A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.[1][2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence. In general, parliamentary republics grant the highest sovereign powers to the parliament.
Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature
Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch
Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature
Presidential republic
Hybrid systems:
Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature
Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it
Other systems:
Semi-constitutional monarchy: Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power
Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power
One-party state: Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party
Military junta: Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended
Provisional government: No constitutionally defined basis to current regime
Dependent territories or places without governments
Note: this chart represents the de jure systems of government, not the de facto degree of democracy.
Powers
editThis section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2019) |
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[1][2][clarification needed]
However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Historical development
editTypically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.[3]
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.[original research?]
Commonwealth of Nations
editSince the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems
edit| Full parliamentary republics | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country/territory | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| Bajram Begaj | Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | ||
| Vahagn Khachaturyan | Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018[note 1] | Semi-presidential republic | ||
| Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss) | ||
| Mohammed Shahabuddin | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 2] | Presidential republic | ||
| Sandra Mason | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | Bicameral | 2021 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | ||
| Denis Bećirović Željka Cvijanović Željko Komšić |
Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | ||
| Rumen Radev | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | ||
| Lai Ching-te | Direct election, by first-past-the-post Nominally by the National Assembly[note 3] |
Unicameral Nominally Tricameral[note 4] |
1946 Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996 |
One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China) Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire) |
Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China. | |
| Zoran Milanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | ||
| Petr Pavel | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | ||
| Sylvanie Burton | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | ||
| Alar Karis | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991[note 5] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | ||
| Taye Atske Selassie | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | ||
| Naiqama Lalabalavu | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | ||
| Alexander Stubb | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000[note 6] | Semi-presidential republic | ||
| Mikheil Kavelashvili | Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system) | Unicameral | 2018[note 7] | Semi-presidential republic | ||
| Frank-Walter Steinmeier | Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates[note 8]), by absolute majority[4] | Two unicameral institutions[note 9][5] | 1949[note 10] | One-party state | ||
| Katerina Sakellaropoulou | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | ||
| Tamás Sulyok | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | ||
| Halla Tómasdóttir | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | ||
| Droupadi Murmu | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | ||
| Abdul Latif Rashid | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral[note 11] | 2005 | One-party state | ||
| Michael D. Higgins | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949[note 12] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous |
||
| Isaac Herzog | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | ||
| Sergio Mattarella | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. | |
| Vjosa Osmani | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | ||
| Edgars Rinkēvičs | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 13] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | ||
| Vacant | Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | ||
| George Vella | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[6])[7] | ||
| Dharam Gokhool | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[8][9])[7] | ||
| Maia Sandu | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) |
Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | ||
| Jakov Milatović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | ||
| Ram Chandra Poudel | Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral[10] | 2008[note 14] | Constitutional monarchy | ||
| Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | ||
| Asif Ali Zardari | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010[11][12] | Assembly-independent republic | ||
| Andrzej Duda | Direct election | Bicameral | 1989 | One-party state | ||
| Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | ||
| Aleksandar Vučić | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | ||
| Tharman Shanmugaratnam | Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | ||
| Peter Pellegrini | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | ||
| Nataša Pirc Musar | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | ||
| Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | Parliament | Bicameral | 2012[note 15] | One-party state | ||
| Christine Kangaloo | Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[13])[7] | ||
| Faure Gnassingbé | Parliament | Unicameral | 2024 | Presidential republic | ||
| Nikenike Vurobaravu | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | ||
| Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| Duma Boko | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | ||
| Taneti Maamau | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.[14] | |
| Irfaan Ali | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote[15] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1980 | Full parliamentary republic | ||
| Hilda Heine | Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | ||
| David Adeang | Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | ||
| Cyril Ramaphosa | Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[16][17][18])[7] | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. | |
| Assembly-independent systems | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Assembly-independent republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| Wesley Simina | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1986 | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.[19] | |
| Francesca Civerchia Dalibor Riccardi |
Parliament | Unicameral | 1291 | Theocracy (part of the Papal States) | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent | |
| Chan Santokhi | Parliament | Unicameral | 1987 | Full parliamentary republic | ||
| Directorial systems | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| Guy Parmelin Ignazio Cassis Albert Rösti Élisabeth Baume-Schneider Beat Jans Karin Keller-Sutter Viola Amherd |
Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | Bicameral | 1848 | Confederation of states | Also has citizen-initiated referendums | |
List of former parliamentary republics and related systems
edit| Country | Became a parliamentary republic |
Status changed |
Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full parliamentary republics | |||||
| 1921 | 1931 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia | |
| 1931 | 1991 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia | |
| 1991 | 1994 | Semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic | ||
| 1920 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia | |
| 1920 | 1929 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | ||
| 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic | ||
| 1920 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan | |
| 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic | ||
| 1920 | 1990 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia | |
| 1990 | 1994 | Presidential republic | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1961 | 1963 | Presidential system | Referendum | ||
| 1948 | 1962 | Military dictatorship | 1962 Burmese coup d'état | ||
| 1891 | 1924 | Military junta | 1924 Chilean coup d'état | ||
| 1925 | 1925 | Presidential system | New constitution | ||
| 1947 | 1972 (de facto) | Presidential system | Constitution suspended | The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China. | |
| 1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) | Semi-presidential system | Additional articles of the Constitution adopted | |||
| 1920 | 1939 | One-party state | Munich agreement | ||
| 1945 | 1948 | One-party parliamentary republic | Coup d'état | ||
| 1948 | 1989 | Multi-party parliamentary republic | Velvet Revolution | One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia | |
| 1989 | 1992 | State dissolved | Velvet Divorce | ||
| 1946 | 1950 | State dissolved | Merged to the Republic of Indonesia | ||
| 1920 | 1934 | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Estonian coup d'état | In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |
| 1934 | 1938 | One-party presidential republic | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1870 | 1940 | Puppet state | World War II German occupation | ||
| 1946 | 1958 | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1918 | 1921 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia | ||
| 1921 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia | |
| 1970 | 1980 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1946 | 1949 | One-party state | Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary | ||
| 1945 | 1959 | Presidential system | Presidential constitution reinstated | ||
| 1948 | 1996 | Semi-parliamentary system | Constitutional amendment | ||
| 2008 | 2013 | Presidential system | New constitution and elections | A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013 The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013. | |
| 1960 | 1961 | Military junta | 16 May coup | ||
| 1936 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan | |
| 1936 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia | |
| 2010 | 2021 | Presidential republic | Referendum | The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.[20] | |
| 1922 | 1934 | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Latvian coup d'état | In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |
| 1934 | 1940 | State dissolved | World War II Soviet occupation | ||
| 1920 | 1926 | One-party state | 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état | In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |
| 1990 | 1992 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted | In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established. | |
| 1940 | 1990 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia | |
| 1963 | 1966 | Military dictatorship (which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic) |
Coup d'état | ||
| 1956 | 1958 | Military dictatorship | 1958 Pakistani coup d'état | ||
| 1973 | 1978 | 1977 Pakistani coup d'état | |||
| 1997 | 1999 | 1999 Pakistani coup d'état | |||
| 2002 | 2003 | Assembly-independent republic | Constitutional amendment | ||
| 1919 | 1935 | Presidential system | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1911 | 1926 | Military dictatorship (which led in 1933 to the Estado Novo one-party presidential republic) |
28 May coup | ||
| 1899 | 1901 | Military dictatorship (De facto United States Colony) |
Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces | ||
| 1973 | 1981 | Semi-presidential system (de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.) |
Constitutional amendment | ||
| 1960 | 1965 | Military dictatorship (De facto one-party state) |
1965 Congolese coup d'état | ||
| 1970 | 1979 | Parliamentary system | Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia | Political rights were restricted to the white minority | |
| 1917 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Referendum | ||
| 1922 | 1990 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989 One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union | |
| 1873 | 1874 | Constitutional monarchy | Restoration of the monarchy | ||
| 1931 | 1939 | One-party state (which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) |
Coup d'état | ||
| 1975 | 1987 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1972 | 1978 | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted | ||
| 1930 | 1958 | State dissolved | Creation of the United Arab Republic | Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system | |
| 1961 | 1963 | One-party presidential system | 1963 Syrian coup d'état | ||
| 1852 | 1902 | Colony of the British Empire | Second Boer War | ||
| 1929 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan | |
| 1923 | 2018 | Presidential system | Referendum | ||
| 1925 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan | |
| 1963 | 1966 | One-party state | Suspension of the constitution | ||
| 1917 | 1918 | Client state | 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état | ||
| 1918 | 1919 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic | ||
| 1921 | State dissolved | Treaty of Riga | |||
| 1919 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine | |
| 1924 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan | |
| 1945 | 1953 | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia | |
| 1979 | 1979 | Dependent territory | Reversion to Southern Rhodesia | ||
| 1980 | 1987 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | ||
| Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | |||||
| Country | Became a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency |
Status changed |
Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
| 1970 | 1982 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982. | |
| 1964 | 2008 | Full parliamentary system | Coalition and power-sharing | Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections. A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013. | |
| 1953 | 1963 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | |
| Assembly-independent systems | |||||
| Country | Became an assembly- independent republic |
Status changed |
Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
| 1960 | 1966 | Military dictatorship (Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana) |
Coup d'état | ||
| 1985 | 1997 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | ||
| 2003 | 2010 | Constitutional amendment | |||
| 1992 | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | ||
| 1962 | 1964 | State dissolved | Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania | Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system | |
| 1963 | 1980 | Directorial republic | New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980. | |
| Directorial systems | |||||
| 1980 | 1992 | — | Breakup of Yugoslavia | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Changed after the 2015 referendum.
- ^ Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
- ^ The Constitution of the Republic of China went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the Chinese Civil War was underway. On 1 October 1949, the Kuomintang-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in Mainland China by the People's Republic of China, a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party. The ROC government was then confined to the island of Taiwan from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which established direct presidential elections since 1996.
- ^ Under the Additional Articles, the Control Yuan ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the National Assembly was dissolved in 2005 leaving the Legislative Yuan as the unicameral chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and nationwide referendums. According to Judicial Yuan Interpretation no. 76, Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations? issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.
- ^ Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
- ^ Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ISBN 9780719078538), he quotes Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies. 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
- ^ "Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
- ^ The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.
- ^ The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision.
- ^ In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
- ^ Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
- ^ The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
- ^ Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
- ^ Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
- ^ Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
References
edit- ^ a b Twomey, Anne. "Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ^ a b "The President's Role". The Times of India. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ^ Arend Lijphart, ed. (1992). Parliamentary versus presidential government. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-878044-1.
- ^ "Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2023-09-20.
- ^ "Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates". Bundesrat (in German). Retrieved 2023-09-20.
- ^ "Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d "British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^ "Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^ Paxton, John (1984). The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-333-34731-7. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^ Constitution of Nepal Archived December 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ "'18th Amendment to restore Constitution'". Nation.com.pk. 11 April 2010. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
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