedonia 'Molossian' and since Molossian inscriptions found at the sanctuary of Dodona are inscribed in a West Greek dialect, one would expect the Macedonians to have belonged to a West Greek linguistic Koinē that extended across much of northern and northwestern Greece
  7. ^ a b Hammond 1982, p. 266: "On crossing the Balkan chain, we find that Hecataeus called the Orestae 'a Molossian tribe' (F 107), and Strabo (434; cf. 326) probably derived from Hecataeus his belief that the Elimeotae, Lyncestae, and Pelagones, as well as the Orestae, were Epirotic or rather Molossian tribes before their incorporation by the Macedones into the Macedonian kingdom."
  8. ^ a b Eichner 2004, p. 99: "Thukydides nennt noch andere Stämme, die in späterer Quelle als illyrisch gelten, wie die Lynkester (II 99 Λύγκησται, als den Makedonen zugehörig, doch mit eigenen Königen) und die Atintaner (II 80, 6 Ἀτιντᾶνες, als Bundes-genosssen der Molosser, später südlich des Devoll ansässig), aber ohne sie zu als Illyrer bezeichnen."
  9. ^ Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 12: "This legend was hardly compatible with Thucydides' (2.99) more sober narrative, however: 'So Sitalces' army was being mustered at Doberus and preparing to pass over the mountain crest and descend upon lower Macedonia, of which Perdiccas was ruler. For the Macedonian race includes also the Lyncestians, Elimiotes, and other tribes of the upper country, which, though in alliance with the nearer Macedonians and subject to them, have kings of their own; but the country by the sea which is now called Macedonia, was first acquired and made their kingdom by Alexander, the father of Perdiccas, and his forefathers, who were originally Temenidae from Argos'."
  10. ^ a b Filos, Panagiotis (2018). "New Developments and Tradition in Epirus: The Creation of the Molossian State". Politics, Territory and Identity in Ancient Epirus. - ( Diabaseis; 8): 288. doi:10.1400/272094. ISBN 978-8846754158. Retrieved 18 January 2024. Strabo (Geogr. 7.7.1, 7.7.8) who wrote on the basis of previous historians, such as Hecataeus, Theopompus and others, points to 14 tribes instead, since one must also take into account here three more tribes (Λυγκησταί, Πελαγόνες, Ἐλιμιῶται) which most classical and contemporary authors considered Macedonian.
  11. ^ a b Hammond 1993, pp. 132–133: "Further, the tribes which Strabo termed "Epirotic" — Orestai, Tymphaioi, Elimiotai, Lynkestai and Pelagones — are likely to have spoken the same dialect as the Molossians, to whom they were in some sense related."
  12. ^ a b Templar, Marcus Alexander (2009). "Hellenic Migrations and Katadesmos: A Paradigm of Macedonian Speech" (PDF). Ninth Viennial Conference of Greek Linguistics. University of Chicago: 8–9. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  13. ^ D'Ercole 2020, p. 323: "This itinerary gave access to the prosperous mining districts of the hinterland, among these, the silver mine of Damastion, a still unidentified settlement in the Balkans, situated by Strabo (7-7.8) between the Illyrian tribes of Encheleii and Lyncestae. The cultural impact of the Corinthian colonies also reached the opposite"
  14. ^ Silberman & Zehnacker 2015, p. 190: "Lyncestae, population à majorité illyrienne (Liv. XLV, 30; Strab. VII, 7, 8), est traversée par l'Erigon (Crna Reka) et correspond à la partie est du lac Prespa et au nord de l'antique Eordaia"
  15. ^
    • Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 12: "It is possible that the Derriopes were an outshot of the Upper Macedonian ethne, the foothills of Mount Peristeri assuring the territorial continuity with the Macedonian Lynkestai."
    • King 2017, p. 5: "About 450 a royal dynasty claiming descent from aristocratic Bacchiad exiles from Corinth, who came to the region via Corcyra (a Corinthian colony) and Illyria, established itself and ruled over Lynkestian Macedonians."
    • Gabriel 2010, p. 40: "The passes and mountains of the innermost defensive ring ran through Macedonia's four Upper Contaons -Elimeia, Orestes, Lyncus, and Pelagonia- which served as buffers between Macedonia proper and Illyria. The peoples of these cantons were Greek-speaking Macedonians who continued to live the old transhumant pastoral life
  16. ^
    • Xydopoulos 2012, p. 529
    • Hammond 2014, pp. 480, 482: "Of the cantons of Upper Macedonia .... Lyncus ... Upper Macedonia, which was peopled by Epirotic tribes with their own dialect of Greek"; and Hammond 2001, p. 158: "Pelagones in the region of Prilep, the Lyncestae in the region of Florina, the Orestae in the region of Kastoria, and the Elimeotae in the region of Kozani. These tribes were all Epirotic tribes and they talked the Greek language but with a different dialect, the Northwest Greek dialect, as we know now from the local questions which were put to the god of Dodona."
    • Borza 1992, p. 74: "The western Greek people (with affinities to the Epirotic tribes) in Orestis, Lyncus, and parts of Pelagonia."
  17. ^
    • Wheeler 2017, p. 434: "With his aid Perdiccas defeated in pitched battle his old enemy Arrhabaeus, king of Lyncestae, an Illyrian tribe inhabiting the mountainous region of the upper Erigon, near modern Bitola"
    • D'Ercole 2020, p. 323: "This itinerary gave access to the prosperous mining districts of the hinterland, among these, the silver mine of Damastion, a still unidentified settlement in the Balkans, situated by Strabo (7-7.8) between the Illyrian tribes of Encheleii and Lyncestae. The cultural impact of the Corinthian colonies also reached the opposite"
    • Rossignoli 2004, p. 122: "una principessa della stirpe illirica dei Lincesti" translation: "a princess of the Illyrian lineage of the Lyncestes"
    • Silberman & Zehnacker 2015, p. 190: "Lyncestae, population à majorité illyrienne (Liv. XLV, 30; Strab. VII, 7, 8), est traversée par l'Erigon (Crna Reka) et correspond à la partie est du lac Prespa et au nord de l'antique Eordaia"
  18. ^ Hammond 2014, pp. 480, 482; Mallios 2011, p. 37; Gabriel 2010, p. 40; Iordanidis, Garcia-Guinea & Karamitrou-Mentessidi 2007, pp. 1797–1798; Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724; Borza 1992, p. 74.
  19. ^ Winter 2006, p. 32: "Als griechische Stämme sind in dem Gebiet die Bottiaier, Oresten, Elimioten, Pelagoner und Lynkester überliefert"
  20. ^ a b c d King 2017, p. 5
  21. ^ a b Dzino 2014, p. 49
  22. ^ a b Lane Fox 2011, pp. 342, 610
  23. ^ a b Worthington 2008, p. 23–24.
  24. ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 29.
  25. ^ a b Hammond 1997, p. 44
  26. ^ a b Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2011, p. 96
  27. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 875
  28. ^ Ducat 1994, p. 69.
  29. ^ Garlan 2010, p. 106.
  30. ^ a b King 2017, p. 5.
  31. ^ Papazoglu 1988, p. 280
  32. ^ Morton 2017, p. 91.
  33. ^ Worthington 2008, p. 6
  34. ^ Samsaris 1989, pp. 24, 182.
  35. ^ Iordanidis, Garcia-Guinea & Karamitrou-Mentessidi 2007, pp. 1797–1798: "Scholars both earlier and modern believe it was manufactured by the northwestern Greek tribes, Herodotus's 'widely roaming nation' (1.56). He includes among these the Macedonians and the Dorians, who, he says, traveled from the south northwards and also settled in the Pindos."
  36. ^ King 2017, p. 6.
  37. ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 14.
  38. ^ Roisman 2011, p. 74.
  39. ^ a b c d Howe & Reames 2008, pp. 5–6: "Macedonia may rest in common ethnic and linguistic affinities among most people of upper Macedonia. By the Bronze Age, Indo-Europeans prevailed in this region although there were exceptions, for example the Bryges. Differences in the closeness of affinity existed: the language of the Macedonians residing in lower and upper Macedonia appears to have come from the same limb of the Indo-European tree while that of more distant people—those of Thrace and Illyria—represented a different limb, albeit still Indo-European. In addition, the peoples of lower and upper Macedonia shared a common way of life in combining sedentary agriculture with transhumant pasturing. Geography furnished similar resources in the rivers and the riches of the mountains—wild animals, timber, and minerals. The history of settlement also created a common political life with personal leadership vested in a particular family. Recognition of these commonalities allowed the nominal confederacy of Elimeia, Orestis, Lynkestis, and Pelagonia with lower Macedonia during the kingship of Alexander I (498-454). It was fragile, as the assertion of independence by Lynkestis under its ruler Arrhabaios during the Peloponnesian War testifies (Thuc. 2.99.2). Renewed efforts to centralize the larger Macedonian area occurred during the reign of Archelaos (413-399) with centralization at Pella and fortification of the core that had been weakened by events in Greece following the end of the Peloponnesian War ... Incursion of the Illyrians in 360-59 may have been the main impetus for growing integration. Travelling to lower Macedonia had taken the Illyrian warriors through upper Macedonia to kingdoms west and north. Thus the Illyrians were a common enemy, distanced by language, as noted above, and also by way of life.
  40. ^ a b Butler, Margaret Erwin (2008). Of Swords and Strigils: Social Change in Ancient Macedon. Stanford University. p. 46.
  41. ^ Greenwalt 2011, pp. 281–282.
  42. ^ Butler, Margaret Erwin (2008). Of Swords and Strigils: Social Change in Ancient Macedon. Stanford University. p. 46. the Lyncestae... in the north were more of less independent tribes, suffering the occasional Illyrian invasion: Illyrians remained a constant threat from the early years of the Argead line right up into Philip's reign.
  43. ^ Champion 2014, p. 2.
  44. ^ Worthington 2008, p. 6: "Upper Macedonia (west of Lower Macedonia), in which the Macedonian king had little influence, was an area of remote cantons inhabited mostly by different tribes, stretching up to the Illyrians. It comprised the areas of Tymphaea, Elimea, Orestis, Eordaea, Lyncus, Pelagonia and Derriopus." p. 13: "The Illyrians had dominated Upper Macedonia for centuries and had invaded the Lower areas frequently."
  45. ^ Billows, Richard A. (12 June 2018). Before and After Alexander: The Legend and Legacy of Alexander the Great. Abrams. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4683-1641-4. The Illyrians normally constituted more of a threat to raid and pillage upper Macedonia, rather than to occupy and dominate the realm
  46. ^ Errington 2002, p. 19
  47. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: "There is no evidence that any Argead was able to conquer L. before Philip II in 358."
  48. ^ Billows 1995, p. 3: "To the west, the highland cantons of Macedonia itself—Eordaia, Elimea, Tymphaia, Orestis, Lynkos and Pelagonia—presented a major problem in their lack of loyalty to the Argead monarchy and the Macedonian state it represented. This disloyalty stemmed partly from the presence of non-Macedonian elements in the populations of these cantons—Epeirotic (Molossian) elements in Tymphaia and Orestis, Illyrian elements in Lynkos and Pelagonia—and partly from the rivalry of local dynastic families towards the Argeads.10 A strong Macedonia required the full integration of these cantons into the Macedonian state, which could only be achieved by subduing the local dynasties and/or reconciling them to Argead suzerainty, and stimulating among the population a sense of belonging to the Macedonian state."
  49. ^ Thomas 2010, p. 74.
  50. ^ King 2024, p. 156.
  51. ^ Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2011, pp. 109–110
  52. ^ Hammond 1966, p. 244.
  53. ^ Cabanes 1988, pp. 92–93.
  54. ^ Herodotus, Histories, Book 5, chapter 92B
  55. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: "Recognizing L.'s autonomy in the time of → Perdikkas II, → Thucydides terms the regional dynast the "basileus of the Makedonian Lynkestians" (4.83.1): he was not a subject of the Argeads [...] The first ruler of L. to appear in our sources is Arrhabaios, son of Bomeros"
  56. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7.
  57. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318.
  58. ^ Psoma 2011, p. 117
  59. ^ Roisman 2011, p. 152.
  60. ^ a b Roisman 2011, p. 156; Greenwalt 2011, p. 283; King 2017, pp. 55, 64.
  61. ^ Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 134; Psoma 2011, p. 121; Worthington 2008, p. 245.
  62. ^ King 2017, p. 55; Roisman 2011, p. 156
  63. ^ King 2017, p. 55.
  64. ^ Carney 2019, pp. 27–28; Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, pp. 87, 273; King 2017, pp. 57, 64; Carney & Müller 2020, p. 391; Müller 2021, p. 36; Palairet 2016, p. 29.
  65. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; King 2017, pp. 57, 64.
  66. ^ Palairet 2016, p. 29.
  67. ^ a b Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; Thomas 2008, pp. 70–71.
  68. ^ Worthington 2008, pp. 6, 13, 23–24.
  69. ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 138.
  70. ^ King 2024, pp. 156–157.
  71. ^ a b Worthington 2014, p. 39.
  72. ^ Lane Fox 2011, p. 343
  73. ^ a b c King 2017, p. 73
  74. ^ Mallios 2011, p. 37.
  75. ^ Hammond, N. G. L. (1995). "Connotations of 'Macedonia' and of 'Macedones' Until 323 B. C.". The Classical Quarterly. 45 (1): 125–126. doi:10.1017/S0009838800041744. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639722. S2CID 170892987.
  76. ^ Errington 1990, p. 242
  77. ^ Strabo. Geography, 7.7: "The Lyncestae were under Arrhabaeus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadae. Irra was his daughter, and his grand-daughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip Amyntas."
  78. ^ Worthington 2014, p. 111.
  79. ^ Worthington 2014, p. 122.
  80. ^ Mallios 2011, p. 120.
  81. ^ Hammond 1982, p. 284.
  82. ^ Šašel Kos 2005, p. 110.
  83. ^ Salomies 2001, p. 263.
  84. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 70
  85. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 71
  86. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 104
  87. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 114
  88. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 150
  89. ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 152

Bibliography

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Further reading

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