Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana
<p>Cocoa Belt, major producing countries [<a href="#B5-resources-13-00141" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Normalised results of the S-LCA of cocoa cultivation (Stakeholders category: workers).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Normalised results of the S-LCA of cocoa cultivation (Stakeholders category: Local community).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Overview of the social sustainability of cocoa farming from an S-LCA perspective.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Goal and Scope Definition
3.2. Social Life Cycle Inventory (S-LCI)
3.3. Social Life Cycle Impact Assessment (S-LCIA)
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Workers
4.1.1. Child Labour
4.1.2. Forced Labour
4.1.3. Trafficking in Person
4.1.4. Fair Salary
4.1.5. Working Time
4.1.6. Working Rights
4.2. Local Community
4.2.1. Migrant Workers
4.2.2. Environmental and GHG Footprints
4.3. Main Findings
- i.
- Behind cocoa production, the shadow of child labour still lurks. There could be a very high risk that more than half of the cocoa globally is produced by child labour, used mainly to keep prices competitive. The massive presence of child labour makes the chocolate industry still unsustainable from a social point of view. In this respect, local laws are still ineffective, which is why no progress has been made in reducing child labour within the supply chain.
- ii.
- There might be a very low risk that more than half of global cocoa is produced by forced labour, which is therefore much less common than child labour. In this respect, the Ghanaian and Ivorian governments do not fully meet the basic standards to eliminate forced labour, and it is evident that the situation is still far from being fully eradicated.
- iii.
- With incomes of $1.42/day (Ghana) and $1.23/day (Côte d’Ivoire), there may be a very high risk that the wages of cocoa farmers globally are too low to guarantee them a decent living. These figures show how they would have to earn +51% and +74% at least, respectively, to meet their basic needs, and how the structure of the cocoa market is therefore highly unbalanced in the division of revenues.
- iv.
- Cocoa from Ghana could induce a high risk of improper working hours, although it is not known whether this figure also includes hours worked by children. Working too few hours could deny workers access to credit as well as access to basic needs, perpetuating an endless spiral of poverty.
- v.
- Underlying the low wages and improper working hours is a low power of association, which is reflected in the unsustainability of cocoa production. Thus, 56% of global cocoa could be produced with a very high risk that workers cannot organize themselves into trade unions.
- vi.
- The migrant labour force in the cocoa sector, while necessary, may induce a high risk of discrimination, conflicts with local communities, and unfair working conditions.
- vii.
- No positive impacts were found in cocoa cultivation.
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- Northern governments should support West African governments in improving monitoring systems and actions towards child labour, such as investing in primary education.
- (2)
- West African governments should constantly update minimum wage prices for cocoa workers.
- (3)
- Producing and exporting countries, as well as the food industry giants, should establish regulations for due diligence on human and environmental rights for all companies selling products containing cocoa.
- (4)
- Companies could act more constructively, e.g., by using blockchain technology to track movements within the supply chain, which would allow human rights abuses to be identified.
- (5)
- Consumers should induce brands and supermarkets to provide clear answers regarding social sustainability in the cocoa supply chain.
- (6)
- Cocoa production should be based on traditional agroforestry systems, e.g., planting shade trees and using different varieties of timber, pulses, and fruit trees. In this way, the economy of rural households would be diversified, creating additional forms of income through the sale of products from these trees.
- (7)
- In the main cocoa-consuming regions, approved and future legislation should be designed to guarantee market access only to companies that concretely address sustainability issues related to human rights and the environment. In this context, the European deforestation-free legislation will require companies to prove that certain forestry-hazardous raw materials imported into the EU have not been produced at the expense of natural forests felled after December 2020.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Casperson, S.L.; Lanza, L.; Albajri, E.; Nasser, J.A. Increasing Chocolate’s Sugar Content Enhances Its Psychoactive Effects and Intake. Nutrients 2019, 11, 596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zapata-Alvarez, A.; Bedoya-Vergara, C.; Porras-Barrientos, L.D.; Rojas-Mora, J.M.; Rodríguez-Cabal, H.A.; Gil-Garzon, M.A.; Martinez-Alvarez, O.L.; Ocampo-Arango, C.M.; Ardila-Castañeda, M.P.; Monsalve-F, Z.I. Molecular, biochemical, and sensorial characterization of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) beans: A methodological pathway for the identification of new regional materials with outstanding profiles. Heliyon 2024, 10, e24544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giacometti, J.; Jolić, S.M.; Josić, D. Cocoa Processing and Impact on Composition. In Processing and Impact on Active Components in Food; Academic Press Inc.: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2015; pp. 605–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nair, K.P.P. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). In The Agronomy and Economy of Important Tree Crops of the Developing World; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 131–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cocoa Producing Countries. World Population Review. 2024. Available online: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/cocoa-producing-countries (accessed on 9 July 2024).
- Métangbo, D.; Akpa, L.; Ouattara, A.; Lhaur-Yaigaiba Kpan, G.O.; Koffi, A.; Yao Koffi, B.; Yapi Assa, F.; Soro, D.; Agbri, L.; Biémi, J. Climate and Agriculture in Côte D’ivoire: Perception and Quantification of the Impact of Climate Change on Cocoa Production by 2050. Int. J. Environ. Clim. 2023, 13, 328–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ANEME—Associação Nacional das Empresas Metalúrgicas e Eletromecânicas. Estudo de Levantamento e Caracterização das Empresas Industriais de São Tomé e Príncipe. Estudo São Tomé e Príncipe. 2018. Available online: https://www.aneme.pt/site/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Estudo_S%C3%A3o-Tom%C3%A9-e-Pr%C3%ADncipe-2018_VF-CORRIGIDA.pdf (accessed on 9 July 2024).
- Prazeres, I.; Lucas, M.R.; Marta-Costa, A. Cocoa Markets, and Value Chains: Dynamics and Challenges For Sao Tome and Principe Organic Smallholders. Int. J. Innov. Econ. Dev. 2021, 7, 64–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Bank. Cocoa Beans, Whole or Broken, Raw or Roasted Imports by Country in 2021. 2024. Available online: https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2021/tradeflow/Ixports/partner/WLD/product/180100# (accessed on 10 July 2024).
- FAO; BASIC. Comparative Study on the Distribution of Value in European Chocolate Chains. In Paris. 2020. Available online: https://www.eurococoa.com/wp-content/uploads/Comparative-study-on-the-distribution-of-the-value-in-the-European-chocolate-chains-Full-report.pdf (accessed on 10 July 2024).
- Investing.com. US Cocoa Futures—Dec 24 (CCZ4). 2024. Available online: https://www.investing.com/commodities/us-cocoa (accessed on 10 September 2024).
- Prazeres, I.C.; Lucas, M.R. Repensar a cadeia de valor do cacau biológico de São Tomé e Príncipe. Rev. Ciênc. Agrár. 2020, 43, 48–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Voora, V.; Bermúdez, S.; Larrea, C. Global Market Report: Cocoa. Sustainable Commodities Marketplace Series. The International Institute for Sustainable Development. 2019. Available online: https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ssi-global-market-report-cocoa.pdf (accessed on 10 July 2024).
- D’Eusanio, M.; Serreli, M.; Petti, L. Social Life-Cycle Assessment of a Piece of Jewellery. Emphasis on the Local Community. Resources 2019, 8, 158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, S.; Dong, Y. Applications of Life Cycle Assessment in the Chocolate Industry: A State-of-the-Art Analysis Based on Systematic Review. Foods 2024, 13, 915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farjana, S.H.; Mahmud, M.A.P.; Huda, N. Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment. In Life Cycle Assessment for Sustainable Mining; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; pp. 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luna Ostos, L.M.; Roche, L.; Coroama, V.; Finkbeiner, M. Social life cycle assessment in the chocolate industry: A Colombian case study with Luker Chocolate. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2024, 29, 929–951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNEP. Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products and Organizations; Benoît Norris, C., Traverso, M., Neugebauer, S., Ekener, E., Schaubroeck, T., Mankaa, R., Russo Garrido, S., Berger, M., Tragnone, B.M., Valdivia, S., et al., Eds.; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Nairobi, Kenya, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Richter, F.; Gawenko, W.; Götze, U.; Hinz, M. Toward a methodology for social sustainability assessment: A review of existing frameworks and a proposal for a catalog of criteria. Schmalenbach J. Bus. Res. 2023, 75, 587–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russo Garrido, S.; Parent, J.; Beaulieu, L.; Revéret, J.P. A literature review of type I SLCA—Making the logic underlying methodological choices explicit. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2018, 23, 432–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tragnone, B.M.; D’Eusanio, M.; Petti, L. The count of what counts in the agri-food Social Life Cycle Assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 354, 131624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zafar, I.; Stojceska, V.; Tassou, S. Social sustainability assessments of industrial level solar energy: A systematic review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2024, 189, 113962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ntiamoah, A.; Afrane, G. Environmental impacts of cocoa production and processing in Ghana: Life cycle assessment approach. J. Clean. Prod. 2008, 16, 1735–1740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ortiz-R, O.O.; Gallardo, R.A.V.; Rangel, J.M. Applying life cycle management of Colombian cocoa production. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 34, 62–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scherer, L.; Pfister, S. Global Biodiversity Loss by Freshwater Consumption and Eutrophication from Swiss Food Consumption. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 7019–7028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Utomo, B.; Prawoto, A.A.; Bonnet, S.; Bangviwat, A.; Gheewala, S.H. Environmental performance of cocoa production from monoculture and agroforestry systems in Indonesia. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 134 Pt B, 583–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Recanati, F.; Marveggio, D.; Dotelli, G. From beans to bar: A life cycle assessment towards sustainable chocolate supply chain. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 613–614, 1013–1023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Konstantas, A.; Jeswani, H.K.; Stamford, L.; Azapagic, A. Environmental impacts of chocolate production and consumption in the UK. Food Res. Int. 2018, 106, 1012–1025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pérez-Neira, D.; Copena, D.; Armengot, L.; Simón, X. Transportation can cancel out the ecological advantages of producing organic cacao: The carbon footprint of the globalized agrifood system of Ecuadorian chocolate. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 276, 111306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bianchi, F.R.; Moreschi, L.; Gallo, M.; Vesce, E.; del Borghi, A. Environmental analysis along the supply chain of dark, milk and white chocolate: A life cycle comparison. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess 2021, 26, 807–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H.; Kiehbadroudinezhad, M. Environmental Impacts of Chocolate Production and Consumption. In Trends in Sustainable Chocolate Production; Galanakis, C.M., Ed.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dianawati, D.; Indrasti, N.S.; Ismayana, A.; Yuliasi, I.; Djatna, T. Carbon Footprint Analysis of Cocoa Product Indonesia Using Life Cycle Assessment Methods. J. Ecol. Eng. 2023, 24, 187–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Avadí, A. Environmental assessment of the Ecuadorian cocoa value chain with statistics-based LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2023, 28, 1495–1515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khang, D.S.; Linh, N.H.K.; Hoai, B.T.M. Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Products in Vietnam. Proces.s Integr. Optim. Sustain. 2024, 8, 1003–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Idawati, I.; Sasongko, N.A.; Santoso, A.D.; Sani, A.W.; Apriyanto, H.; Boceng, A. Life cycle assessment of cocoa farming sustainability by implementing compound fertilizer. GJESM 2024, 10, 837–856. [Google Scholar]
- Sureau, S.; Lohest, F.; Van Mol, J.; Bauler, T.; Achten, W.M.J. Participation in S-LCA: A Methodological Proposal Applied to Belgian Alternative Food Chains (Part 1). Resources 2019, 8, 160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisfeldt, F.; Ciroth, A. PSILCA—A Product Social Impact Life Cycle Assessment Database. Documentation 2020. Available online: https://psilca.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/PSILCA_documentation_v3.pdf (accessed on 7 July 2024).
- Benoit Norris, C.; Norris, G.A.; Azuero, L.; Pflueger, J. Creating Social Handprints: Method and Case Study in the Electronic Computer Manufacturing Industry. Resources 2019, 8, 176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arzoumanidis, I.; D’Eusanio, M.; Raggi, A.; Petti, L. Functional Unit Definition Criteria in Life Cycle Assessment and Social Life Cycle Assessment: A Discussion. In Perspectives on Social LCA; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tham-Agyekum, E.K.; Wongnaa, C.A.; Kwapong, N.A.; Boansi, D.; Ankuyi, F.; Prah, S.; Andivi Bakang, J.E.; Okorley, E.L.; Laten, E. Impact of children’s appropriate work participation in cocoa farms on household welfare: Evidence from Ghana. J. Agric. Food Res. 2023, 14, 100901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- US Department of Labour. Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports (Cote D’Ivoire). 2024. Available online: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/cote-divoire (accessed on 5 July 2024).
- de Buhr, E.; Gordon, E. Bitter Sweets: Prevalence of Forced Labour and Child Labour in the Cocoa Sectors of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, Tulane University & Walk Free Foundation. 2018, pp. 28–30. Available online: https://cdn.walkfree.org/content/uploads/2020/10/06164346/Cocoa-Report_181016_V15-FNL_digital.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- US Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: Côte D’Ivoire. 2024. Available online: https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/cote-divoire/ (accessed on 5 July 2024).
- US Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: Ghana. 2024. Available online: https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/ghana/ (accessed on 5 July 2024).
- Waarts, Y.; Kiewisch, M. Balancing the Living Income Challenge. Towards a Multi-Actor Approach to Achieving a Living Income for Cocoa Farmers. 2021. Available online: https://edepot.wur.nl/557364 (accessed on 2 July 2024).
- Wageindicator.org. Minimum Wage—Cote D’Ivoire, Agriculture Sector. 2024. Available online: https://wageindicator.org/salary/minimum-wage/ivory-coast (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Wageindicator.org. Minimum Wage—Ghana. 2024. Available online: https://wageindicator.org/salary/minimum-wage/ghana (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- International Labour Organization (ILOSTAT). Trade Union Density Rate (%). Annual 2019. Available online: https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer25/?lang=en&id=ILR_TUMT_NOC_RT_A (accessed on 8 July 2024).
- International Labour Organization (ILOSTAT). Mean Weekly Hours Worked per Employed Person by Sex, Age, and Economic Activity—Annual. 2023. Available online: https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer21/?lang=en&id=HOW_TEMP_SEX_AGE_ECO_NB_A (accessed on 8 July 2024).
- Ghana Statistical Service. Population 15 Years and Older by Migration Status, Major Industry, Sex, and Type of Locality 2023. Available online: https://statsghana.gov.gh/gssmain/fileUpload/pressrelease/Thematic%20Report%20on%20Migration_09032022.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2024).
- Bros, C.; Desdoigts, A.; Kouadio, H. Land Tenure Insecurity as an Investment Incentive: The Case of Migrant Cocoa Farmers and Settlers in Ivory Coast. J. Afr. Econ. 2019, 28, 147–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wernet, G.; Bauer, C.; Steubing, B.; Reinhard, J.; Moreno-Ruiz, E.; Weidema, B. The Ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): Overview and methodology. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2012, 21, 1218–1230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sala, S.; Vasta, A.; Mancini, L.; Dewulf, J.; Rosenbaum, E. Social Life Cycle Assessment: State of the Art and Challenges for Supporting Product Policies; EUR 27624; JRC99101; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Traverso, M.; Bell, L.; Saling, P.; Fontes, J. Towards social life cycle assessment: A quantitative product social impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2018, 23, 597–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wessel, M.; Foluke Quist-Wessel, P.M. Cocoa Production in West Africa, a Review and Analysis of Recent Developments. NJAS-Wagening. J. Life Sci. 2015, 74–75, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thorsen, D.; Maconachie, R. Children’s Work in West African Cocoa Production: Drivers, Contestations and Critical Reflections. In Children’s Work in African Agriculture; Bristol University Press: Bristol, UK, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Labour Organization (ILO). Child Labour: Global Estimates 2020, Trends and the Road Forward. 2020. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@ipec/documents/publication/wcms_797515.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Villanueva, E.; Glorio-Paulet, P.; Giusti, M.M.; Sigurdson, G.T.; Yao, S.; Rodríguez-Saona, L.E. Screening for pesticide residues in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) by portable infrared spectroscopy. Talanta 2023, 257, 124386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asamoah, P.; Adubofour, S.; Obodai, J.; Agyemang, F. The use of children in cocoa production in Sekyere South district in the Ashanti region, Ghana: Is this child labour or apprenticeship training? IJARIT 2018, 8, 38–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walk Free Foundation. Bittersweets: Prevalence of Forced Labour and Child Labour in the Cocoa Sectors of Côte D’Ivoire and Ghana. 2018. Available online: https://www.cocoainitiative.org/sites/default/files/resources/Cocoa-Report_181004_V15-FNL_digital_0.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Perkiss, S.; Bernardi, C.; Dumay, J.; Haslam, J. A sticky chocolate problem: Impression management and counter accounts in the shaping of corporate image. Crit. Perspect. Account. 2021, 81, 102229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Veritè. Assessment of Forced Labor Risk in the Cocoa Sector of Côte D’Ivoire. 2019. Available online: https://verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Verite-Report-Forced-Labor-in-Cocoa-in-CDI.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Haughton, S.A. Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. In The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies; Springer International Publishing AG: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schrage, E.J.; Ewing, A.P. The Cocoa Industry and Child Labour. J. Corp. Citizsh. 2014, 18, 99–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasell, J. From $1.90 to $2.15 a Day: The Updated International Poverty Line 2022. Published Online at OurWorldInData.org. Available online: https://ourworldindata.org/from-1-90-to-2-15-a-day-the-updated-international-poverty-line (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Boysen, O.; Ferrari, E.; Nechifor, V.; Tillie, P. Earn a living? What the Côte d’Ivoire–Ghana cocoa living income differential might deliver on its promise. Food Policy 2023, 114, 102389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, M.A.; Carodenuto, S. Stakeholder perspectives on cocoa’s living income differential and sustainability trade-offs in Ghana. World Dev. 2023, 165, 106201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brack, D. Towards Sustainable Cocoa Supply Chains: Regulatory Options for the EU. Fern, Tropenbos International, and the Fair Trade Advocacy Office. 2021. Available online: https://www.fern.org/fileadmin/uploads/fern/Documents/2019/Fern-sustainable-cocoa-supply-chains-report.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2024).
- Kissi, E.A.; Herzig, C. Labor relations and working conditions of workers on smallholder cocoa farms in Ghana. Agric. Hum. Values 2024, 41, 109–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barrientos, S. Gender and Work in Global Value Chains: Capturing the Gains? Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Boakye Dankwah, D.; Enu-Kwesi, F.; Koomson, F.; Ntiri, R.O.; Asmah, E.E. Interface between artisanal and small-scale mining and cocoa farming in the Wassa Amenfi East and West Districts of Ghana. Extr. Ind. Soc. 2024, 17, 101418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amfo, B.; Aidoo, R.; Osei Mensah, J.; Maanikuu, P.M.I. Linkage between working conditions and wellbeing: Insight from migrant and native farmhands on Ghana’s cocoa farms. Heliyon 2023, 9, e13383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kessie, G.K. Effects of Migration on the Livelihood of Rural Households in the Kpando District of the Volta Region. Master’s Thesis, Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Manoj, P.K.; Viswanath, V. Socio-economic conditions of migrant labourers: An empirical study in Kerala. Indian J. Appl. Res. 2015, 5, 88–93. [Google Scholar]
- Dabiré, B.H.; Soumahoro, K.A. Migration and Inequality in the Burkina Faso–Côte d’Ivoire corridor. In The Palgrave Handbook of South-South Migration and Inequality; Crawley, H., Teye, J.K., Eds.; Palgrave Macmillan: Cham, Switzerland, 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations. National Labour Migration Policy, 2020–2024. 2024. Available online: https://cms.ug.edu.gh/sites/cms.ug.edu.gh/files/National%20Labour%20Migration%20Policy%20.pdf (accessed on 29 July 2024).
- Kaba, J.S.; Otu-Nyanteh, A.; Abunyewa, A.A. The role of shade trees in influencing farmers’ adoption of cocoa agroforestry systems: Insight from Ghana’s semi-deciduous rain forest agroecological zone. NJAS-Wagening. J. Life Sci. 2020, 92, 100332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lennon, A.M.; Lewis, V.R.; Farrell, A.D.; Umaharan, P. Photochemical responses to light in sun and shade leaves of Theobroma cacao L. (West African Amelonado). Sci. Hortic. 2021, 276, 109747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sostizzo, T. Sustainable and Future-Oriented Cocoa Production in Ghana: Analysis of the Initiatives of two Swiss Chocolate Manufacturers. Afr. Technol. Devel. Forum J. 2017, 9, 20–31. [Google Scholar]
- Sassen, M.; van Soesbergen, A.; Arnell, A.P.; Scott, E. Patterns of (future) environmental risks from cocoa expansion and intensification in West Africa call for context-specific responses. Land Use Policy 2022, 119, 106142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awafo, E.A.; Owusu, P.A. Energy and water mapping of the cocoa value chain in Ghana. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2022, 29, 341–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Country | Production (tons) | % |
---|---|---|
Ivory Coast | 2,230,000 | 38.1% |
Ghana | 1,108,663 | 18.9% |
Indonesia | 667,296 | 11.4% |
Ecuador | 337,149 | 5.8% |
Cameroon | 300,000 | 5.1% |
Nigeria | 280,000 | 4.8% |
Brazil | 273,873 | 4.7% |
Peru | 171,177 | 2.9% |
Dominican Republic | 75,900 | 1.3% |
Colombia | 62,158 | 1.1% |
Papua New Guinea | 42,000 | 0.7% |
Uganda | 35,000 | 0.6% |
Venezuela | 29,325 | 0.5% |
Mexico | 28,115 | 0.5% |
Others | 213,927 | 3.70% |
Total | 5,854,583 | 100.0% |
Country | Imported Quantity (tons) | % |
---|---|---|
Netherlands | 713,532 | 20% |
United States | 478,787 | 14% |
Malaysia | 471,676 | 13% |
Germany | 277,368 | 8% |
Indonesia | 252,121 | 7% |
France | 161,019 | 5% |
Belgium | 134,005 | 4% |
Canada | 132,218 | 4% |
Turkey | 124,494 | 4% |
Italy | 106,982 | 3% |
Spain | 99,600 | 3% |
Singapore | 96,064 | 3% |
United Kingdom | 79,758 | 2% |
Russian Federation | 67,485 | 2% |
Switzerland | 52,409 | 1% |
Rest of the world | 251,288 | 7% |
Categories | Subcategories | Indicators | Cotè D’Ivore | Ref. | Ghana | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WORKERS | ||||||
Child labour | Children in employment | % of all children (7–14 years) | 26% | [41] | 73% | [40] |
Forced labour | Frequency of forced labour | Cases × 1000 inhabitants | 4.2 | [42] | 3.3 | [42] |
Tier placement | Tier 2 | [43] | Tier 2 | [44] | ||
Fair salary | Sector average wage | USD per month | 30.7$ | [45,46] | 38.34$ | [45,47] |
Ratio (Cocoa sector average wage/minimum wage for that Country) | 0.43 | 0.82 | ||||
Working time | Weekly hour of work per employee | h | not available | 30.2 | [49] | |
Workers right | Trade union density | % (number of workers affiliated with a trade union/total number of employees) | 10.60% | [48] | 16.80% | [48] |
LOCAL COMMUNITY | ||||||
Migrant workers | International migrant workers in the cocoa sector | % of the total workers in the sector | 25% | [51] | 23.20% | [50] |
Environmental footprint | Embodied agricultural area footprint | ha/$1 | 1.20 × 10−4 | SimaPro 9.5.0 | [52] | |
Embodied water footprint | mm3/$1 | 33 | ||||
GHG footprint | Embodied CO2 eq | t/$ | 1.16 × 10−3 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Vinci, G.; Ruggeri, M.; Gobbi, L.; Savastano, M. Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana. Resources 2024, 13, 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100141
Vinci G, Ruggeri M, Gobbi L, Savastano M. Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana. Resources. 2024; 13(10):141. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100141
Chicago/Turabian StyleVinci, Giuliana, Marco Ruggeri, Laura Gobbi, and Marco Savastano. 2024. "Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana" Resources 13, no. 10: 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100141
APA StyleVinci, G., Ruggeri, M., Gobbi, L., & Savastano, M. (2024). Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana. Resources, 13(10), 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13100141