Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]

skip to main content
article

Towards robust automatic affective classification of images using facial expressions for practical applications

Published: 01 April 2016 Publication History

Abstract

Affect is an important feature of multimedia content and conveys valuable information for multimedia indexing and retrieval. Most existing studies for affective content analysis are limited to low-level features or mid-level representations, and are generally criticized for their incapacity to address the gap between low-level features and high-level human affective perception. The facial expressions of subjects in images carry important semantic information that can substantially influence human affective perception, but have been seldom investigated for affective classification of facial images towards practical applications. This paper presents an automatic image emotion detector (IED) for affective classification of practical (or non-laboratory) data using facial expressions, where a lot of "real-world" challenges are present, including pose, illumination, and size variations etc. The proposed method is novel, with its framework designed specifically to overcome these challenges using multi-view versions of face and fiducial point detectors, and a combination of point-based texture and geometry. Performance comparisons of several key parameters of relevant algorithms are conducted to explore the optimum parameters for high accuracy and fast computation speed. A comprehensive set of experiments with existing and new datasets, shows that the method is effective despite pose variations, fast, and appropriate for large-scale data, and as accurate as the method with state-of-the-art performance on laboratory-based data. The proposed method was also applied to affective classification of images from the British Broadcast Corporation (BBC) in a task typical for a practical application providing some valuable insights.

References

[1]
Acar E, Hopfgartner F, Albayrak S (2014) Understanding Affective Content of Music Videos through Learned Representations. In: Gurrin C, Hopfgartner F, Hurst W, Johansen H, Lee H, O'Connor N (eds) MultiMedia Modeling, vol 8325. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer International Publishing, pp 303-314.
[2]
An L, Yang S, Bhanu B (2015) Efficient smile detection by extreme learning machine. Neurocomputing 149, Part A (0):354-363.
[3]
Anisetti M, Bellandi V (2009) Emotional state inference using face related features. In: Damiani E, Jeong J, Howlett R, Jain L (eds) New directions in intelligent interactive multimedia systems and services - 2, vol 226. studies in computational intelligence. Springer, Berlin, pp 401---411.
[4]
Anisetti M, Bellandi V, Damiani E, Arnone L, Rat B (2008) A3FD: accurate 3D face detection. In: Damiani E, Yétongnon K, Schelkens P, Dipanda A, Legrand L, Chbeir R (eds) Signal processing for image enhancement and multimedia processing vol 31, multimedia systems and applications series. Springer, US, pp 155---165.
[5]
Anisetti M, Bellandi V, Damiani E, Beverina F 3D Expressive Face Model-based Tracking Algorithm. In: Signal Processing, Pattern Recognition, and Applications, Innsbruck, 2006. pp 111-116
[6]
Ashraf AB, Lucey S, Cohn JF, Chen T, Ambadar Z, Prkachin KM, Solomon PE (2009) The painful face - pain expression recognition using active appearance models. Image Vis Comput 27(12):1788---1796
[7]
Bianchi-Berthouze N (2003) K-DIME: an affective image filtering system. Multimed IEEE 10(3):103---106
[8]
Blei DM, Ng AY, Jordan MI (2003) Latent dirichlet allocation. J Mach Learn Res 3:993---1022
[9]
Caifeng S (2012) Smile detection by boosting pixel differences. Imag Process IEEE Trans 21(1):431---436.
[10]
Canini L, Benini S, Leonardi R (2013) Affective recommendation of movies based on selected connotative features. Circ Syst Video Technol IEEE Trans 23(4):636---647.
[11]
Caridakis G, Karpouzis K, Wallace M, Kessous L, Amir N (2010) Multimodal user's affective state analysis in naturalistic interaction. J Multimod User Interf 3(1):49---66.
[12]
Chang H, Haizhou A, Yuan L, Shihong L (2007) High-performance rotation invariant multiview face detection. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 29(4):671---686
[13]
Chang CC, Lin CJ (2001) LIBSVM: a library for support vector machines, 2001. Software available at http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm/. Accessed 19 Feb 2015
[14]
Chew SW, Lucey P, Lucey S, Saragih J, Cohn JF, Matthews I, Sridharan S (2012) In the pursuit of effective affective computing: the relationship between features and registration. Syst Man Cybernet B Cybernet IEEE Trans 42(4):1006---1016.
[15]
Cootes TF, Taylor CJ, Cooper DH, Graham J (1995) Active shape models-their training and application. Comput Vis Image Underst 61(1):38---59
[16]
Cortes C, Vapnik V (1995) Support-vector networks. Mach Learn 20(3):273---297
[17]
Danisman T, Bilasco IM, Martinet J, Djeraba C (2013) Intelligent pixels of interest selection with application to facial expression recognition using multilayer perceptron. Signal Process 93(6):1547---1556.
[18]
Dhall A, Goecke R, Lucey S, Gedeon T Static facial expression analysis in tough conditions: Data, evaluation protocol and benchmark. In: Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops), 2011 I.E. International Conference on, 6-13 Nov. 2011. pp 2106-2112
[19]
Ekman P (1994) Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions - a reply to Russells mistaken critique. Psychol Bull 115(2):268---287
[20]
Ekman P, Friesen W (1978) The facial action coding system: a technique for the measurement of facial movement. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, pp 274---280
[21]
Fei-Fei L, Perona P A Bayesian hierarchical model for learning natural scene categories. In: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2005. CVPR 2005. IEEE Computer Society Conference on, 20-25 June 2005 2005. pp 524-531 vol. 522.
[22]
Feng X, Lai Y, Mao X, Peng J, Jiang X, Hadid A (2013) Extracting local binary patterns from image key points: application to automatic facial expression recognition. In: Kämäräinen J-K, Koskela M (eds) Image analysis, vol 7944. lecture notes in computer science. Springer, Berlin, pp 339---348.
[23]
Han D, Li W, Li Z (2008) Semantic image classification using statistical local spatial relations model. Multimed Tools Appl 39(2):169---188.
[24]
Hanchuan P, Fuhui L, Ding C (2005) Feature selection based on mutual information criteria of max-dependency, max-relevance, and min-redundancy. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 27(8):1226---1238
[25]
Hanjalic A (2006) Extracting moods from pictures and sounds: towards truly personalized TV. Signal Process Mag IEEE 23(2):90---100
[26]
Hanjalic A, Li-Qun X (2005) Affective video content representation and modeling. Multimed IEEE Trans 7(1):143---154
[27]
Hao T, Huang TS (2008) 3D facial expression recognition based on automatically selected features. In: computer vision and pattern recognition workshops, 2008. CVPRW '08. IEEE Computer Society Conference on pp 1-8
[28]
Hofmann T (2001) Unsupervised learning by probabilistic latent semantic analysis. Mach Learn 42(1---2):177---196.
[29]
Ionescu B, Schluter J, Mironica I, Schedl M A naive mid-level concept-based fusion approach to violence detection in Hollywood movies. In: Proceedings of the 3rd ACM conference on International conference on multimedia retrieval, Dallas, Texas, USA, 2013. ACM, 2461502, pp 215-222.
[30]
Jana M, Allan H Affective image classification using features inspired by psychology and art theory. In: Proceedings of the international conference on Multimedia, Firenze, Italy, 2010. ACM, pp 83-92.
[31]
Joonwhoan L, EunJong P (2011) Fuzzy similarity-based emotional classification of color images. Multimedia IEEE Trans 13(5):1031---1039
[32]
Kotsia I, Zafeiriou S, Pitas I (2008) Texture and shape information fusion for facial expression and facial action unit recognition. Pattern Recogn 41(3):833---851
[33]
Lajevardi S, Hussain Z (2011) Automatic facial expression recognition: feature extraction and selection. Signal Imag Video Process:1-11.
[34]
Li S, Zhu L, Zhang Z, Blake A, Zhang H, Shum H (2002) Statistical learning of multi-view face detection. In: computer vision -- ECCV 2002. pp 117-121
[35]
Liu N, Dellandréa E, Tellez B, Chen L (2011) Associating textual features with visual ones to improve affective image classification. In: International Conference on affective computing and intelligent interaction (ACII2011), vol 6974. Lecture notes in computer science. Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, pp 195-204.
[36]
Liu M, Li S, Shan S, Chen X (2013) Enhancing expression recognition in the wild with unlabeled reference data. In: Lee K, Matsushita Y, Rehg J, Hu Z (eds) Computer vision --- ACCV 2012, vol 7725. lecture notes in computer science. Springer, Berlin, pp 577---588.
[37]
Maja P, Nicu S, Jeffrey FC, Thomas H (2005) Affective multimodal human-computer interaction. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 13th annual ACM international conference on Multimedia, Hilton, Singapore
[38]
Mehrabian A (1968) Communication without words. Psychol Today 2(9):52---55
[39]
Michela D, Pamela Z, Giulia B, Liliana A Emotion based classification of natural images. In: Proceedings of the 2011 international workshop on Detecting and Exploiting Cultural diversity on the social web, Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 2011. ACM, pp 17-22.
[40]
Milborrow S, Nicolls F (2008) Locating facial features with an extended active shape model. In: Forsyth D, Torr P, Zisserman A (eds) Computer vision --- ECCV 2008, vol 5305. lecture notes in computer science. Springer, Berlin, pp 504---513.
[41]
Mingli S, Dacheng T, Zicheng L, Xuelong L, Mengchu Z (2010) Image ratio features for facial expression recognition application. Syst Man Cybernet B Cybernet IEEE Trans 40(3):779---788
[42]
Mita T, Kaneko T, Hori O Joint Haar-like features for face detection. In: Computer Vision, 2005. ICCV 2005. Tenth IEEE International Conference on, 2005. pp 1619-1626 Vol. 1612
[43]
Ojala T, Pietikainen M, Maenpaa T (2002) Multiresolution gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classification with local binary patterns. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 24(7):971---987
[44]
Pandzic IS, Forchheimer R (2002) MPEG-4 facial animation: the standard, implementation and applications. Wiley
[45]
Panning A, Al-Hamadi A, Niese R, Michaelis B (2008) Facial expression recognition based on Haar-like feature detection. Patt Recog Imag Anal 18(3):447---452
[46]
Peng W, Kohler C, Barrett F, Gur R, Verma R (2007) Quantifying facial expression abnormality in schizophrenia by combining 2D and 3D features. In: Computer vision and pattern recognition, 2007. CVPR '07. IEEE Conference on. pp 1-8
[47]
Rudovic O, Pantic M, Patras I (2013) Coupled Gaussian processes for pose-invariant facial expression recognition. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 35(6):1357---1369.
[48]
Russell JA (1980) A circumplex model of affect. J Pers Soc Psychol 39(6):1161---1178
[49]
Shan C, Gritti T (2008) Learning discriminative lbp-histogram bins for facial expression recognition. In: Proc. British Machine Vision Conference
[50]
Shan H, Shangfei W, Yanpeng L (2011) Spontaneous facial expression recognition based on feature point tracking. In: Image and graphics (ICIG), Sixth International Conference on, 12-15 Aug. 2011. pp 760-765
[51]
Shangfei W, Zhilei L, Siliang L, Yanpeng L, Guobing W, Peng P, Fei C, Xufa W (2010) A natural visible and infrared facial expression database for expression recognition and emotion inference. Multimed IEEE Trans 12(7):682---691
[52]
Sung J, Kim D (2008) Pose-robust facial expression recognition using view-based 2D¿+¿3D AAM. Syst Man Cybernet A Syst Humans IEEE Trans 38(4):852---866
[53]
Tariq U, Kai-Hsiang L, Zhen L, Xi Z, Zhaowen W, Vuong L, Huang TS, Xutao L, Han TX Emotion recognition from an ensemble of features. In: automatic face & gesture recognition and workshops (FG 2011), 2011 I.E. International Conference on, 21-25 March 2011 2011. pp 872-877.
[54]
Tsalakanidou F, Malassiotis S (2010) Real-time 2D¿+¿3D facial action and expression recognition. Pattern Recogn 43(5):1763---1775
[55]
Viola P, Jones MJ (2004) Robust real-time face detection. Int J Comput Vis 57(2):137---154
[56]
Whitehill J, Littlewort G, Fasel I, Bartlett M, Movellan J (2009) Toward practical smile detection. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 31(11):2106---2111
[57]
Wu Y, Ji Q (2014) Discriminative deep face shape model for facial point detection. Int J Comput Vision:1-17.
[58]
Xiangxin Z, Ramanan D (2012) Face detection, pose estimation, and landmark localization in the wild. In: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2012 I.E. Conference on, 16-21 June 2012 pp 2879-2886.
[59]
Xie X, Lam K-M (2009) Facial expression recognition based on shape and texture. Pattern Recogn 42(5):1003---1011
[60]
Xu M, Wang J, He X, Jin J, Luo S, Lu H (2012) A three-level framework for affective content analysis and its case studies. Multimedia Tools and Applications:1-23.
[61]
Yongmian Z, Qiang J (2005) Active and dynamic information fusion for facial expression understanding from image sequences. Patt Anal Mach Intell IEEE Trans 27(5):699---714
[62]
Zeng Z, Pantic M, Roisman GI, Huang TS (2009) A survey of affect recognition methods: audio, visual, and spontaneous expressions. Pattern Anal Machine Intell IEEE Trans 31(1):39---58
[63]
Zhang L, Tjondronegoro D, Chandran V (2011) Evaluation of texture and geometry for dimensional facial expression recognition. In: digital image computing techniques and applications (DICTA), 2011 International Conference on, 6-8 Dec. 2011 pp 620-626
[64]
Zhang L, Tjondronegoro D, Chandran V (2012) Discovering the best feature extraction and selection algorithms for spontaneous facial expression recognition. In: 2012 I.E. International Conference on Multimedia & Expo (ICME 2012), pp 1027-1032
[65]
Zhang L, Tjondronegoro D, Chandran V (2014) Facial expression recognition experiments with data from television broadcasts and the World Wide Web. Image Vis Comput 32(2):107---119.
[66]
Zhang L, Tjondronegoro D, Chandran V (2014) Representation of facial expression categories in continuous arousal---valence space: feature and correlation. Image Vis Comput 32(12):1067---1079.
[67]
Zhang C, Zhang Z (2010) A survey of recent advances in face detection. technical report, microsoft research
[68]
Zhaoyu W, Shangfei W Spontaneous facial expression recognition by using feature-level fusion of visible and thermal infrared images. In: Machine Learning for Signal Processing (MLSP), 2011 I.E. International Workshop on. pp 1-6
[69]
Zhengyou Z, Lyons M, Schuster M, Akamatsu S Comparison between geometry-based and Gabor-wavelets-based facial expression recognition using multi-layer perceptron. In: Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 1998. Proceedings. Third IEEE International Conference on, 1998. pp 454-459
[70]
Zisheng L, Jun-ichi I, Kaneko M Facial-component-based bag of words and PHOG descriptor for facial expression recognition. In: Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2009. SMC 2009. IEEE International Conference on, 11-14 Oct. 2009 2009. pp 1353-1358

Cited By

View all
  • (2022)Detection Algorithm of Wind Power Equipment Video Image Sequence Based on Artificial IntelligenceSecurity and Communication Networks10.1155/2022/58829502022Online publication date: 1-Jan-2022
  • (2020)Hyperparameter optimization in CNN for learning-centered emotion recognition for intelligent tutoring systemsSoft Computing - A Fusion of Foundations, Methodologies and Applications10.1007/s00500-019-04387-424:10(7593-7602)Online publication date: 1-May-2020
  • (2019)A Novel Local Feature Extraction Algorithm Based on Gabor Wavelet TransformProceedings of the 2019 3rd International Conference on Advances in Image Processing10.1145/3373419.3373452(76-80)Online publication date: 8-Nov-2019
  • Show More Cited By
  1. Towards robust automatic affective classification of images using facial expressions for practical applications

      Recommendations

      Comments

      Please enable JavaScript to view thecomments powered by Disqus.

      Information & Contributors

      Information

      Published In

      cover image Multimedia Tools and Applications
      Multimedia Tools and Applications  Volume 75, Issue 8
      April 2016
      680 pages

      Publisher

      Kluwer Academic Publishers

      United States

      Publication History

      Published: 01 April 2016

      Author Tags

      1. Affective classification
      2. Application
      3. Facial expression recognition
      4. Image

      Qualifiers

      • Article

      Contributors

      Other Metrics

      Bibliometrics & Citations

      Bibliometrics

      Article Metrics

      • Downloads (Last 12 months)0
      • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)0
      Reflects downloads up to 01 Dec 2024

      Other Metrics

      Citations

      Cited By

      View all
      • (2022)Detection Algorithm of Wind Power Equipment Video Image Sequence Based on Artificial IntelligenceSecurity and Communication Networks10.1155/2022/58829502022Online publication date: 1-Jan-2022
      • (2020)Hyperparameter optimization in CNN for learning-centered emotion recognition for intelligent tutoring systemsSoft Computing - A Fusion of Foundations, Methodologies and Applications10.1007/s00500-019-04387-424:10(7593-7602)Online publication date: 1-May-2020
      • (2019)A Novel Local Feature Extraction Algorithm Based on Gabor Wavelet TransformProceedings of the 2019 3rd International Conference on Advances in Image Processing10.1145/3373419.3373452(76-80)Online publication date: 8-Nov-2019
      • (2018)Facial Expression Analysis under Partial OcclusionACM Computing Surveys10.1145/315836951:2(1-49)Online publication date: 18-Apr-2018

      View Options

      View options

      Login options

      Media

      Figures

      Other

      Tables

      Share

      Share

      Share this Publication link

      Share on social media