Open AccessArticle

Automatically Detecting Excavator Anomalies Based on Machine Learning

Qingqing Zhou

Guo Chen

^1,*,

Wenjun Jiang

Kenli Li

¹ and

Keqin Li

College of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China

Department of Computer Science, State University of New York at New Paltz, New Paltz, NY 14821, USA

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Symmetry 2019, 11(8), 957; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080957

Submission received: 6 May 2019 / Revised: 15 July 2019 / Accepted: 18 July 2019 / Published: 30 July 2019

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Abstract

Excavators are one of the most frequently used pieces of equipment in large-scale construction projects. They are closely related to the construction speed and total cost of the entire project. Therefore, it is very important to effectively monitor their operating status and detect abnormal conditions. Previous research work was mainly based on expert systems and traditional statistical models to detect excavator anomalies. However, these methods are not particularly suitable for modern sophisticated excavators. In this paper, we take the first step and explore the use of machine learning methods to automatically detect excavator anomalies by mining its working condition data collected from multiple sensors. The excavators we studied are from Sany Group, the largest construction machinery manufacturer in China. We have collected 40 days working condition data of 107 excavators from Sany. In addition, we worked with six excavator operators and engineers for more than a month to clean the original data and mark the anomalous samples. Based on the processed data, we have designed three anomaly detection schemes based on machine learning methods, using support vector machine (SVM), back propagation (BP) neural network and decision tree algorithms, respectively. Based on the real excavator data, we have carried out a comprehensive evaluation. The results show that the anomaly detection accuracy is as high as 99.88%, which is obviously superior to the previous methods based on expert systems and traditional statistical models.

Keywords:

excavator; anomaly detection; machine learning; SVM; BP neural network; decision tree

1. Introduction

Excavators are one of the most heavily used pieces of equipment in large construction projects, which are typically sold for more than hundreds of thousands of dollars per machine [1]. Since excavators greatly affect the construction speed and the total cost of the whole project, it is necessary to carefully monitor their running status and detect anomalies as early as possible. In an environment where neglecting potential hazards could result in irreversible damage to the whole excavator and even threaten the safety of the operator, anomaly detection is a key tool to improve the reliability and usability of the excavator and ensure the operator’s safety.

Prior works try to automatically detect excavator anomalies based on two types of methods, expert systems [2,3,4] and traditional statistic models [5,6,7], respectively. However, these methods are not suitable for modern excavators which are exceptionally complex, leaving the anomaly detection in practice still relying on using simple thresholds for certain working condition metrics. Specifically, expert systems require extensive expert knowledge to predefine rules, which is almost impractical for modern complex excavators that contains hundreds of key components and up to hundreds of sensors monitoring various metrics. Moreover, as the volume of excavator working condition data increases, it is hard to extract regular patterns from mass of data based on traditional statistic models.

The recent advancement of neural network and machine learning (ML) have been successfully applied to various application scenarios [8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. However, none has used them in anomaly detection for excavators. Therefore, in this paper, we take the first step to explore using modern machine learning methods to automatically detect excavator anomalies by mining its working condition data collected from multiple sensors.

Our study is based on the excavators of Sany Group [15], the largest construction machinery manufacturer in China. We have collected 40 days of working condition data of 107 excavators from Sany, in total containing 3 million pieces of data entries uploaded from 26 sensors on each excavator. A typical challenge of applying machine learning methods in the traditional industry scenario is the poor data quality, which we have also encountered. As such, we have closely worked together with six excavator operators and engineers for more than one month to clean the original data and label anomalies in them.

Based on the processed data, we have devised and applied three machine learning based anomaly detection methods, using classic support vector machine (SVM) [16], back propagation (BP) neural network [17] and decision tree [18] algorithms, respectively. Comprehensive evaluation on real data from 107 excavators show that the anomaly detection accuracy of our methods is up to 99.88%, which greatly outperforms prior works based on expert systems and traditional statistic models.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that applies modern ML methods (e.g., SVM, BP network, decision tree) on anomaly detection for large and complex excavators. Although currently only several simple classic ML algorithms have been adopted in this paper, the evaluation shows promising performance results and great potential to use ML algorithms in detecting anomalies for excavators.

The rest of paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we review the related works. Then, we describe the excavator under our study and how we collect, clean and label the data in Section 3 and Section 4. Section 5 presents our excavator anomaly detection algorithms. Experiment results are shown and analyzed in Section 6. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 7.

2. Related Work

Since previously most traditional manufacturers have kept their excavators’ working condition data as confidential, there are not many publicly-available works proposing anomaly detection methods for excavators. Among them, two categorizations can be drawn:

Expert systems [2,3,4]. To detect excavator anomalies, the authors in [2] discussed an expert system framework for failure detection and predictive maintenance (FDPM) of a mine excavator. FDPM includes an expert system engine and a mathematical knowledge base for fault detection and the corresponding repairing under various conditions. However, the authors in [2] only proposed a framework without implementation, so the effectiveness has not been validated. The authors in [3,4] combined the fault tree analysis with simple rule-based expert system, and designed an expert system with complex reasoning and interpretation functions. However, the construction of the fault tree and the latter analysis highly rely on the professional domain knowledge in a specific environment, which may not be easily adopted to general excavators.
Traditional statistic models [5,6,7]. These methods mainly use traditional probability and statistics algorithms for anomaly detection. For instance, the authors in [5,6] rely on principal component analysis (PCA) and auto-regressive with extra output (ARX) to extract features that reflect anomalies, and fuzzy c-means (FCM) and radial basis function (RBF) to cluster anomalies and norms, respectively. However, these methods are shown to be not effective when applying to complex and large-volume multi-sensor data. Moreover, the authors in [5,6] only carried out experiments using simulated dataset but no real data verification. The authors in [7] proposed a framework for excavator fault diagnosis based on multi-agent system (MAS). However, only the overall design has been presented and their system has not been implemented and verified.

In summary, compared with the above approaches, the solution we propose does not require extensive professional domain knowledge and can handle a large volume of complex multi-sensor data well. Moreover, our solution has been tested and verified using real excavator data.

3. Data Sources

This section is devoted to showing the excavator description and data collection.

3.1. Excavator Description

As shown in Figure 1, the excavator used in our study is Sany Group’s SY215C medium-sized hydraulic excavator (weight 22,000 kg, bucket capacity 0.93 m

^{3}

, climbing ability 35 degrees, walking speed 5.4 km/h) [1]. The excavator is mainly composed of an engine, hydraulic system, working device, walking device and electrical control system. The walking device is to enable the walking, which includes a track, a walking engine, and a braking system. The working device is for excavating, which includes booms, arms, buckets, and hydraulic pumps, etc.

3.2. Data Collection

The excavator is equipped with 26 sensors on various components (engine, fuel tank, pump, etc.) monitoring the real-time working condition. The sensors sample the working condition every 10 s and upload the data to the excavator’s controller area network (CAN), which then transmits the data to our central data server. Note that each excavator’s data are only collected and uploaded during its running time but not in its shutdown time.

Sensors with different functions will collect corresponding working condition indicators. For example, the speed sensor will collect the engine speed and no-load engine speed, while the water temperature sensor will collect the cooling water temperature, and the pressure sensor will collect the pump 1 main pressure, pump 2 main pressure and oil pressure.

During the period from 10 November 2018 to 20 December 2018, we have collected 107 excavators’ working data for 40 days. The whole dataset contains approximately 3 million records. Each record contains 68 working condition metrics sampled by the sensors, including engine speed, hydraulic oil temperature, cooling water temperature, and so on. Table 1 summarizes our dataset. In addition, Table 2 and Table 3 list 68 characteristic indexes of excavators.

4. Data Preprocessing

In this section, how to clean data and label anomalies is described.

4.1. Cleaning Data

A few working condition samples are missed in our original dataset because of the temporary failures in the sensors and the data collection system. Since typical ML methods can not deal with incomplete datasets, we fill in those missing values according to the following rules: (1) Some working condition metrics are rather stable in a short time period, e.g., the previous sample value of a missing point equals to its next sample. Therefore, we can simply fill in the missing point with the value of its neighboring samples. (2) Some working condition metrics vary significantly, so we take the mean value of the previous sample and the next sample as the value of those missing points.

We note that the above methods may not precisely restore those missing values. However, since the missing points only contribute to one ten thousandth of the whole dataset, we believe this imprecision will not affect our final algorithm results (also verified by our experiments in Section 6).

4.2. Labeling Anomalies

Our original data source does not contain anomaly labels. Therefore, we have closely worked together with six excavator operators and engineers for more than one month to label anomalies in our collected dataset. Specifically, multiple excavator operators helped us to manually record each excavator’s maintenance condition during these 40 days. Each maintenance record consists of the maintenance time, whether there is an anomaly/fault, the anomaly/fault description, the rough time when the anomaly/fault occurs, and the working environment, etc. We define the time period from the occurrence of the anomaly to the end of the maintenance as an abnormal period, and label the working condition data samples during this period as abnormal, i.e., the negative samples. According to the labeled result, the ratio of positive and negative samples in the dataset is about 12:1.

5. Methodology

We now present our anomaly detection algorithms. Specifically, we first merge the original sampled time-series into discrete samples, and then use association analysis techniques to select features. Finally, we adopt three machine learning algorithms (i.e., SVM, BP neural network, decision tree) to detect excavator anomalies from working condition data.

5.1. Merging Time-Series into Discrete Samples

The sensor uploads data every 10 s, which we originally thought to be time series. However, the sensor only collects data when the excavator is working. Since the working time of each excavator is uncertain and discontinuous, and the interval time is also uncertain (e.g., work for an hour and rest for one day), the collected data does not meet the conditions of time series data. As such, to adapt to current ML algorithms, we merged the original sampled time-series into fewer discrete samples.

We observed that the sampled data are quite intermittent, and there is little or no change in each sampled metric value within one excavator working period. Therefore, we merge the samples within each working period into one sample. Specifically, we define that a working period ends if there is no sampled data for more than 2 min. (otherwise should upload sampled data for every 10 s). Then, we take the average value of the original sampled metrics as the value of the merged sample within this time period, and label it as abnormal if there is at least one maintenance record indicating it as abnormal within this time period. The dataset has 56,480 samples after merging.

5.2. Feature Selection

There are 68 sampled metrics forming 68 features in the original dataset. The importance of each metric is different, we need to choose important metrics as much as possible. Hence, we only select part of the features for learning the excavator anomalies. Specifically, we leverage association analysis to select features, which is an effective method to reveal relationships between different features and tend to find an optimal and minimal combination of features. The feature selection technique based on association analysis consists of two steps.

5.2.1. Association Rule Mining Based on an a Priori Algorithm

Association rules can be used to discover hidden relationships in the industrial data feature set.

f_{1}

and

f_{2}

are two subsets in the feature space F. For feature candidates

f_{1}

and

f_{2}

, the association rule

f_{1} \to f_{2}

have two indicators, namely support and confidence. Support indicates the frequency at which the feature subset occurring in the rule and is calculated by Equation (1).

s u p p o r t (f_{1} \to f_{2}) = \frac{α (f_{1} \cup f_{2})}{N},

(1)

where,

α (f_{1})

defines the number of transactions contained in a certain item set. N represents the total number of item set. Confidence denotes the strength of the rule and is calculated by Equation (2):

c o n f i d e n c e (f_{1} \to f_{2}) = \frac{α (f_{1} \cup f_{2})}{α (f_{1})} .

(2)

5.2.2. Using Association Rules to Select Features

The lift calculation of association rule

f_{1} \to f_{2}

is as shown in Equation (3). If the lift is greater than 1, the feature candidate

f_{1}

is positively correlated with the feature candidate

f_{2}

. In addition, if the lift is less than 1, it means that the feature candidate

f_{1}

and the feature candidate

f_{2}

are negatively correlated. In the same set, all association rules should be calculated. If the corresponding lift is less than 1, the candidate is added to the feature subset, if the lift is greater than 1, the candidate is removed from the feature. Finally, the optimal feature subset with the smallest dimension is selected by iteration:

l i f t (f_{1} \to f_{2}) = \frac{α (f_{1} \cup f_{2})}{α (f_{1}) \times α (f_{2})} .

(3)

As described in Table 4, we use association analysis techniques to select 16 features from 68 attributes in the excavator working condition dataset to form the best feature combination.

In order to verify whether the feature set selected using the association analysis is the optimal combination, we conducted a field study. We went to the excavator repair service center of Sany Heavy Industry in Changsha City, Hunan Province, and conducted in-depth discussions with excavator maintenance technicians of the repair service center, and verified the features selected by the association analysis one by one, to confirm whether it is directly related to the failure of excavator. Fortunately, 16 features we chose are directly related to the failure of the excavator. Excavator maintenance technicians also refer to these characteristics when repairing the excavator. It proves that the feature set we chose is indeed the optimal combination.

5.3. Anomaly Detection Algorithms for Excavators

BP neural network, SVM, and decision tree have proven to be effective by recent ML-based anomaly detection works for other application scenario [19,20,21,22,23,24]. Hence, we leverage these three classic algorithms in our design, and devise the following three algorithms for excavator anomaly detection.

5.3.1. BP Neural Network-Based Anomaly Detection

At present, multi-level feedforward neural networks have been successfully applied in many aspects. The training of this network is based on the steepest descent method, which is BP algorithm. BP algorithm is one of the most successful and widely used methods in the field of anomaly detection.

In this paper, BP neural network is trained by using the working condition data of the excavator to construct a anomaly detection model. The BP neural network includes an input layer, hidden layers, and an output layer. The hidden layer has two layers, the first layer has 10 neurons, and the second layer has three neurons. The number of input variables is 16, and the number of expected output variables is 2. Figure 2 shows its topology.

The BP neural network was trained and tested using different data sets, and the ratio of training and test sets was continually adjusted. Experimental details and results are described in detail in Section 6. The optimal values of the main parameters of the BP neural network in the scenario of this paper are shown in Table 5.

5.3.2. SVM-Based Anomaly Detection

SVM was first proposed by Vapnik et al. in [25], and has now become a very popular method for dealing with classification problems. Support vector machine is based on the principle of Structural Risk Minimization (SRM) in statistical learning theory, and has good generalization performance [26]. Minimizing structural risk means maximizing profits between different categories. Thus, SVM is not only a useful statistical theory, but also a way to deal with engineering problems [27]. The idea of SVM is to divide training samples into two classes using a linearly separated hyperplane.

In this study, excavator anomaly detection is formulated as a two-class classification problem, wherein SVM classifier is applied to determine if the state of the excavator is abnormal. We adopt a supervised learning approach for the classifier. That is, we train the classifier with marked data. Data sets are divided into training and test sets in different proportions and used to train and test SVM classifiers. Experimental details and results are described in detail in Section 6. The optimal values of the main parameters of SVM in the scenario of this paper are shown in Table 6.

5.3.3. Decision Tree-Based Anomaly Detection

The ID3 algorithm is an algorithm implementation of decision tree proposed by Ross Quinlan, which is based on information theory and takes information entropy and information gain as the measurement standard to realize data induction and classification. The algorithm tends to select attributes with a large number of different values, resulting in many small and pure subsets [28], which can effectively avoid the defects of measurement bias. Accordingly, this paper selects ID3 for intelligent detection of excavator anomaly.

The decision tree algorithm has been applied to the problem of excavator anomaly detection. Input to the algorithm is a set of features selected in Section 5.2, the output is the category, which is normal or abnormal. Similar to the previous two algorithms, data sets are divided into training and test sets in different proportions and used to train and test decision tree. Experimental details and results are described in detail in Section 6. The optimal values of the main parameters of SVM in the scenario of this paper are shown in Table 7.

6. Experimental Analysis

This section is devoted to showing evaluation metrics and comprehensive evaluation of the performance of three machine learning algorithms.

6.1. Evaluation Metrics

In order to effectively evaluate three anomaly detection schemes, we selected five commonly used evaluation indicators, namely accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, F-measure and AUC (Area Under ROC Curve). The accuracy is the sum of the proportion of classes that are correctly classified in the total. It is given by Equation (4):

a c c u r a c y = \frac{(T N + T P)}{(T N + T P + F N + F P)},

(4)

where

T N

T P

F N

and

F P

are true negative, true positive, false negative and false positive, respectively. The specificity reflects the ability of a classifier to identify negative examples. In addition, the sensitivity reflects the ability of a classifier to recognize positive examples. They are given by Equations (5) and (6), respectively:

s p e c i f i c i t y = \frac{T N}{(T N + F P)},

(5)

s e n s i t i v i t y = \frac{T P}{(T P + F N)} .

(6)

F-measure is the harmonic mean of recall and precision. It is given by Equation (7). In addition, the last evaluation indicator is AUC. The larger its value, the better the classification effect of the classifier:

F - m e a s u r e = 2 \cdot \frac{(r e c a l l \times p r e c i s i o n)}{(r e c a l l + p r e c i s i o n)} .

(7)

6.2. Comprehensive Evaluation

We have devised and applied three machine learning based anomaly detection methods, using SVM, BP neural network and decision tree algorithms, respectively. In addition, we completed the comprehensive evaluation. We adjusted the ratio of the test set to training set to find the best ratio. At the same time, the detection performance of the three machine learning algorithms is evaluated.

We set the dataset to five subsets. The first sub-data set contains data on the working condition of 20 excavators. The second sub-dataset adds working condition data for 20 excavators based on the first sub-dataset, i.e., the second sub-dataset contains data on the working condition of 40 excavators. By analogy, the third sub-data set contains the working condition data of 60 excavators, and the fourth sub-data set contains the working condition data of 80 excavators. Since there are a total of 107 excavator working conditions data, the fifth sub data set contains the working condition data of 107 excavators.

The three approaches were trained and tested by five sub-datasets, and the ratio of training set to test set was adjusted. The results are shown in Table 8, Table 9, Table 10, Table 11 and Table 12. For example, Table 8 shows the values of the evaluation indicators obtained by training and testing the three schemes using datasets 1–5 when the ratio of test set to training set is fixed at 7:3.

6.2.1. Exploring the Optimal Ratio of Test Set to Training Set

In terms of the ratio of test set to training set, five ratios are set. The ratio of test set to training set is set as 7:3, 6:4, 5:5, 4:6 and 3:7, respectively. The proportion of test set to training set was adjusted. The results are shown in Table 8, Table 9, Table 10, Table 11 and Table 12. For example, Table 12 show the values of the evaluation indicators obtained by training and testing the three schemes using datasets 1–5 when the ratio of test set to training set is fixed at 3:7. Table 11 shows the experimental results with a ratio of 4:6 between the test set and the training set. In addition, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10 show the experimental results with a ratio of 7:3, 6:4 and 5:5 between the test set and the training set, respectively.

The ratio of test set to training set also has a large impact on the performance of the detection solution. As shown in Figure 3, the dataset 5 is used to train and test the three anomaly detection schemes, and the ratio of test set to training set is changed. From the experimental results, it can be seen that, when the ratio of test set to training set is 3:7, the performance of the three approaches is optimal. Accordingly, we have come to the conclusion that the optimal ratio of test set to training set is 3:7.

6.2.2. Performance Evaluation of Three Anomaly Detection Methods

Dataset 5 was used to train and test three anomaly detection approaches, and the ratio between test set and training set was fixed at 3:7. The experimental results are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen from experimental results that the performance of three anomaly detection approaches is very excellent, and their detection accuracy is higher than 0.95. Of course, in comparison, each evaluation index of the detection scheme based on the decision tree is better than the other two schemes. Accordingly, two conclusions can be drawn, one is that the feature combination we choose is optimal; the other is that the detection performance of the decision tree is better than the other two methods.

7. Conclusions

In this paper, we take the first step to explore modern machine learning methods to automatically detect excavator anomalies by mining its working condition data collected from multiple sensors. In the face of poor quality data, we have performed a series of pre-processing tasks, including data cleaning, anomaly marking, and discretization. In addition, we have selected 16 features using correlation analysis techniques. Based on the processed data, we have designed and applied three machine learning-based anomaly detection methods, using SVM, BP neural network and decision tree algorithms, respectively. Comprehensive evaluation on real data from 107 excavators show that the best anomaly detection accuracy reaches 99.88%. It shows that the machine learning method has great potential in the field of excavator anomaly detection.

Applying machine learning to the field of excavator anomaly detection has played a very important role in the intelligentization of excavators. In the future, we have three research priorities. The first one is to improve the quality of data collection, improve the collection equipment and collection rules. The second important point is to classify the abnormality of the excavator, specifically to the component, that is, to be able to detect which component has an abnormality. The third focus is to explore more machine learning methods and apply them to the field of excavator anomaly detection.

Author Contributions

The idea of the whole thesis was put forward by Q.Z. She also wrote the paper. G.C. helped in writing and reviewing the paper. W.J., K.L. (Kenli Li) and K.L. (Keqin Li) analyzed the existing work, and Z.L. provided the experimental data set.

Funding

This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 531107051136), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No. 6187060280).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

SVM	Support vector machine
BP	Back propagation
ML	Machine learning
FDPM	Failure detection and predictive maintenance
PCA	Principal component analysis
ARX	Auto-regressive with extra output
FCM	Fuzzy c-means
RBF	Radial basis function
MAS	Multi-agent system
CAN	Controller area network
SRM	Structural risk minimization
SVs	Support vectors
AUC	Area under ROC curve

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Figure 1. SY215C medium-sized hydraulic excavator.

Figure 2. The topology of theBP neural network.

Figure 3. Experimental comparison of different proportions of test sets to training sets.

Figure 4. Performance comparison of three anomaly detection schemes.

Table 1. Dataset description.

Item	Description
Size of the dataset	2,998,690
The number of sampled metrics	68
Time span of data collection	40 days
Excavator model	SY215C
Number of excavators	107

Table 2. Sixty-eight characteristic indexes of excavators.

Indexes	Character Representation	Brief Description	Type
Number of GPS satellites	Gps_starsnum	The number of GPS satellites	Numeric
GPRS signal strength	Gprs_sigstrength	The strength of the GPRS signal	Numeric
GPRSEMEI no.	Gprs_emei	The serial number of GPRSEMEI	Numeric
Local data acquisition time	Timestamp_local	Data collection time of the equipment	Numeric
Device data entry time	Timestamp_cloudm2m	The time when the data enters the cloud	Numeric
Device ID	Deviceid	The ID number of the device	Numeric
Major key ID	Uuid	The major key ID number of the device	Numeric
Date	Bizdate	Date of data collection	Numeric

Table 3. Sixty-eight characteristic indexes of excavators.

Indexes	Character Representation	Brief Description	Type
Equipment GPSID	Gpsid	The device is configured with the GPS ID	Numeric
Device IP address	Ip	IP address of the device	Numeric
Time	Time	Data acquisition time	Numeric
GPS status	Rd_gpssta	Shows the current status of the GPS	Numeric
TRU system fault word_word fault code	Rd_werrorcode	Indicates whether the device is faulty	Numeric
TRU alarm combination word_word alarm code	Rd_walmcode	Show whether the device has an alarm	Numeric
Gear position	Rd_steppos	Display device working gear	Numeric
HCU alarm merge word 1_bit fault code	Rd_berrorcode	Displays the specific fault type	Numeric
HCU alarm merge word 2_bit alarm code	Rd_balmcode	Displays the specific alarm type	Numeric
HCU system fault word_number of satellites	Rd_saticunt	Show the number of satellites	Numeric
Action number_fault handling status	Rd_errdealsta	Shows whether the fault has been handled	Numeric
Handshake switch	rd_commctsch	Used to display handshake switches	Numeric
Operating mode	Rd_uintresv10	Show what mode of operation the device is in	Numeric
Display operates the switch quantity	Rd_uintresv11	Operating switch value of display screen	Numeric
Input switch	Rd_uintresv12	Switches collected by sensors	Numeric
Output switch	Rd_uintresv13	Variable of electrical component output	Numeric
Lock machine level	Rd_uintresv14	Displays the lock level	Numeric
Cell phone number 1_3 digits	Rd_uintresv15	Display the phone number 1–3 digits	Numeric
Cell phone number 4_7 digits	Rd_uintresv16	Display the phone number 4–7 digits	Numeric
Cell phone number 8_11 digits	Rd_uintresv17	Display the phone number 8–11 digits	Numeric
Call status word	Rd_uintresv18	Shows what call state it is in	Numeric
Call instruction	Rd_uintresv19	Display call command	Numeric
Noload engine speed	Rd_uintresv20	Engine speed at which the equipment is idle	Numeric
The largest stall	Rd_uintresv21	Shows maximum engine stall	Numeric
Average stall	Rd_uintresv22	Show engine average speed	Numeric
Screen application version number	Rd_uintresv23	The version number used by the device	Numeric
Longitude 1	Rd_longitude	Displays the longitude 1 of the device	Numeric
Latitude 1	Rd_latitude	Displays the latitude 1 of the device	Numeric
Displacement velocity 1	Rd_velocity	Operating speed 1 of equipment (km/h)	Numeric
Displacement direction 1	Rd_orientation	The displacement direction 1 of the device	Numeric
Working time	Rd_wktime	Last startup time of the equipment	Numeric
Total working time	Rd_totalwktime	Total working hours of the equipment	Numeric
Lock machine remaining time	Rd_rmntime	The remaining time of the device being locked	Numeric
Battery voltage	Rd_batteryvol	Display battery voltage	Numeric
Engine speed	Rd_engv	Display engine speed	Numeric
Fuel oil level	Rd_oillev	Fuel level of equipment (%)	Numeric
Height	Rd_altitude	Altitude of the equipment	Numeric
Signal quality	Rd_sgniq	Shows the strength of satellite signal quality	Numeric
Cooling water temperature	Rd_floatresv13	Display cooling water temperature	Numeric
Pump 1 main pressure	Rd_floatresv14	Display pump 1 main pressure size	Numeric
Pump 2 main pressure	Rd_floatresv15	Display pump 2 main pressure size	Numeric
Proportional valve 1 current	Rd_floatresv16	The current level of proportional valve 1	Numeric
Proportional valve 2 current	Rd_floatresv17	The current level of proportional valve 2	Numeric
Oil pressure	Rd_floatresv18	Display oil pressure	Numeric
Hydraulic oil temperature	Rd_floatresv19	Display the temperature of the hydraulic oil	Numeric
Action time_arm lift	Rd_floatresv20	Pilot pressure for arm lift	Numeric
Fuel consumption_arm drop	Rd_floatresv21	Lead pressure for arm drop	Numeric
Front pump mean main pressure	Rd_floatresv22	Front pump average main pressure size	Numeric
Front pump average current	Rd_floatresv23	Front pump solenoid valve average current size	Numeric
Front pump average power	Rd_floatresv24	Display front pump average power	Numeric
Mean main pressure of rear pump	Rd_floatresv25	The average main pressure of the rear pump	Numeric
Rear pump average current	Rd_floatresv26	Display the average current of the rear pump	Numeric
Average power of rear pump	Rd_floatresv27	Display the average power of the rear pump	Numeric
Throttle voltage	Rd_floatresv28	Voltage at the throttle of the device	Numeric
Gear voltage	Rd_floatresv29	Display the voltage level of each gear	Numeric
Longitude	Gps_longitude	Displays the longitude of the device	Numeric
Latitude	Gps_latitude	Displays the latitude of the device	Numeric
The displacement speed	Gps_velocity	Operating speed of equipment (km/h)	Numeric
Sense of displacement	Gps_orientation	The displacement direction of the device	Numeric
GPS signal strength	Gps_sigstrength	The strength of the GPS signal	Numeric

Table 4. Sixteen features selected using association analysis.

Feature	Character Representation	Brief Description	Type
Gear position	Rd_steppos	Display device working gear	Numeric
Operating mode	Rd_uintresv10	Show what mode of operation the device is in	Numeric
Output switch	Rd_uintresv13	Variable of electrical component output	Numeric
Average stall	Rd_uintresv22	Show engine average speed	Numeric
Total working time	Rd_totalwktime	Total working hours of the equipment	Numeric
Battery voltage	Rd_batteryvol	Display battery voltage	Numeric
Engine speed	Rd_engv	Display engine speed	Numeric
Cooling water temperature	Rd_floatresv13	Display cooling water temperature	Numeric
Pump 1 main pressure	Rd_floatresv14	Display pump 1 main pressure size	Numeric
Pump 2 main pressure	Rd_floatresv15	Display pump 2 main pressure size	Numeric
Proportional valve 1 current	Rd_floatresv16	Display the current level of proportional valve 1	Numeric
Proportional valve 2 current	Rd_floatresv17	Display the current level of proportional valve 2	Numeric
hydraulics pressure	Rd_floatresv18	Display oil pressure	Numeric
Hydraulic oil temperature	Rd_floatresv19	Display the temperature of the hydraulic oil	Numeric
Throttle voltage	Rd_floatresv28	Voltage at the throttle of the device	Numeric
Gear voltage	Rd_floatresv29	Display the voltage level of each gear	Numeric

Table 5. Main parameters of the BP neural network.

Parameter	Description	Value
net.trainmethod	training method	traingd
net.trainParam.epochs	Maximum number of training	10
net.trainParam.goal	Training requirements accuracy	0
net.trainParam.lr	Learning rate	0.01
net.trainParam.max_fail	Maximum number of failures	6

Table 6. Main parameters of SVM.

Parameter	Description	Value
C	Penalty coefficient of the objective function	1
Kernel	Kernel function	RBF
Gamma	Kernel function bandwidth	1/16
Coef0	Independent item in the kernel function	0
Probablity	Specify whether to use probability estimation when predicting a decision	False
Class_weight	Refers to the weight of each class	1
Max_iter	The maximum number of iterations	−1

Table 7. Main parameters of the decision tree.

Parameter	Description	Value
Criterion	Feature selection criteria	Entropy
Splitter	Character classification criteria	Best
Max_depth	Maximum depth of decision tree	None
Min_impurity_decrease	Node division minimum impurity	0

Table 8. The ratio of the test dataset to the training dataset is 7:3.

Methods	Indicators	Dataset1	Dataset2	Dataset3	Dataset4	Dataset5
SVM	AUC (%)	45.61	48.87	50.98	50.99	51.64
	Accuracy (%)	67.15	80.06	93.32	93.40	94.03
	Specificity (%)	70.43	82.52	93.72	93.87	95.41
	Sensitivity (%)	68.32	83.12	90.64	92.12	93.64
	F-measure (%)	66.78	79.45	90.24	91.58	93.34
BP neural network	AUC (%)	69.15	76.48	82.61	87.56	90.15
	Accuracy (%)	70.21	78.63	84.72	90.42	94.12
	Specificity (%)	72.35	80.19	85.62	91.87	95.54
	Sensitivity (%)	69.27	76.24	83.54	89.21	93.63
	F-measure (%)	68.13	75.64	82.13	88.64	92.64
Decision tree	AUC (%)	74.15	75.64	76.90	98.84	98.97
	Accuracy (%)	70.33	86.52	92.52	99.83	99.85
	Specificity (%)	72.89	88.64	94.15	99.85	99.89
	Sensitivity (%)	69.12	85.36	91.24	99.11	99.16
	F-measure (%)	71.64	87.62	93.44	99.84	99.86

Table 9. The ratio of the test dataset to the training dataset is 6:4.

Methods	Indicators	Dataset1	Dataset2	Dataset3	Dataset4	Dataset5
SVM	AUC (%)	51.16	51.97	52.17	52.32	58.67
	Accuracy (%)	68.43	80.17	93.14	93.48	95.08
	Specificity (%)	71.62	82.46	93.88	94.16	95.77
	Sensitivity (%)	68.12	79.32	92.64	92.71	94.76
	F-measure (%)	67.89	78.64	91.77	92.15	93.48
BP neural network	AUC (%)	71.43	78.51	83.12	89.62	91.56
	Accuracy (%)	72.14	80.12	87.64	92.54	95.17
	Specificity (%)	74.62	82.19	88.79	93.42	96.41
	Sensitivity (%)	71.12	79.64	86.52	91.65	94.13
	F-measure (%)	70.65	78.34	85.97	90.18	93.78
Decision tree	AUC (%)	71.19	82.75	85.95	98.90	98.94
	Accuracy (%)	71.47	88.31	96.26	99.86	99.87
	Specificity (%)	73.81	90.44	97.84	99.87	99.89
	Sensitivity (%)	70.62	87.52	95.63	99.14	99.42
	F-measure (%)	72.87	89.47	96.89	99.87	99.88

Table 10. The ratio of the test dataset to the training dataset is 5:5.

Methods	Indicators	Dataset1	Dataset2	Dataset3	Dataset4	Dataset5
SVM	AUC (%)	50.46	51.89	52.63	53.69	58.21
	Accuracy (%)	68.95	80.63	93.27	93.57	94.88
	Specificity (%)	71.24	81.85	94.81	94.82	95.02
	Sensitivity (%)	68.14	79.46	91.84	92.68	94.42
	F-measure (%)	67.46	78.74	90.63	91.85	94.10
BP neural network	AUC (%)	70.11	77.68	82.42	89.67	91.24
	Accuracy (%)	72.35	79.56	85.37	92.15	94.72
	Specificity (%)	75.41	81.23	87.19	93.48	95.68
	Sensitivity (%)	71.62	79.14	84.67	91.62	94.16
	F-measure (%)	70.41	78.89	84.15	90.17	93.64
Decision tree	AUC (%)	70.18	80.49	85.43	98.91	98.78
	Accuracy (%)	70.62	87.14	95.51	99.87	99.87
	Specificity (%)	73.49	89.43	96.12	99.87	99.88
	Sensitivity (%)	69.54	86.72	94.68	99.35	99.49
	F-measure (%)	72.78	88.13	95.89	99.83	99.85

Table 11. The ratio of the test dataset to the training dataset is 4:6.

Methods	Indicators	Dataset1	Dataset2	Dataset3	Dataset4	Dataset5
SVM	AUC (%)	50.19	51.63	53.22	53.35	58.62
	Accuracy (%)	68.21	82.91	93.22	93.62	95.11
	Specificity (%)	71.27	85.21	94.13	94.51	96.32
	Sensitivity (%)	68.08	80.65	92.85	93.19	94.82
	F-measure (%)	67.41	79.45	91.42	92.86	93.16
BP neural network	AUC (%)	71.25	76.14	84.52	89.17	91.56
	Accuracy (%)	75.68	80.58	88.14	93.01	95.31
	Specificity (%)	77.82	82.34	90.48	94.53	96.42
	Sensitivity (%)	74.61	80.13	87.52	92.14	94.62
	F-measure (%)	73.18	79.61	86.42	91.73	93.51
Decision tree	AUC (%)	68.71	82.45	89.44	98.96	98.97
	Accuracy (%)	71.84	88.62	96.96	99.88	99.88
	Specificity (%)	73.52	90.41	97.54	99.88	99.89
	Sensitivity (%)	70.56	87.91	95.78	99.07	99.15
	F-measure (%)	72.41	89.77	97.15	99.87	99.88

Table 12. The ratio of the test dataset to the training dataset is 3:7.

Methods	Indicators	Dataset1	Dataset2	Dataset3	Dataset4	Dataset5
SVM	AUC (%)	50.32	52.41	54.00	56.13	58.94
	Accuracy (%)	70.41	84.28	92.83	94.12	95.28
	Specificity (%)	72.63	86.48	93.75	95.14	96.21
	Sensitivity (%)	70.15	83.67	92.16	94.01	95.17
	F-measure (%)	69.57	83.12	91.85	93.67	94.15
BP neural network	AUC (%)	65.14	70.12	76.32	82.18	92.96
	Accuracy (%)	80.73	83.59	89.46	93.63	95.41
	Specificity (%)	81.59	84.63	90.23	94.28	96.23
	Sensitivity (%)	80.42	83.14	89.11	93.14	94.89
	F-measure (%)	79.68	82.48	88.42	92.67	93.78
Decision tree	AUC (%)	64.31	80.15	86.00	98.89	98.87
	Accuracy (%)	73.73	90.65	97.82	99.88	99.88
	Specificity (%)	79.82	93.58	98.15	99.89	99.91
	Sensitivity (%)	72.88	90.17	97.02	99.49	99.51
	F-measure (%)	75.98	92.67	98.04	99.88	99.89

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Zhou, Q.; Chen, G.; Jiang, W.; Li, K.; Li, K. Automatically Detecting Excavator Anomalies Based on Machine Learning. Symmetry 2019, 11, 957. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080957

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Zhou Q, Chen G, Jiang W, Li K, Li K. Automatically Detecting Excavator Anomalies Based on Machine Learning. Symmetry. 2019; 11(8):957. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080957

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhou, Qingqing, Guo Chen, Wenjun Jiang, Kenli Li, and Keqin Li. 2019. "Automatically Detecting Excavator Anomalies Based on Machine Learning" Symmetry 11, no. 8: 957. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080957

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