Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space

Four-dimensional rotations are of two types: simple rotations and double rotations.

A simple rotation R about a rotation centre O leaves an entire plane A through O (axis-plane) fixed. Every plane B that is completely orthogonal to A intersects A in a certain point P. For each such point P is the centre of the 2D rotation induced by R in B. All these 2D rotations have the same rotation angle α.

Half-lines from O in the axis-plane A are not displaced; half-lines from O orthogonal to A are displaced through α; all other half-lines are displaced through an angle less than α.

 

 

For each rotation R of 4-space (fixing the origin), there is at least one pair of orthogonal 2-planes A and B each of which is invariant and whose direct sum A ⊕ B is all of 4-space. Hence R operating on either of these planes produces an ordinary rotation of that plane. For almost all R (all of the 6-dimensional set of rotations except for a 3-dimensional subset), the rotation angles α in plane A and β in plane B – both assumed to be nonzero – are different. The unequal rotation angles α and β satisfying −π < α, β < π are almost^[a] uniquely determined by R. Assuming that 4-space is oriented, then the orientations of the 2-planes A and B can be chosen consistent with this orientation in two ways. If the rotation angles are unequal (α ≠ β), R is sometimes termed a "double rotation".

In that case of a double rotation, A and B are the only pair of invariant planes, and half-lines from the origin in A, B are displaced through α and β respectively, and half-lines from the origin not in A or B are displaced through angles strictly between α and β.

If the rotation angles of a double rotation are equal then there are infinitely many invariant planes instead of just two, and all half-lines from O are displaced through the same angle. Such rotations are called isoclinic or equiangular rotations, or Clifford displacements. Beware: not all planes through O are invariant under isoclinic rotations; only planes that are spanned by a half-line and the corresponding displaced half-lines are invariant.^[2]

Assuming that a fixed orientation has been chosen for 4-dimensional space, isoclinic 4D rotations may be put into two categories. To see this, consider an isoclinic rotation R, and take an orientation-consistent ordered set OU, OX, OY, OZ of mutually perpendicular half-lines at O (denoted as OUXYZ) such that OU and OX span an invariant plane, and therefore OY and OZ also span an invariant plane. Now assume that only the rotation angle α is specified. Then there are in general four isoclinic rotations in planes OUX and OYZ with rotation angle α, depending on the rotation senses in OUX and OYZ.

We make the convention that the rotation senses from OU to OX and from OY to OZ are reckoned positive. Then we have the four rotations R₁ = (+α, +α), R₂ = (−α, −α), R₃ = (+α, −α) and R₄ = (−α, +α). R₁ and R₂ are each other's inverses; so are R₃ and R₄. As long as α lies between 0 and π, these four rotations will be distinct.

Isoclinic rotations with like signs are denoted as left-isoclinic; those with opposite signs as right-isoclinic. Left- and right-isoclinic rotations are represented respectively by left- and right-multiplication by unit quaternions; see the paragraph "Relation to quaternions" below.

The four rotations are pairwise different except if α = 0 or α = π. The angle α = 0 corresponds to the identity rotation; α = π corresponds to the central inversion, given by the negative of the identity matrix. These two elements of SO(4) are the only ones that are simultaneously left- and right-isoclinic.

Left- and right-isocliny defined as above seem to depend on which specific isoclinic rotation was selected. However, when another isoclinic rotation R′ with its own axes OU′, OX′, OY′, OZ′ is selected, then one can always choose the order of U′, X′, Y′, Z′ such that OUXYZ can be transformed into OU′X′Y′Z′ by a rotation rather than by a rotation-reflection (that is, so that the ordered basis OU′, OX′, OY′, OZ′ is also consistent with the same fixed choice of orientation as OU, OX, OY, OZ). Therefore, once one has selected an orientation (that is, a system OUXYZ of axes that is universally denoted as right-handed), one can determine the left or right character of a specific isoclinic rotation.

SO(4) is a noncommutative compact 6-dimensional Lie group.

Each plane through the rotation centre O is the axis-plane of a commutative subgroup isomorphic to SO(2). All these subgroups are mutually conjugate in SO(4).

Each pair of completely orthogonal planes through O is the pair of invariant planes of a commutative subgroup of SO(4) isomorphic to SO(2) × SO(2).

These groups are maximal tori of SO(4), which are all mutually conjugate in SO(4). See also Clifford torus.

All left-isoclinic rotations form a noncommutative subgroup S³_L of SO(4), which is isomorphic to the multiplicative group S³ of unit quaternions. All right-isoclinic rotations likewise form a subgroup S³_R of SO(4) isomorphic to S³. Both S³_L and S³_R are maximal subgroups of SO(4).

Each left-isoclinic rotation commutes with each right-isoclinic rotation. This implies that there exists a direct product S³_L × S³_R with normal subgroups S³_L and S³_R; both of the corresponding factor groups are isomorphic to the other factor of the direct product, i.e. isomorphic to S³. (This is not SO(4) or a subgroup of it, because S³_L and S³_R are not disjoint: the identity I and the central inversion −I each belong to both S³_L and S³_R.)

Each 4D rotation A is in two ways the product of left- and right-isoclinic rotations A_L and A_R. A_L and A_R are together determined up to the central inversion, i.e. when both A_L and A_R are multiplied by the central inversion their product is A again.

This implies that S³_L × S³_R is the universal covering group of SO(4) — its unique double cover — and that S³_L and S³_R are normal subgroups of SO(4). The identity rotation I and the central inversion −I form a group C₂ of order 2, which is the centre of SO(4) and of both S³_L and S³_R. The centre of a group is a normal subgroup of that group. The factor group of C₂ in SO(4) is isomorphic to SO(3) × SO(3). The factor groups of S³_L by C₂ and of S³_R by C₂ are each isomorphic to SO(3). Similarly, the factor groups of SO(4) by S³_L and of SO(4) by S³_R are each isomorphic to SO(3).

The topology of SO(4) is the same as that of the Lie group SO(3) × Spin(3) = SO(3) × SU(2), namely the space ${\displaystyle \mathbb {P} ^{3}\times \mathbb {S} ^{3}}$  where ${\displaystyle \mathbb {P} ^{3}}$  is the real projective space of dimension 3 and ${\displaystyle \mathbb {S} ^{3}}$  is the 3-sphere. However, it is noteworthy that, as a Lie group, SO(4) is not a direct product of Lie groups, and so it is not isomorphic to SO(3) × Spin(3) = SO(3) × SU(2).

The odd-dimensional rotation groups do not contain the central inversion and are simple groups.

The even-dimensional rotation groups do contain the central inversion −I and have the group C₂ = {I, −I} as their centre. For even n ≥ 6, SO(n) is almost simple in that the factor group SO(n)/C₂ of SO(n) by its centre is a simple group.

SO(4) is different: there is no conjugation by any element of SO(4) that transforms left- and right-isoclinic rotations into each other. Reflections transform a left-isoclinic rotation into a right-isoclinic one by conjugation, and vice versa. This implies that under the group O(4) of all isometries with fixed point O the distinct subgroups S³_L and S³_R are conjugate to each other, and so cannot be normal subgroups of O(4). The 5D rotation group SO(5) and all higher rotation groups contain subgroups isomorphic to O(4). Like SO(4), all even-dimensional rotation groups contain isoclinic rotations. But unlike SO(4), in SO(6) and all higher even-dimensional rotation groups any two isoclinic rotations through the same angle are conjugate. The set of all isoclinic rotations is not even a subgroup of SO(2N), let alone a normal subgroup.

SO(4) is commonly identified with the group of orientation-preserving isometric linear mappings of a 4D vector space with inner product over the real numbers onto itself.

With respect to an orthonormal basis in such a space SO(4) is represented as the group of real 4th-order orthogonal matrices with determinant +1.^[3]

A 4D rotation given by its matrix is decomposed into a left-isoclinic and a right-isoclinic rotation^[4] as follows:

Let

${\displaystyle A={\begin{pmatrix}a_{00}&a_{01}&a_{02}&a_{03}\\a_{10}&a_{11}&a_{12}&a_{13}\\a_{20}&a_{21}&a_{22}&a_{23}\\a_{30}&a_{31}&a_{32}&a_{33}\\\end{pmatrix}}}$ 

be its matrix with respect to an arbitrary orthonormal basis.

Calculate from this the so-called associate matrix

${\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{4}}{\begin{pmatrix}a_{00}+a_{11}+a_{22}+a_{33}&+a_{10}-a_{01}-a_{32}+a_{23}&+a_{20}+a_{31}-a_{02}-a_{13}&+a_{30}-a_{21}+a_{12}-a_{03}\\a_{10}-a_{01}+a_{32}-a_{23}&-a_{00}-a_{11}+a_{22}+a_{33}&+a_{30}-a_{21}-a_{12}+a_{03}&-a_{20}-a_{31}-a_{02}-a_{13}\\a_{20}-a_{31}-a_{02}+a_{13}&-a_{30}-a_{21}-a_{12}-a_{03}&-a_{00}+a_{11}-a_{22}+a_{33}&+a_{10}+a_{01}-a_{32}-a_{23}\\a_{30}+a_{21}-a_{12}-a_{03}&+a_{20}-a_{31}+a_{02}-a_{13}&-a_{10}-a_{01}-a_{32}-a_{23}&-a_{00}+a_{11}+a_{22}-a_{33}\end{pmatrix}}}$ 

M has rank one and is of unit Euclidean norm as a 16D vector if and only if A is indeed a 4D rotation matrix. In this case there exist real numbers a, b, c, d and p, q, r, s such that

${\displaystyle M={\begin{pmatrix}ap&aq&ar&as\\bp&bq&br&bs\\cp&cq&cr&cs\\dp&dq&dr&ds\end{pmatrix}}}$ 

and

${\displaystyle (ap)^{2}+\cdots +(ds)^{2}=\left(a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+d^{2}\right)\left(p^{2}+q^{2}+r^{2}+s^{2}\right)=1.}$ 

There are exactly two sets of a, b, c, d and p, q, r, s such that a² + b² + c² + d² = 1 and p² + q² + r² + s² = 1. They are each other's opposites.

The rotation matrix then equals

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&={\begin{pmatrix}ap-bq-cr-ds&-aq-bp+cs-dr&-ar-bs-cp+dq&-as+br-cq-dp\\bp+aq-dr+cs&-bq+ap+ds+cr&-br+as-dp-cq&-bs-ar-dq+cp\\cp+dq+ar-bs&-cq+dp-as-br&-cr+ds+ap+bq&-cs-dr+aq-bp\\dp-cq+br+as&-dq-cp-bs+ar&-dr-cs+bp-aq&-ds+cr+bq+ap\end{pmatrix}}\\&={\begin{pmatrix}a&-b&-c&-d\\b&\;\,\,a&-d&\;\,\,c\\c&\;\,\,d&\;\,\,a&-b\\d&-c&\;\,\,b&\;\,\,a\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}p&-q&-r&-s\\q&\;\,\,p&\;\,\,s&-r\\r&-s&\;\,\,p&\;\,\,q\\s&\;\,\,r&-q&\;\,\,p\end{pmatrix}}.\end{aligned}}}$ 

This formula is due to Van Elfrinkhof (1897).

The first factor in this decomposition represents a left-isoclinic rotation, the second factor a right-isoclinic rotation. The factors are determined up to the negative 4th-order identity matrix, i.e. the central inversion.

A point in 4-dimensional space with Cartesian coordinates (u, x, y, z) may be represented by a quaternion P = u + xi + yj + zk.

A left-isoclinic rotation is represented by left-multiplication by a unit quaternion Q_L = a + bi + cj + dk. In matrix-vector language this is

${\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}u'\\x'\\y'\\z'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}a&-b&-c&-d\\b&\;\,\,a&-d&\;\,\,c\\c&\;\,\,d&\;\,\,a&-b\\d&-c&\;\,\,b&\;\,\,a\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}u\\x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}.}$ 

Likewise, a right-isoclinic rotation is represented by right-multiplication by a unit quaternion Q_R = p + qi + rj + sk, which is in matrix-vector form

${\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}u'\\x'\\y'\\z'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}p&-q&-r&-s\\q&\;\,\,p&\;\,\,s&-r\\r&-s&\;\,\,p&\;\,\,q\\s&\;\,\,r&-q&\;\,\,p\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}u\\x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}.}$ 

In the preceding section (isoclinic decomposition) it is shown how a general 4D rotation is split into left- and right-isoclinic factors.

In quaternion language Van Elfrinkhof's formula reads

${\displaystyle u'+x'i+y'j+z'k=(a+bi+cj+dk)(u+xi+yj+zk)(p+qi+rj+sk),}$ 

or, in symbolic form,

${\displaystyle P'=Q_{\mathrm {L} }PQ_{\mathrm {R} }.\,}$ 

According to the German mathematician Felix Klein this formula was already known to Cayley in 1854.^[5]

Quaternion multiplication is associative. Therefore,

${\displaystyle P'=\left(Q_{\mathrm {L} }P\right)Q_{\mathrm {R} }=Q_{\mathrm {L} }\left(PQ_{\mathrm {R} }\right),\,}$ 

which shows that left-isoclinic and right-isoclinic rotations commute.

The four eigenvalues of a 4D rotation matrix generally occur as two conjugate pairs of complex numbers of unit magnitude. If an eigenvalue is real, it must be ±1, since a rotation leaves the magnitude of a vector unchanged. The conjugate of that eigenvalue is also unity, yielding a pair of eigenvectors which define a fixed plane, and so the rotation is simple. In quaternion notation, a proper (i.e., non-inverting) rotation in SO(4) is a proper simple rotation if and only if the real parts of the unit quaternions Q_L and Q_R are equal in magnitude and have the same sign.^[b] If they are both zero, all eigenvalues of the rotation are unity, and the rotation is the null rotation. If the real parts of Q_L and Q_R are not equal then all eigenvalues are complex, and the rotation is a double rotation.

Our ordinary 3D space is conveniently treated as the subspace with coordinate system 0XYZ of the 4D space with coordinate system UXYZ. Its rotation group SO(3) is identified with the subgroup of SO(4) consisting of the matrices

${\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&\,\,0&\,\,0&\,\,0\\0&a_{11}&a_{12}&a_{13}\\0&a_{21}&a_{22}&a_{23}\\0&a_{31}&a_{32}&a_{33}\end{pmatrix}}.}$ 

In Van Elfrinkhof's formula in the preceding subsection this restriction to three dimensions leads to p = a, q = −b, r = −c, s = −d, or in quaternion representation: Q_R = Q_L′ = Q_L⁻¹. The 3D rotation matrix then becomes the Euler–Rodrigues formula for 3D rotations

${\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}a_{11}&a_{12}&a_{13}\\a_{21}&a_{22}&a_{23}\\a_{31}&a_{32}&a_{33}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}a^{2}+b^{2}-c^{2}-d^{2}&2(bc-ad)&2(bd+ac)\\2(bc+ad)&a^{2}-b^{2}+c^{2}-d^{2}&2(cd-ab)\\2(bd-ac)&2(cd+ab)&a^{2}-b^{2}-c^{2}+d^{2}\end{pmatrix}},}$ 

which is the representation of the 3D rotation by its Euler–Rodrigues parameters: a, b, c, d.

The corresponding quaternion formula P′ = QPQ⁻¹, where Q = Q_L, or, in expanded form:

${\displaystyle x'i+y'j+z'k=(a+bi+cj+dk)(xi+yj+zk)(a-bi-cj-dk)}$ 

is known as the Hamilton–Cayley formula.

Rotations in 3D space are made mathematically much more tractable by the use of spherical coordinates. Any rotation in 3D can be characterized by a fixed axis of rotation and an invariant plane perpendicular to that axis. Without loss of generality, we can take the xy-plane as the invariant plane and the z-axis as the fixed axis. Since radial distances are not affected by rotation, we can characterize a rotation by its effect on the unit sphere (2-sphere) by spherical coordinates referred to the fixed axis and invariant plane:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=\sin \theta \cos \phi \\y&=\sin \theta \sin \phi \\z&=\cos \theta \end{aligned}}}$ 

Because x² + y² + z² = 1, the points (x,y,z) lie on the unit 2-sphere. A point with angles {θ₀, φ₀}, rotated by an angle φ about the z-axis, becomes the point with angles {θ₀, φ₀ + φ}. While hyperspherical coordinates are also useful in dealing with 4D rotations, an even more useful coordinate system for 4D is provided by Hopf coordinates {ξ₁, η, ξ₂},^[6] which are a set of three angular coordinates specifying a position on the 3-sphere. For example:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u&=\cos \xi _{1}\sin \eta \\z&=\sin \xi _{1}\sin \eta \\x&=\cos \xi _{2}\cos \eta \\y&=\sin \xi _{2}\cos \eta \end{aligned}}}$ 

Because u² + x² + y² + z² = 1, the points lie on the 3-sphere.

In 4D space, every rotation about the origin has two invariant planes which are completely orthogonal to each other and intersect at the origin, and are rotated by two independent angles ξ₁ and ξ₂. Without loss of generality, we can choose, respectively, the uz- and xy-planes as these invariant planes. A rotation in 4D of a point {ξ₁₀, η₀, ξ₂₀} through angles ξ₁ and ξ₂ is then simply expressed in Hopf coordinates as {ξ₁₀ + ξ₁, η₀, ξ₂₀ + ξ₂}.

 

Every rotation in 3D space has a fixed axis unchanged by rotation. The rotation is completely specified by specifying the axis of rotation and the angle of rotation about that axis. Without loss of generality, this axis may be chosen as the z-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, allowing a simpler visualization of the rotation.

In 3D space, the spherical coordinates {θ, φ} may be seen as a parametric expression of the 2-sphere. For fixed θ they describe circles on the 2-sphere which are perpendicular to the z-axis and these circles may be viewed as trajectories of a point on the sphere. A point {θ₀, φ₀} on the sphere, under a rotation about the z-axis, will follow a trajectory {θ₀, φ₀ + φ} as the angle φ varies. The trajectory may be viewed as a rotation parametric in time, where the angle of rotation is linear in time: φ = ωt, with ω being an "angular velocity".

Analogous to the 3D case, every rotation in 4D space has at least two invariant axis-planes which are left invariant by the rotation and are completely orthogonal (i.e. they intersect at a point). The rotation is completely specified by specifying the axis planes and the angles of rotation about them. Without loss of generality, these axis planes may be chosen to be the uz- and xy-planes of a Cartesian coordinate system, allowing a simpler visualization of the rotation.

In 4D space, the Hopf angles {ξ₁, η, ξ₂} parameterize the 3-sphere. For fixed η they describe a torus parameterized by ξ₁ and ξ₂, with η = ⁠π/4⁠ being the special case of the Clifford torus in the xy- and uz-planes. These tori are not the usual tori found in 3D-space. While they are still 2D surfaces, they are embedded in the 3-sphere. The 3-sphere can be stereographically projected onto the whole Euclidean 3D-space, and these tori are then seen as the usual tori of revolution. It can be seen that a point specified by {ξ₁₀, η₀, ξ₂₀} undergoing a rotation with the uz- and xy-planes invariant will remain on the torus specified by η₀.^[7] The trajectory of a point can be written as a function of time as {ξ₁₀ + ω₁t, η₀, ξ₂₀ + ω₂t} and stereographically projected onto its associated torus, as in the figures below.^[8] In these figures, the initial point is taken to be {0, ⁠π/4⁠, 0}, i.e. on the Clifford torus. In Fig. 1, two simple rotation trajectories are shown in black, while a left and a right isoclinic trajectory is shown in red and blue respectively. In Fig. 2, a general rotation in which ω₁ = 1 and ω₂ = 5 is shown, while in Fig. 3, a general rotation in which ω₁ = 5 and ω₂ = 1 is shown.

Below, a spinning 5-cell is visualized with the fourth dimension squashed and displayed as colour. The Clifford torus described above is depicted in its rectangular (wrapping) form.

• Animated 4D rotations of a 5-cell in orthographic projection
• Simply rotating in X-Y plane
• Simply rotating in Z-W plane
• Double rotating in X-Y and Z-W planes with angular velocities in a 4:3 ratio
• Left isoclinic rotation
• Right isoclinic rotation

Four-dimensional rotations can be derived from Rodrigues' rotation formula and the Cayley formula. Let A be a 4 × 4 skew-symmetric matrix. The skew-symmetric matrix A can be uniquely decomposed as

${\displaystyle A=\theta _{1}A_{1}+\theta _{2}A_{2}}$ 

into two skew-symmetric matrices A₁ and A₂ satisfying the properties A₁A₂ = 0, A₁³ = −A₁ and A₂³ = −A₂, where ∓θ₁i and ∓θ₂i are the eigenvalues of A. Then, the 4D rotation matrices can be obtained from the skew-symmetric matrices A₁ and A₂ by Rodrigues' rotation formula and the Cayley formula.^[9]

Let A be a 4 × 4 nonzero skew-symmetric matrix with the set of eigenvalues

${\displaystyle \left\{\theta _{1}i,-\theta _{1}i,\theta _{2}i,-\theta _{2}i:{\theta _{1}}^{2}+{\theta _{2}}^{2}>0\right\}.}$ 

Then A can be decomposed as

${\displaystyle A=\theta _{1}A_{1}+\theta _{2}A_{2}}$ 

where A₁ and A₂ are skew-symmetric matrices satisfying the properties

${\displaystyle A_{1}A_{2}=A_{2}A_{1}=0,\qquad {A_{1}}^{3}=-A_{1},\quad {\text{and}}\quad {A_{2}}^{3}=-A_{2}.}$ 

Moreover, the skew-symmetric matrices A₁ and A₂ are uniquely obtained as

${\displaystyle A_{1}={\frac {{\theta _{2}}^{2}A+A^{3}}{\theta _{1}\left({\theta _{2}}^{2}-{\theta _{1}}^{2}\right)}}}$ 

and

${\displaystyle A_{2}={\frac {{\theta _{1}}^{2}A+A^{3}}{\theta _{2}\left({\theta _{1}}^{2}-{\theta _{2}}^{2}\right)}}.}$ 

Then,

${\displaystyle R=e^{A}=I+\sin \theta _{1}A_{1}+\left(1-\cos \theta _{1}\right){A_{1}}^{2}+\sin \theta _{2}A_{2}+\left(1-\cos \theta _{2}\right){A_{2}}^{2}}$ 

is a rotation matrix in E⁴, which is generated by Rodrigues' rotation formula, with the set of eigenvalues

${\displaystyle \left\{e^{\theta _{1}i},e^{-\theta _{1}i},e^{\theta _{2}i},e^{-\theta _{2}i}\right\}.}$ 

Also,

${\displaystyle R=(I+A)(I-A)^{-1}=I+{\frac {2\theta _{1}}{1+{\theta _{1}}^{2}}}A_{1}+{\frac {2{\theta _{1}}^{2}}{1+{\theta _{1}}^{2}}}{A_{1}}^{2}+{\frac {2\theta _{2}}{1+{\theta _{2}}^{2}}}A_{2}+{\frac {2{\theta _{2}}^{2}}{1+{\theta _{2}}^{2}}}{A_{2}}^{2}}$ 

is a rotation matrix in E⁴, which is generated by Cayley's rotation formula, such that the set of eigenvalues of R is,

${\displaystyle \left\{{\frac {\left(1+\theta _{1}i\right)^{2}}{1+{\theta _{1}}^{2}}},{\frac {\left(1-\theta _{1}i\right)^{2}}{1+{\theta _{1}}^{2}}},{\frac {\left(1+\theta _{2}i\right)^{2}}{1+{\theta _{2}}^{2}}},{\frac {\left(1-\theta _{2}i\right)^{2}}{1+{\theta _{2}}^{2}}}\right\}.}$ 

The generating rotation matrix can be classified with respect to the values θ₁ and θ₂ as follows:

1. If θ₁ = 0 and θ₂ ≠ 0 or vice versa, then the formulae generate simple rotations;
2. If θ₁ and θ₂ are nonzero and θ₁ ≠ θ₂, then the formulae generate double rotations;
3. If θ₁ and θ₂ are nonzero and θ₁ = θ₂, then the formulae generate isoclinic rotations.

• Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector
• Lorentz group
• Orthogonal group
• Orthogonal matrix
• Plane of rotation
• Poincaré group
• Quaternions and spatial rotation

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