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Review

Known and Unknown Environmental Impacts Related to Climate Changes in Pakistan: An Under-Recognized Risk to Local Communities

by
Muhammad Adnan
1,2,
Baohua Xiao
1,*,
Shaheen Bibi
3,4,
Peiwen Xiao
1,2,
Peng Zhao
1,2,
Haiyan Wang
1,2,
Muhammad Ubaid Ali
5 and
Xianjin An
6,7
1
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China
2
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3
Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
4
Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
5
College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
6
School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China
7
State Engineering Technology Institute for Karst Desertification Control, Guiyang 550001, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(14), 6108; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146108
Submission received: 21 May 2024 / Revised: 12 July 2024 / Accepted: 15 July 2024 / Published: 17 July 2024
Browse Figures
Figure 1
<p>SDGs are the only approach to tackling climate change, modified from [<a href="#B7-sustainability-16-06108" class="html-bibr">7</a>].</p> "> Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Map showing climate and hunger vulnerability scores; (<b>b</b>) mapping exposure to harm from air pollution. Exposure to air pollution (PM2.5) combined with poverty shows how local boundaries are crossed and how local people may be affected (Reprinted from refs. [<a href="#B51-sustainability-16-06108" class="html-bibr">51</a>], with permission of the publisher).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Comparison between conventional water management and foreign funding.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Essential to closely monitor the ongoing fluctuations in the CPEC project.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Essential elements for developing and scaling beneficial effects, with examples from the four case-study technologies, (modified from [<a href="#B146-sustainability-16-06108" class="html-bibr">146</a>]).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Policy concerns and related issues.</p> ">
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study prioritized initiatives within the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), foreign funding, and the associated environmental and national issues. Additionally, it analyzed these factors’ effects on improving infrastructure, commerce, and economic cooperation between China and Pakistan. Besides that, it also studies the current climatic, economic, and political challenges, mainly focused on water and agriculture issues. Climate, economic, and political issues affect the environment. These concerns deserve global attention. Pakistan mainly relies on agriculture, and its water scarcity predisposes it to economic losses, urbanization, and many socioeconomic problems. Climate change and the current flood have devastated the agriculture sector. Water scarcity affects agriculture too and significantly impacts the economy and food resources. The nation has not previously experienced such a profoundly distressing epoch. Pakistan has faced several environmental, economic, and political challenges; specifically, the fields of agriculture and water present notable apprehensions. Unfavorable climatic conditions impede the attainment of sustainable agriculture in Pakistan. Considering the strong reliance of agriculture on water resources, it is crucial to acknowledge that industrialization has resulted in substantial water contamination due to the presence of microplastics and heavy metals. Moreover, the South Asian region experiences a significant scarcity of water resources. Besides that, CPEC is the solution for the financial issues, but it is a big challenge for environmental degradation in the current stage, especially since foreign funding is a key challenge for increasing corruption and bringing more burden on the economy. Unfortunately, foreign funding is not good for Pakistan. To ensure safety, security, and sustainability, CPEC projects should follow environmental regulations. This study provides a new list of CPEC initiative priority tasks that more openly disrupt the initiative, serve the whole project, and give appropriate recommendations for future research and policy-making.

1. Introduction

The CPEC projects in Pakistan encounter substantial environmental obstacles that have a detrimental effect on the country’s development. Critical challenges requiring rapid response include deforestation, biodiversity loss, and pollution from large-scale buildings [1]. In order to tackle these difficulties, it is essential to incorporate efficient environmental management and sustainable practices into CPEC initiatives. This will help minimize negative effects and guarantee long-term sustainability. It is particularly important to consider this in light of the climate change incidents connected to Pakistan [2]. Ensuring a harmonious coexistence between environmental preservation and economic growth is crucial for Pakistan’s progress and ecological equilibrium, underscoring the importance of adopting a comprehensive strategy for promoting environmental sustainability in development initiatives. Notwithstanding these obstacles, the CPEC projects strive to advance sustainable development using renewable energy sources. Long-term environmental health depends on the production of energy from renewable sources [3].
Climate change refers to the observable and measurable changes in weather patterns, mostly caused by the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from both natural and human activities [4]. Climate change can cause long-term impacts on various environmental concerns [5]. In South Asia, climate change effects on humans and ecosystems are becoming more severe and widespread [6]. Our planet’s long-term sustainability is seriously threatened by the link between environmental deterioration and climate change [7]. The agricultural sector plays a crucial role in the national economy and its operations, but there is a risk of production disruption. Approximately 27% of arable lands worldwide are affected by flooding yearly, resulting in flood-related damages that have amounted to a significant sum of $19 billion over the past 50 years; the climate crisis has led to an increase in the global water cycle, resulting in increased flooding, and this has strained the efficient use of economic, natural, and social resources [8]. Moreover, the recent flash floods in Pakistan resulted in approximately $39 billion worth of destruction, severely affecting the agricultural industry and causing the displacement of numerous inhabitants [9]. Still, little investigation has been conducted to determine whether flooding caused by prolonged precipitation could influence crop physiological activity [10]. Our global agricultural sector relies heavily on irrigated agriculture [11]. Humanity’s most significant problem in the 21st century is ensuring a stable food supply in a rapidly expanding population and an increasingly unstable environment [12]. Experts believe that the failure to address global warming issues is due to the rise of new environmental problems and the growing population in underdeveloped countries. In contrast, some believe that the standard of living has increased due to technological advancement and economic expansion [13]. Pakistan was ranked 154th out of 189 countries in the world in 2019 by the Human Development Index. The ranking indicates that various reasons may lead to food insecurity in the country, such as reduced agricultural output, changes in food prices, market defects, and rapid population growth [14]. Agricultural productivity will be impacted by climate change, which may lead to challenges with food security [15].
Impacts on the environment, like eutrophication, biodiversity loss, and overexploitation of marine ecosystems, are all primarily brought on by the food industry [16]. Land-based cultivation is the primary cause of loss of land biodiversity and accounts for around 80% of worldwide degradation [16]. Rising temperatures, acidification, and water pollution are anticipated to harm aquatic efficiency, species distribution, and the survival of over 20% of exploited fish and aquatic invertebrates by the year 2050 [17]. The world is witnessing disastrous changes in its environment. Changes in the climate commenced back in the 18th century when the population increased rapidly. The technological advancement proved fatal for the environment. According to the previous study, before the industrial revolution, the CO2 was 280 parts per million; however, with time, the situation deteriorated badly to such an extent that now the CO2 on overage went over 400 parts per million [9]. A country’s socioeconomic and political environment, including population and import/export growth, circulations, and shifting dietary trends, all impact the demand for agricultural products in the Mediterranean region [18]. In light of the significance of irrigation as a tool for agro-management, discrepancies between the simulation findings for thoroughly irrigated and rain-fed systems can be used to determine the possible advantages of maintaining the existing irrigation infrastructure and adding more capacity [19]. On the contrary, the harmful ramifications of plastic pollution on the ecosystem, economy, and society have been substantial globally [20], in addition to the related problem of pollutants such as heavy metals. The human population is experiencing a period characterized by notable levels of heavy metal contamination, as seen by the considerable increase in heavy metal pollution worldwide [21]. In China, heavy metal contamination of soil and water has risen due to industrialization [22]. The primary sources of heavy metal pollution are anthropogenic and natural [23].
Pakistan’s economy heavily depends on agriculture, with an annual growth rate of 2.77%; agriculture contributes ~19% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [24,25]. Furthermore, the COVID-19 epidemic caused significant disruptions to agricultural output and distribution in nations such as Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, thereby emphasizing the sector’s susceptibility to exogenous shocks [26]. Historical evidence suggests that Pakistan’s agricultural capacity has declined for a decade, similar to other rapidly emerging economies; in 1960, the agriculture sector contributed 29% to GDP, but that number dropped to 18.9% in 2020 [27]. Around 26% of all emissions are attributable to the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with food [28]. Challenges facing Pakistan’s agriculture industry include carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels, which affect food production and climate change. In order to tackle these problems, it is necessary to implement modernization and sustainable agriculture practices, which involve using renewable energy technology and effective farming methods. Improving agricultural productivity and sustainability is vital for Pakistan’s economic development and environmental welfare. Numerous elements of the socioeconomic and political landscape have a major impact on the demand for agricultural products in South Asian nations. Population growth, import and export dynamics, and changing dietary preferences are important factors that influence this demand. Studies suggest that the agricultural industry in South Asia has undergone significant changes in its structure, with the cultivation of a wider variety of crops being driven by factors such as the per capita GDP, the consumption of pesticides, and the yields of food crops [29].
Consuming renewable and nonrenewable energy sources is crucial for a nation to grow economically; for economic development, energy is the primary source for human well-being; a dearth of energy services is a sign of underdeveloped human development in a nation [30]. Environmental legislation significantly enhances energy conservation by implementing concrete steps and intangible awareness, thereby exerting a binding influence on energy conservation [31]. Leaders worldwide who have been unwilling to support the development of climate change mitigation technologies due to the significant financial investment have come together in response to the threat caused by climate change and its ubiquitous consequences on the socioeconomic and environmental sectors [32]. There is a persistent and ongoing issue regarding the resolution of challenges related to climate change; at the same time, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the only approach to mitigate current challenges (see Figure 1) [7].
With government assistance, developing renewable energy is easier. In 2020, China’s research and development (R&D) investment amounted to CNY 2439.31 billion RMB [33]. Since 2009, the Chinese economy has consistently surpassed the United States in terms of consumption of energy [34]. The 21st century has witnessed the emergence and evolution of local and international strategic environments globally [35]. For more than 50 years, Pakistan and China have established a mutually beneficial relationship [36]. China’s comprehensive strategic approach to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the South Asian region prioritizes Pakistan, primarily by establishing the CPEC [37]. In Asia, numerous reasons exist for pursuing national and regional infrastructure development, which can be attributed partly to the repercussions of recent financial and economic crises [38]. Pakistan is currently struggling with various challenges, including a poor economy, an energy crisis, security problems, and inadequate infrastructure [39]. Upgrades and improvements to current communication networks and the construction of additional ones are included in the infrastructure portion of CPEC [40]. A potential issue that may arise is the need for more educational, healthcare, drinking water, and vocational training resources for communities beyond the boundaries of the industrial zones in these municipalities [41].
Social, economic, cultural, political, and environmental aspects directly affect local community support for CPEC projects and the development and sustainability of Pakistan’s rural economy. This paper aims to study a series of significant environmental research concerns. In order to investigate the important ecological challenges related to CPEC activities, this paper attempts to address these difficulties. Moreover, the study highlights the significance of assessing the effects on agriculture, water supplies, and infrastructure to foster sustainable growth and alleviate the adverse outcomes of the CPEC projects. Further, review the rhetorical connection of international funding and the CPEC initiative concerning the economic and infrastructural development of the regions where the problem of climate change gradually emerges, receives attention, and creates contentious debates. This goal was achieved by reviewing the literature.

2. Methodology

The CPEC activities are prioritized, the effects of foreign finance are assessed, and Pakistan’s environmental and national issues are evaluated thoroughly. The researchers performed a comprehensive search of academic databases, namely Elsevier Science Direct, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), using specific keywords such as “CPEC initiatives”, “foreign funding”, “environmental concerns”, “national concerns”, “Pakistan climate policy”, “climate change”, “SDGs”, “water resource management”, “environmental sustainability”, “conference of all parties”, “population”, “flood”, “temperature”, “glaciers”, and “environmental education.” The inclusion requirements necessitated research that specifically examined the effects of CPEC efforts on Pakistan’s environment and infrastructure, the influence of foreign money on economic stability and corruption, and the difficulties related to climate, economy, and politics with a particular emphasis on water and agriculture. Only scholarly publications that have undergone a rigorous evaluation process by experts in the field, were published within the past few years, and written in English were considered for inclusion. The exclusion criteria excluded papers that did not directly address the research themes, as well as grey literature and non-English articles. The evaluation process involved analyzing chosen publications to extract pertinent information regarding prioritizing the CPEC, the effects of foreign funding, and concerns related to the environment and national interests. The analysis specifically focused on topics such as climate change, water scarcity, and the economic consequences of agriculture. The research hypothesis proposed that whereas CPEC activities yield financial benefits, they also raise substantial environmental concerns.

3. Results

3.1. Temperature and Its Impact on Sustainability

Recent studies have highlighted the likelihood of future displacements due to climate change, although environmental issues have always been a root cause of global migration problems [42]. Ecological factors have historically been primary drivers of worldwide migration issues, and predictions indicate a significant increase in forced relocation due to environmental changes by 2050, impacting both human populations and wildlife. The subject of ecological migration research is continuously developing and emphasizes the deep linkages between climate adaptation, labor migration flows, and gender dimensions. These connections must be further explored to inform successful policy-making and implementation. Although there are still misunderstandings about the direct link between environmental change and mass displacement, it is clear that environmental issues such as global warming are already altering the distribution of populations and will probably result in geopolitical changes that have permanent effects. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHG emissions into the lower atmosphere from human activities now contribute significantly to the continuous warming of the Earth’s surface [43]. Rising levels of GHGs are linked to several environmental changes, including more frequent and severe weather-related catastrophes and higher sea levels [44]. While natural processes like decomposition, earthquakes, and wetland decay can produce small amounts of CO2 and methane, the vast majority of these gases are created by human activities and contribute significantly to global warming [45]. However, in 2021, energy-related GHG emissions spiked to the highest, and atmospheric CO2 levels rose to their most significant recorded over 2 million years [46]. Greenhouse gases and short-lived climatic contaminants, which are the primary causes of climate change, are mainly generated by the combustion of fossil fuels [47].
South Asia’s global mean temperature is already higher than in the rest of Asia; it is projected to rise by 3–4 °C by the end of the 21st century, making it one of the most climate-vulnerable regions on Earth [48]. The sustainable economy is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change; natural factors, including shifts in climatic characteristics like the frequency and severity of storms, impact agricultural output [49].
Several studies have established a strong link between metropolitan temperature and surface features [50]. Scientists have developed perspectives like “climate goals” and “planetary boundaries” to reduce dangers worldwide [51]. Environmental justice researchers have discussed the potential for inequalities to arise due to the unequal effects of pollution and the protection of natural areas [51]. While the world’s largest 10 economies are responsible for a disproportionate share of CO2 emissions, only some regions will feel its effects. Most GHG emissions, such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CO2, are caused by deforestation and industrialization. Because of GHGs, the world’s natural climate has shifted. Surface-environment GHGs also have an impact on inhabited areas. Technology advancement is the main means of reducing pollution emissions; as China’s economy moves into the fourth industrial revolution, new technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and digitalization are becoming more prevalent. Achieving sustainable development goals, lowering pollution, and enhancing environmental management are all made possible by AI technology; for example, AI-driven technologies, such as machine learning and remote sensing, are critical to environmental monitoring [3]. Now, China is investing heavily in AI and is home to some of the world’s leading AI companies.

3.2. Population and Its Impact on Food and Economic Sustainability

3.2.1. Issue of Population

The land adjudication process has grown increasingly intricate despite the system’s computerization in several cities in Pakistan. The intricacy arises from the nation’s expanding population and swift advancement. Professionals have determined that the system is outdated and inconsistent, both on an individual and corporate level. We believe that industrialization in China will increase in the future. Professionals have determined that the system needs to be updated and consistent, both on an individual and corporate level. Industrialization in China will increase in the future. Therefore, we have considered changes in the population distribution to assess the potential outcomes of expected economic changes in future scenarios. Even though the system has been computerized in certain metropolitan areas of Pakistan, the land adjudication method has gotten more complex as a result of the country’s growing population and more rapid development, leading experts to conclude that the system is both antiquated and uneven at the personal and organizational levels [52]. Future industrialization in China will probably rise; thus, we accounted for shifts in the population distribution to estimate the consequences of anticipated economic changes in future scenarios [53]. Managing rapid urbanization to promote sustainable, livable cities with proper infrastructure.

3.2.2. Issue of Food Security

About 815 million individuals are globally malnourished [54,55]. About 4.75 billion people live in Asia, and 54% are hungry, with 9% being severely malnourished; also, in 1990, it was estimated that 23.7% of the population in Asia, 14.1% of the population in Central Asia, 23.2% of the population in Eastern Asia, 30.7% of the population in Southern Asia, and 6.3% of the population in Western Asia were malnourished [56]. Due to the COVID-19 outbreak and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, prices for food worldwide have risen dramatically lately [57]. Future markets and other mechanisms for managing agricultural price risk are constrained by export constraints, limiting the sector’s access to funding [57]. For example, countries that have historically been significant export destinations—including Pakistan, Germany, and Thailand—tend to have high levels of food security, which suggests that existing food trade flows from these nations will not be disrupted in the future [58]. The food and agriculture industry has the most significant direct impact on land and water assets, employment prospects, and revenue creation of any other sector, making conservation and restoration efforts essential to sustain future health [59]. Through a global information system to map the vulnerability index, results are summarized in Figure 2a, which shows countries’ food security susceptibility to climate change, and this assessment gives each country’s climate and socioeconomic profile [51]. Understanding Risk allocation helps determine who is at risk and who is liable for the harm and by integrating PM2.5 exposure with poverty levels, Figure 2b aims to demonstrate the spatial distribution of the likelihood of damage [51].

3.2.3. Issue of Economic Development

Alterations to the freshwater portion of the Earth’s hydrological system are gradually escalating in various areas, but the primary factors contributing to this phenomenon are human population growth, industrialization, water scarcity, and changes in precipitation and run-off patterns linked to climate change; still, the existing water management strategies may not suit the erratic flow patterns of a warmer planet with a higher population density [60]. The advancement of individuals in income, education, and health status, which indicates human development, can be influenced by the degree and scope of inequality within society through multiple avenues [61]. Access to clean water is crucial to Pakistan’s economy, the environment, and human survival. Similarly, Pakistan ranks fifth in the world in terms of population. Because of its large population, the country cannot provide fresh water to everyone. Due to its large population, Punjab wants the lion’s share. On the other hand, Sindh complains that Punjab is burglarizing its water and that the canal system there is antiquated and waste water.

3.3. Foreign Aid and Its Impact on Pakistan’s Economy

Climate change amplifies existing social, political, and economic instability, heightens the probability of violent conflict, and compels numerous individuals to move. The occurrence of frequent natural catastrophes, which are ascribed to the process of global warming, leads to the loss of human lives and substantial economic damages. An example of this is the devastating flood that occurred in Pakistan in 2010, which led to numerous fatalities, the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people, and caused billions of dollars worth of destruction. Foreign assistance is crucial in addressing climate-related disasters and promoting sustainable economic growth. Our interconnected environment means numerous variables are involved in the hazards associated with climate change; linked environmental, economic, and technological systems create new dangers and amplify those already existing [62]. Climate change poses risks because it exacerbates preexisting social, political, and economic instabilities, reduces people’s capacity for livelihoods, increases the likelihood of violent conflict, and forces many to relocate [44]. Frequent natural catastrophes, which many scientists attribute to a warming planet, are responsible for human casualties and enormous economic losses [63]. The consequences of floods on people’s health vary widely depending on their location, socioeconomic status, and degree of preexisting vulnerability [64]. As a result of floods, thousands of people died, hundreds of thousands were displaced, and billions of dollars were lost in Australia, Brazil, China, western Europe, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Africa, and South Sudan [46]. The World Bank estimates that by 2050, climate change will increase internal displacement by more than 140 million people [65]. Over the past two decades, it is estimated that floods have cost the world economy over $537 billion, affecting over 1.6 billion people, and claimed over 100,000 lives. Half of Pakistan was rendered helpless after the catastrophic flood of 2010 [66], precisely in the recent flood. The risk to life and actual losses from floods are also significantly higher in areas with poor socioeconomic conditions and low levels of resilience [67]. Future generations will encounter more flood risks [68].
In addition to conventional metrics such as economic losses, benefits, and production, several studies have shown the necessity of adding aggregated and disaggregated measures of equitable performance (e.g., via Gini coefficients and spatial inequality patterns) to evaluate adaptive interventions [69]. Secondly, particular research is too highly aggregated since it produces a single Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator in which positive socioeconomic success can compensate for environmental deterioration [70]. The persistent economic expansion that has helped Asia substantially decrease deprivation has also contributed to increased hazardous pollution and ecological injustice [47].
Other variables, such as those unrelated to the climate, can cause disruptions in human life and well-being [71]. Recent environmental changes, including climate change and ecosystem destabilization, constitute existential concerns to humankind [72]. Most nations have seen economic growth as one of the best ways to promote human welfare [73]. After decades of rapid economic development and policy revisions, China, the world’s most populous developing country, has become the world’s second-largest economy, behind the United States [73]. China has a major influence on almost every aspect of the global economy [23]. A shift in economic activity due to climatic change may impact GHG emissions that cause global warming (i.e., feedback effects); the impact of GHG emissions on the economy is analogous to those of natural feedback on climate change [74].
Aid mainly provides developed countries and international organizations with the means to build the country’s economy, stabilize its political system, and achieve its desired objective. Aid has many forms, including military equipment, financial assistance, and humanitarian and disastrous calamity. Now, a question may arise: why is this the case? Or why is Pakistan unable to achieve economic stability after continuously receiving such enormous financial aid? Britain provided ample loans and grants to the subcontinent to develop its infrastructure to increase the output of its economy. However, Pakistan has depended on foreign loans, aid, and grants since its founding. Many loan proposals made during the first constituent assembly were met with strong opposition.
By joining Western Defense Alliances, the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), the United States provided Pakistan with cutting-edge military weapons and massive financial support, helping to stabilize the economy and lessen the security threat. Firstly, Pakistan has yet to construct a stable economy and has been unable to support itself. Second, Pakistan’s economic growth and stability are hampered by the terrorism and extremism generated by the country’s involvement in global conflicts. Pakistan must consider these potential setbacks before planning its next move. Pakistan must not use its geostrategic location for preferential treatment of foreign aid and grants, which can also affect the economy of Pakistan. Mutual interests and security concerns influence international relations. Pakistan needs to improve its economy by modernizing its industrial sector, strengthening its agricultural industry, and delivering first-rate public services. Political stability is essential for economic progress. In history, no nation had ever thrived when it was both politically and economically fractured.
Nevertheless, the erstwhile superpower Soviet Union collapsed when it became weak economically and politically. Since independence, corruption and political upheaval have been the thorn of progress and development. On the political stability index, Pakistan was −1.85, which implies weakness, while the average value remained at −2.81 from 1996 to 2020. Transparency International states Pakistan is the 140th least corrupt country out of 180 countries [75]. Corruption damages economies and contributes to poor governance, which are significant contributors to the emergence of new societal issues and the worsening of existing ones.
To design its policies independently of external influence, Pakistan must implement strict economic policies and reforms, grow and diversify its exports, and avoid foreign loans. Based on Figure 3, Pakistan may eliminate its reliance on international aid by adequately managing its water resources and constructing a network of reservoirs. Pakistan has to implement reforms to clean up its government and eliminate corruption. The developed world should not use aid to exert influence over less developed states and should provide genuine assistance without ulterior motives. Global institutions should treat their members fairly and do their part to improve the globe. Efforts from all over the world are urgently required to solve this issue. The world should heed the problem before it is too late. Developing countries face more severe crises as they need more infrastructure to cope. The threat of global warming to human civilization is serious.

3.3.1. CPEC, Economic Growth and Sustainability

China is one of Pakistan’s few reliable allies and has established diplomatic ties [76]. Moreover, China is investing in Pakistan in a massive project like CPEC; information revealed that China planned to invest CNY 46 billion at the project’s outset [35,77] but increased in 2017 to CNY 62 billion [78]. Pakistan will continue to benefit strategically and economically from the friendly relationship between the two nations. Being the most concentrated and intensive sector for Chinese investment in overseas renewable energy, the CPEC is one of the six vital economic zones of the “Belt and Road” program [79]. CPEC construction has contributed to three years of sustained Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) growth in Pakistan; FDI grew by 133%, 10%, and 5% each year in 2014–2016 [80]. Policy coordination, infrastructure connection, unfettered commerce, economic flows, and people-to-people bonds are ways the BRI aims to strengthen ties between China and the BRI nations [80]. The good thing is that Pakistan can also learn from Chinese expertise in water management issues [81]. The CPEC exemplifies how foreign assistance may foster economic viability, promote infrastructure growth, and tackle climate change concerns. The CPEC has effectively supported and enabled the implementation of substantial infrastructure initiatives. These projects have not only stimulated economic expansion but also generated employment opportunities.
Green Marine has demonstrated efficacy in assisting ports in tackling environmental challenges pertinent to the port sector [82]. While ports substantially contribute to economic growth, they also negatively impact their surroundings [83]. Certain port officials, such as those operating at Zhuhai Port in China, have established a distinct set of criteria for “green ports” criteria to serve as the foundation for sustainable development approaches [84,85]. A rise in China’s global commerce volume and FDI has diverse effects on the logistical growth of the coastal regions under the initiative [86].
Since 1980, China and India have experienced unprecedented revenue growth [87]. Even though India has had commercial liberalization underway since 1991, the nation’s special economic zone initiatives were officially unveiled by the Indian government in April 2000 [87]. On the other hand, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan are responsible for breaking down 70–80% of the world’s shipping employing the dirty beaching approach, which is the most hazardous and extremely polluting shipbreaking approach; the facilities have inadequate requirements or even no antifouling abilities [88]. The CPEC authorities must balance the port’s function as a driver for economic growth with the rising adverse environmental and social consequences on surrounding individuals.
The previous study discussed strategies for overcoming investment rivalry, economic stress, and land use rivalry [89]. Pakistan relies on CPEC funding for concrete measures regarding its current challenges, even though the Chinese government is the only one now investing in that. Energy is crucial for sustaining human progress and revenue development [90]. In some cases, “double energy vulnerability” arises due to the interaction of energy poverty and transportation insufficiency [91]. Regarding the issue of transport poverty, several studies suggest that it impacts a varying percentage of households, ranging from 10% to 90%, contingent upon the definition employed and the country under assessment, such as, in England, the number of individuals impacted by this matter exceeds 1.5 million [92]. Energy security is vital to the economic well-being of all nations, but especially the developed world [90].
Solar energy is one of Pakistan’s most promising renewable sources [90]. Previous research has suggested that solar and wind power, two renewable energy sources, may soon become the world’s primary energy suppliers, bringing in a new phase in the development of humanity [93]. It is less susceptible to annual variations in the weather than hydropower and more reliable than wind energy [90]. China continues to lead the world in creating renewable energy through solar, wind, and biomass, and in 2018, renewable energy accounted for over 33% of the world’s total generating capacity [4]. The current state of matters has led Pakistan to face a substantial challenge in response to globalization. Due to limited electricity resources, Pakistan needs help adopting the global trend towards electric vehicles. Protection of the environment and the development of globally green technologies will be the two biggest challenges of this century due to the growth of the global population and industrialization [3].
Globally, young individuals are taking the initiative and actively engaging with various climate advocacy movements [94]. Education is vital in enhancing individuals’ climate literacy and comprehension, enabling them to effectively address global warming and climate change’s ramifications [95]. To improve the country and make environmental sustainability a reality, now is the time for international institutions and the government of Pakistan to build an effective support network for young people. Humanity must overcome enormous challenges to solve the world’s sustainability problems, and it is widely acknowledged that education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is essential to resolving these problems [96]. Furthermore, they have contributed to strengthening the ability to withstand and recover from climate-related catastrophes. However, the efficacy of such assistance is contingent upon the quality of government and internal changes. In areas characterized by superior governance, foreign aid has expedited the process of recovery and fostered long-term sustainable development. In regions characterized by inadequate governance, the advantages of foreign help are sometimes diminished due to inefficiencies and corruption. Efficient utilization of foreign aid and domestic changes can bolster resilience and stability in response to climate-related calamities. By prioritizing the long-term viability of projects like CPEC, we can effectively reduce the adverse effects of climate change and foster economic stability. The lack of research on CPEC’s environmental impacts means that our current understanding is based on future financial and waste recycling concerns, which are crucial to Pakistan’s economy and significant environmental challenges.
Meanwhile, the biggest challenge for Pakistan is CPEC security concerns rather than global warming. However, Figure 4 illustrates the present and coming challenges that necessitate prompt solutions. The question of how Pakistan’s reliance on Chinese experts will impact its future national security arises. Waste management and recycling practices have a positive impact on the economy. Pakistan must investigate alternative strategies to address its prevailing economic challenges rather than relying solely on funding from the CPEC. The CPEC project is a game changer for Pakistan. Still, it is essential to highlight that the Pakistani government must implement significant measures to actively foster and endorse this initiative.
Pakistan has encountered a multitude of economic challenges, which can be attributed to a variety of factors. To begin with, financial mismanagement and a lack of adequate checks and balances exist. Moreover, political instability is significantly influencing the matter at hand. Politicians must formulate comprehensive strategies for the nation’s long-term development, as their focus remains on the prevailing circumstances without addressing prospects. Nevertheless, it is argued that the CPEC and its associated projects do not pose any significant security challenges to Pakistan.
Furthermore, the issue of corruption poses a significant obstacle to establishing a long-lasting and amicable long-term relationship between China and other nations grappling with this problem. From a perspective, China must develop and connect all regions. This approach represents the only way China can ensure the future integrity of the CPEC project by eliminating corruption. The CPEC project is facing severe challenges and obstacles specific to Pakistan, such as unnecessary delay, corruption, bureaucracy, and politics. Corruption is a major obstacle to economic development in Pakistan.

3.4. Water-Associated Issues

Changes to the water cycle have the potential to spread across the Earth System and disturb systems interacting at many scales because of the crucial role that water plays in preserving the integrity of the global biosphere, controlling climate, and mediating the cycling of carbon and nutrients [97]. The phenomenon of precipitation, which represents the most significant flow in the water cycle on land and is an accurate measure of both soil moisture and vegetation productivity, exerts a potent influence on the functioning of the Earth’s system through its pronounced regulation of green water [98].
According to the previous investigation, new chemicals and plastics are being generated at rates and quantities above our capacity to manage risks and avoid adverse effects, endangering the stability of Earth system functions; this means that humans are operating outside of the safe operating space for humanity [99]. The ongoing negotiations about a Plastics Treaty aimed at curbing plastic waste and pollution have reached a crucial juncture, signifying a pivotal moment for the global community [100]. The environmental consequences of plastic’s life cycle are significant, particularly concerning climate change; by 2050, it may take up 10% to 13% of our remaining CO2 budget, which currently amounts to 4.5% of yearly GHG emissions [101]. Presently, global production of plastic is estimated to be approximately 450 million tons per year and is projected to increase twofold by 2045 [102]. Plastic pollution has had a significant negative impact on the environment in South Asia, particularly Pakistan, over the past two decades. When plastics degrade in aquatic environments, they release microplastics, synthetic and cellulosic microfibers, hazardous compounds, metals, and micropollutants into the waters and sediments, eventually ending up in marine food chains [103]. In the humid conditions of the water body’s surface, microorganisms will decompose microplastics into water [104].
The issue of plastic pollution has been a topic of increasing global concern for decades [20]. Less than 10% plastic recycling efficiency is a significant problem [105]. Natural calamities such as storms, floods, and tsunamis can transport vast amounts of residue from coastal regions into aquatic environments; litter accumulations along riverbanks, shorelines, and estuaries can also contribute to this phenomenon [103]. India’s water management significantly influences the frequency of floods and droughts in Bangladesh practices upstream of the Ganges water system, and this system is highly susceptible to the melting of Himalayan snow [55]. According to the previous investigation, it has been estimated that around 60% of Pakistan’s freshwater resources are wasted due to poor management practices, and only 40% of the accessible water is employed for domestic and industrial applications [105]. Simultaneously, soil agriculture film, carried by surface runoff, has emerged as a significant contributor to regional water microplastic contamination [106].
Multiple forms of environmental toxins have been released into the environment on a global level; in the past few decades, the human activities that release toxins into the atmosphere have increased dramatically [107]; also, humans and animals are exposed to these toxins because of the careless consumption of chemicals [108]. Chemicals with antibacterial properties (such as antibiotics and heavy metals) make wastewater a high-selectivity environment for resistant microbes [109]. Microplastic particles (MPs) are another developing pollutant that could adversely affect individuals, animals, and ecosystem health [110]. Water scarcity is anticipated to increase during the next few years [111]. One of our most significant issues is water pollution, which occurs when toxic substances, such as those produced in factories, are dumped into bodies of water like lakes, ponds, and rivers. Lack of compliance with rules, inadequate sewage treatment at industrial sites, and excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural areas have all contributed to making the canal and river among Pakistan’s most contaminated aquatic systems. Furthermore, the rapid acceleration of climate change due to human-caused warming seriously threatens human civilization. The melting of glaciers is an unintended consequence of global warming, which raises the Earth’s average temperature. Consequently, climate change is contributing to a water crisis in Pakistan.
In 2016, the 3 R (reduce, reuse, and recycle) principles of the circular economy (CE) were used to propose a new plastic economy that is “restorative and regenerative to utilize goods at their optimum value at all instances, differentiating among the mechanical and biological aspects of the cycles” to help address this global problem [112]. As the global warming crisis increases, finding practical and affordable ways to extract carbon from the atmosphere is more important than ever [113]. If humanity is to avoid the worst effects of climate change, GHG emissions must be drastically decreased [114]. The persistent increase in pollution is an urgent problem, prompting scientists to dedicate significant efforts toward mitigating its impacts. Nevertheless, the present issues suggest that the scenario surpasses our immediate sphere of influence. Over the previous three years, COVID-19 has resulted in the discharge of a significant volume of produced pollutants, including plastics, antibiotics, and disinfectants [115].
Climate change contributes to a rise in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as those characterized by heavy precipitation, and the frequency of such an environment can result in abrupt and catastrophic flooding, rises in river levels, and increased groundwater tables [116]. Since Pakistan experiences floods every year, although the groundwater level keeps declining, the crucial question surrounding the rising groundwater table is whether or not to provide an explanation or categorization system for Pakistan.

3.4.1. No Maintenance and Management of Water Networks

An additional drinking water supply comes from surface water, which can be found in rivers, lakes, dams, and streams [117]. In Pakistan, drinking water is received from various sources [118]. Lakes account for the vast majority of total liquid water retained on land, around 2% [119]. Many saline lakes worldwide have decreased significantly, resulting in incredible water salinity growth, in contrast to the widespread decreases in water salinity of the high-altitude lakes caused by the warming and wet climate on the Tibetan Plateau [120]. Current threats to urban lake conservation include shrinking lake areas, water eutrophication or contamination, and the loss of riparian plants and biotopes, negatively affecting the regional economy and the urban environment [121]. A degrading ocean risks food security, human well-being, and economic development [122]. Warming temperatures will undoubtedly alter the frequency and quantity of water supplied to many of the world’s most significant rivers, which will have knock-on impacts on sediment flux and biodiversity [123]. In order to connect the land and the sea, rivers operate as a basin-scale aggregate of several biogeochemical mechanisms [124]. According to the World Bank, as the ocean warms and sea levels rise, cyclonic storm surges and, by extension, coastal flooding in Pakistan will increase in intensity and distribution.
Moreover, old and outdated canal systems also contribute to the country’s waste of water. Evaporation, leakage, seepage, and embezzlement comprise 49% of all water loss. Pakistan requires a nationwide new and advanced drip irrigation system. If a new drip irrigation system is built, it can save water and make the system fast and durable. Farmers can also receive subsidies in this way. Therefore, the relevant division should implement practical measures that decrease the wasteful use of water. Furthermore, no maintenance of canals leads to water shortage. Due to the upkeep of canals, plenty of water is wasted, which is uncomfortable. Inadequate governance still needs to be restored. It is also a massive obstacle to drinking water savages. Upgrading the canal system is also extremely important.
Historically, management has focused on preventing damage through physical measures (such as river channelization, retention reservoir construction, river diversions, etc.) and, if those failed, providing financial resources to help influenced communities and regions rebound [125]. One of the critical aggravating reasons was the failure to enforce rules, regulations, and by-laws, especially regarding building and development in rivers’ channels and torrents in downstream regions bearing above-average flow by making residents more susceptible to harm, unauthorized building projects significantly worsened an already dire situation [126].

3.5. Infrastructure and Its Improvement Strategies

As a result, the focus of flood protection measures moved from eliminating floods in the future to preparing for floods of varying severity [127]. Property-level flood risk adaptation (PLFRA) and government-implemented measures like land use management and building use rules are examples of non-structural approaches to flood risk management [128]. Infrastructural damage, coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater, and loss of terrestrial habitat result from sea level rise interacting with other climatic conditions, such as increased storms and wave action [129]. Nevertheless, rising water levels frequently threaten communities near rivers, which can cause severe consequences for people and property [130]. In general, flood events will decrease the property’s value because floods cause damage to buildings and areas affected by floods [131].
Due to the widespread destruction of roads and other infrastructure caused by the 2022 flood, satellite data supplied local authorities with comprehensive maps of the swamped area [132]. Despite devastating floods, communities return to their initial locations to start over [69]. Those who have grown familiar with living in a relatively flood-free area are more inclined to view flood defense structures as the only viable option for preventing flooding [128]. Moreover, the research shows that the wealthy and the privileged can gain disproportionately from adaptation strategies, including coastal protection infrastructure, increased green spaces, and managed retreats [133]. Without adequate preparation and substantial structures, subsequent floods would have much more disastrous results [134].
Communities were developed over canals without proper drainage, highlighting a significant failure in urban design and administration. Businesses were established over the path of rivers, including high-rise buildings and hotels; if one disturbs the natural phenomena either by an obstruction in rivers or by cutting the mountains for roads or tunnels, it will avenge itself and nature always takes its revenge regardless of religion, race, ethnicity, gender, and status.

3.6. Agriculture Sector

Everyone knows that the world’s climate is destroying itself daily due to the intense emission of GHGs. As a result, the weather shift is changing through heat waves, cold waves, and precipitation. It also affects the monsoon shift, which starts early in June and ends in September, which is more devastating and catastrophic. Scientists are concerned about avoiding deforestation, which is increasing daily in large-scale forests cut down to produce wood and furniture. Agricultural lands turn into urbanization or industrialization, which is alarming because no land-use planning exists. Deforestation is one contributor to the rise in CO2 temperature. Additionally, green gases are a natural process that provides energy from sunlight; when there are no trees or plants on earth, the heat up will increase on the earth’s surface. Global warming could contribute to the loss of all arable land.
One of the places where human civilization began is the Chinese loess plateau, where farming was introduced around 7500 B.C., and the first dynasties emerged around 1000 B.C. [135]. The global food production system and preserving biodiversity on and around agricultural land impact many SDGs, such as ending world hunger, providing access to clean water, protecting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and combating climate change [136]. There was a severe threat to agricultural output and rural livelihoods due to these catastrophes [45]. Production of food proteins has repercussions on other planetary boundaries [137]. Unpredictable rain that leads to floods can have a disastrous effect on food security and livelihoods in areas where agriculture relies heavily on the rainy season [45]. Drought has varying biophysical and social implications depending on the region and continent and the adaptation techniques and resilience of the systems involved (such as water, energy, and agriculture) [138]. Over the subcontinent, high aerosol concentrations have been determined to harm regional crop yields and alter seasonal rainfall [139]. Between 2010 and 2015, a series of disastrous extreme flood events wiped out over 600 people, displaced over 10 million people, ruined crops across more than 50,000 square kilometers, and caused damage to dozens of settlements [66].
A similar comparison between the current and potential future impacts of food production demonstrates that by 2050, the global food system’s environmental impact (as a percentage of the present [2010] impact) could increase by 50–90% due to GHG emissions, cropland use, irrigation, nitrogen application, and phosphorus usage [136]. While protracted drought negatively impacts human health by limiting water supply and agriculture yield, extreme rainfall poses immediate threats and long-term adverse effects due to displacement and worsening living conditions [140]. The rapid decline of terrestrial biodiversity is mainly attributable to human activities, explicitly converting natural habitats to land used in agriculture and forestry [141]. Weather fluctuations significantly impacted Pakistan’s agricultural sector in 2011, and the country was named the worst hit by climate-related calamities in 2010 [142]. Approximately one-third to half of Bangladesh is impacted annually by climate-related disasters, which have been responsible for the deaths of hundreds and injuries to thousands, as well as the destruction of homes, businesses, fields, and farms [143].
The vast majority of these were land use-type surveys and land quality evaluation surveys carried out to serve the requirements of agricultural growth [144]. The Green Revolution in Asia is a good illustration of these systemic changes in action, as it led to dramatic increases in food yields and consumption and the decline of undernutrition in a little over a decade [145]. In light of this more comprehensive definition of change, Figure 5 depicts eight interrelated strategies for hastening the pace of advancement in technology and systemic development in the global food systems [145,146]. The Chinese government’s Grain for Green Project (GGP) has been in effect since 1999, and it mandates that croplands with a slope greater than 25° be restored to grassland or forest. Between 60.9 to 84.8% of the existing steep cropland has been restored; consequently, land use and human activities have shifted dramatically in this area [147]. Agriculture’s top emphasis is producing enough nutritious, delicious, and affordable food for the world’s growing population [148]. Food waste is a widespread issue that seriously affects the environment, the economy, and society, and many nations have adopted strategies to address the issue of food waste and encourage the sustainable management of segregated food waste [149].
Monsoon rainfall is collected mainly for agricultural uses like irrigation. So, Pakistan is an agricultural nation that relies heavily on it. Table 1 shows that Pakistan has 1.74% of the world’s economically active population and 4% of agricultural production, and assuming other factors remain the same, other countries’ labor force is more productive [27]. However, the recent droughts and floods have seriously impacted agriculture. The country has never been through such a terrible period. Multiple issues, including the water crisis, have thrown the economy into a tailspin. The decline in cotton cultivation, which requires large amounts of water, has hurt Pakistan’s exports. Water scarcity is a problem for the agricultural industry as well. Growing sugarcane requires water. Pakistan’s economy has suffered because of its inability to export sugar to more lucrative markets. Unfortunately, this is not good for Pakistan. Crop productivity in Africa has dropped by a third since 1961 due to climate change. Pakistan’s agricultural sector is essential to the country’s economy. Even though it supports half of the population, agriculture only accounts for 20% of GDP [150,151]. Lack of water, outdated seeds, old methods, insufficient budget, and so on all contribute to lower output for farmers. Agriculture in Pakistan encompasses both farming and animal husbandry. Because of a lack of available technology, Pakistan must import milk powder, cheese, and other dairy goods despite the country producing more than enough milk, meat, and other dairy products for domestic consumption and export.
Lack of water, inefficient canal systems, inadequate amounts of fertilizer and pesticides, and other factors have all contributed to crop destruction and, in certain cases, decreased agricultural output. Another issue is farmers’ low income, given that broker pay is higher. Farmers are typically uninformed and unaware of modern farming techniques. Farmers will be better able to use cutting-edge farming techniques and equipment after receiving the proper training, and previously unusable land will be transformed into productive farmland. The irrigation issue can also be fixed by improving the canal system and building more dams. India has 5202 big dams [152] despite being an agricultural nation, while Pakistan has only 150 [153,154]. Dams can also mitigate the destructive potential of floods and other natural calamities. Implementing the recommendations above and initiatives could greatly benefit Pakistan’s agricultural sector. Growing urban agriculture could help solve challenges that are threatening food supplies around the world [155].

3.7. Long-Term Research Needs

The thorough analysis of climate change and its effects on the economy highlights the need for creative research strategies and global collaboration to meet the problems brought on by unchecked climate change caused by humans. Long-term global emission scenarios are essential for informing policymakers and guiding solutions to climate change. They emphasize the significance of scenario building and addressing important criticisms to improve the accuracy of future forecasts [156]. The effects of climate change, such as intense rainfall events, are already impacting urban populations and heightening the vulnerability to non-communicable respiratory illnesses. This emphasizes the pressing requirement for research to comprehend and alleviate these health hazards. Research evidence of potential outcomes suggests that unchecked human-caused climate change would have catastrophic and irreversible consequences [157]. Long-term effects include shifts in dry/wet bulb temperatures, humidity ratios, precipitation, sea level, dwindling freshwater resources, and health concerns; short-term effects include earthquakes, floods, and other natural calamities [158]. Especially in metropolitan locations, higher temperatures have been shown to cause severe constraints on human health and physical activity [53].
Long-term research has found a correlation between flooding and increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases, psychological distress, and worse birth outcomes [159]. Also, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought attention to global health concerns [160]. The effects on children’s health can be catastrophic in a flood or other natural disaster [159]; still, there is an urgent need for research in Pakistan. Global commons include things like biodiversity, the enormous surviving forests, and the ocean, which we can all utilize and damage for our short-term benefit [122]. Previous research predicted that if no action is taken to stop the destruction of natural habitats, biodiversity loss will continue worldwide [141]. Nevertheless, our well-being and the well-being of the system as a whole are negatively impacted by each extra use and degradation [122]. Overfishing is a significant danger to marine ecosystems, but rising ocean temperature and acidity are major factors affecting marine fish stocks [122].
Pakistan is bearing the brunt of climate change-oriented problems. It did not happen suddenly, but it took decades to reach this critical point. The melting of glaciers, heat waves, droughts, and rising temperatures are at the heart of climate change. Rivers impact deluges, and urban and rural areas are continuously affected by heavy rains and extensive floods. Nevertheless, the situation is not as gloomy as some analysts have painted. However, the night of the acute problem seems darkest just before the dawn of its reversal and solution to the normal one. Where there is an insurmountable issue of climate change in Pakistan, there are equally viable prospects and solutions to this polity. The present situation may seem grim, but it also has a silver lining. The possibilities and solutions include worldwide political awareness, translating effective political will, and seeking climate justice for Pakistan at domestic, regional, and international forums. Water and air pollution both contribute to our atmosphere. While most people are unaware of it, they are ruining the environment, which can lead to climate change, which is today a severe problem in the form of heat waves, droughts, forest fires, and flash floods. Governments of all kinds must simultaneously develop short-term and long-term plans for the conservation of the environment and give financial support to the institutions and policies necessary to accomplish these goals in Figure 6.
Climate policies that raise the prices of essential products typically have regressive impacts on distribution, meaning that they have a more significant proportional effect on persons with lower incomes than those with higher incomes [161]. Many nations have passed legislation supporting the creation of environmentally friendly and technically sophisticated modes of transportation to lessen the impact of global warming [63]. To achieve its first long-term climate target, China, the largest emitter worldwide of CO2, has committed to achieving carbon neutrality before 2060 [162]. The Chinese government’s Medium-and Long-Term Strategy for Renewable Energy Development from 2007 anticipated the construction of 300 GW of gross installed hydropower capacity by 2020, which would be an increase that would exceed the capacity doubled in 2007 [163]. The achievement of this objective is made more accessible through the encouragement of regional development and the improvement of transportation and communication networks [164]. Based on the information presented in Table 2, there are seven preliminary principles; these principles can be employed to develop policies that address ecological, social, and economic factors across different levels, from regional to global; these principles aim to facilitate the development and maintenance of response diversity thereby augmenting resilience [165].

4. Conclusions

Climate change presents a substantial threat to the Earth and demands immediate action. The presented evidence strongly substantiates the existence of climate change and its extensive ramifications on the natural environment, society, and economic systems. Observing the phenomenon of increasing global temperatures, the significant rise in sea levels, extreme weather events, and the disruption of ecosystems are notable occurrences. In addition, it is imperative to prioritize climate justice, guaranteeing support and empowerment to marginalized communities amid climate-induced adversities. We can lessen the worst impacts of climate change with a concerted global effort and work toward a resilient and sustainable future for the next generation. Deforestation, primarily driven by agricultural expansion, logging, and urbanization, plays a significant role in climate change. Industrialization mainly emits greenhouse gases. Agriculture and waste management processes contribute to climate change by releasing pollution, such as microplastic and heavy metals. These issues seriously impact water, and climate change affects water scarcity. The economic impacts of climate change are extensive; damage caused by extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and agricultural disruption can result in significant financial losses. Pakistan is an agriculture-based country, and water scarcity predisposes to economic losses, urbanization, and many socioeconomic problems. Establishing long-term goals and concrete policies for economic uplift is high time. In addition, CPEC is the brighter initiative of BRI, benefiting Iran, Afghanistan, and other Asian countries along with Pakistan.
Future possibilities of the relationship between Pakistan and China demonstrate promising potential, as demonstrated by various significant dimensions that establish their bilateral connections, necessitating timely attention. The implementation of advanced and comprehensive legislation about environmental concerns is of utmost importance for the CPEC authority, given the prevailing circumstances of climate change. Chinese authorities must establish strong relationships with younger citizens to strengthen security measures, mainly through engagement with higher education institutions. Several environmental organizations have raised concerns about the potential ecological impacts of the CPEC projects and taking action about these challenges on time is essential before completing the projects. Also, a careful review of all crucial aspects can facilitate the creation of a corruption-free atmosphere. If Pakistan cannot establish a zone that ensures the safety and security of Chinese authorities, China may consider pursuing an international security agreement, but how? India perceives the CPEC as a strategic avenue for China to augment its regional influence, thereby raising concerns about potential adverse ramifications for India’s interests. China should strongly oppose the level of cooperation between Pakistan and other nations in counterterrorism. India should actively collaborate with neighboring countries, including the United States and Russia, to establish a unified partnership to combat China’s increasing regional influence. The future trajectory of the relationship between Pakistan, China, and India remains uncertain and challenging to predict with absolute certainty. The relationship between these three nations remains as intricate and demanding. The potential consequences of the CPEC include a rise in Pakistan’s debt level, which may lead to financial challenges for Pakistan in subsequent periods. China might acquire excessive influence through CPEC in Pakistan. This scenario may give rise to worries about the preservation of Pakistan’s sovereignty. The CPEC might establish special economic zones in Pakistan, aiming to offer tax exemptions and supplementary incentives to attract foreign investment; therefore, the economy of Pakistan is expected to experience growth, leading to increased employment opportunities. Pakistan is set to develop novel energy projects within the CPEC framework, and this initiative aims to tackle Pakistan’s growing energy demands and reduce its reliance on imported energy resources. Transparent and accountable governance is vital to create a trustworthy business environment. Pakistan must address and enhance its political situation to achieve economic stability, as this will ultimately help the country achieve political stability, which is necessary to achieve financial stability.

Author Contributions

M.A.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, and Writing—original draft, S.B., P.X., P.Z., H.W., M.U.A. and X.A.; writing—review and editing, B.X.: supervision, funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41773147, 41273149).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Alliance of International Science Organizations (ANSO).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. SDGs are the only approach to tackling climate change, modified from [7].
Figure 1. SDGs are the only approach to tackling climate change, modified from [7].
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Figure 2. (a) Map showing climate and hunger vulnerability scores; (b) mapping exposure to harm from air pollution. Exposure to air pollution (PM2.5) combined with poverty shows how local boundaries are crossed and how local people may be affected (Reprinted from refs. [51], with permission of the publisher).
Figure 2. (a) Map showing climate and hunger vulnerability scores; (b) mapping exposure to harm from air pollution. Exposure to air pollution (PM2.5) combined with poverty shows how local boundaries are crossed and how local people may be affected (Reprinted from refs. [51], with permission of the publisher).
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Figure 3. Comparison between conventional water management and foreign funding.
Figure 3. Comparison between conventional water management and foreign funding.
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Figure 4. Essential to closely monitor the ongoing fluctuations in the CPEC project.
Figure 4. Essential to closely monitor the ongoing fluctuations in the CPEC project.
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Figure 5. Essential elements for developing and scaling beneficial effects, with examples from the four case-study technologies, (modified from [146]).
Figure 5. Essential elements for developing and scaling beneficial effects, with examples from the four case-study technologies, (modified from [146]).
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Figure 6. Policy concerns and related issues.
Figure 6. Policy concerns and related issues.
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Table 1. The position of Pakistan in the world’s agriculture in 2020 (Reprinted from ref. [27], with permission of the publisher).
Table 1. The position of Pakistan in the world’s agriculture in 2020 (Reprinted from ref. [27], with permission of the publisher).
Items PakistanItems PakistanItems
PakistanPakistan
1. Total area (million hectare)79.913,4420.5933rd
 Land area (million hectare)52.813,0090.428th
 Arable Land (million hectare)22.6314111.67th
2. Total population200.9667502.95th
 Agriculture94.45261738th
3. Economically active population (million)
Total11037181.749th
 Agriculture51.7129547th
4. Crop production (million tons)
(A): total cereal42.712973.211th
 Wheat26.37613.88th
 Rice10.85092.1210th
 Chickpea0.3161.93rd
 Total pulses3.48615.79th
(B): oilseeds
Groundnuts (in shell)0.84388.87th
 Rapeseed4.7588.103rd
 Total oilseed crops4.26696.177th
5. Vegetables and fruits (million tons)
 (A): vegetables excluding okra and okra5.49160.1211th
 (B): okra0.123140.0387th
 (C): mangoes2.31601.435th
 (D): onions (dry)2.1673.16th
 (E): citrus2.2346.513th
 (F): apricot0.12220.55th
6. Commercial crops (million tons)
 (A): sugarcane67.1717433.855th
 (B): jute and jute-like fibers1.67325.189th
 (C): cotton4.2922.519.065th
 (D): tobacco leaves0.166.882.39th
7. Livestock (million heads)
 (A): cattles47.813473.58th
 (B): buffalos4018102.16th
 (C): camels1.124.734.449th
 (D): sheep30.910782.87th
 (E): goats76.18628.84th
 (F): chicken132118,3987.1810th
8. Animal products
 (A): total milk (000 MT)48,185693,7076.94th
 (B): total eggs (000 MT)180065,5862.710th
 (C): total meat4478279,9531.67th
9. Implements (numbers)
Agricultural tractors-in-use139929,3204.713th
Table 2. Seven tentative principles to develop policies across ecological, social, and economic domains (Reprinted from ref. [165], with permission of the publisher).
Table 2. Seven tentative principles to develop policies across ecological, social, and economic domains (Reprinted from ref. [165], with permission of the publisher).
Recognize that risks can be reduced with a variety of tools in the toolbox.Having different ways of responding to the same or different kinds of disruptions confers resilience. Apparently redundant elements or processes can in fact be response diversity, enabling the system to perform the same function in different ways with different responses to different kinds of disruptions.
Acknowledge that the useful set of tools is context dependent.Responses differ in terms of their spatial, temporal, and functional scales, and they include substitutable, complementary, and compensatory options.
Account for the social benefits of having a toolbox with a variety of tools, which are otherwise ignored in private exchange.Economic efficiency—getting more for less through market exchange—can ignore the social benefits of maintaining different tools. The cost of creating or maintaining response diversity leads to its erosion through efficiency drives, thereby increasing the potential costs of a lack of response diversity.
Account for multiple scales when choosing which tools to use.There are trade-offs between response diversity at multiple scales in space and time. For example, increasing different sources and kinds of supplies at a large scale can lead to a decline in the variety of local-scale sources; if individual banks (local scale) use similar risk-management models, homogeneity in responses is cultivated within the sector as a whole (global scale).
Recognize that tools are interdependent.Different responses to different disruptions may intersect with or influence a reorganization process in different phases and in different (complementary or contradictory) ways.
Be flexible in which tool is the best over time.Optimizing response strategies to the current pattern of disruption can be detrimental if the pattern of disruption changes. Two examples are ignoring climate change and not considering multiple potential disruptions in supply chains.
Account for how a tool can create moral hazard (unintended behavioural responses).Support to maintain function in risky environments can lead to increasingly risky behaviour or unequal, disproportionate costs, and loss of response diversity. A classic example is insurance in agriculture.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Adnan, M.; Xiao, B.; Bibi, S.; Xiao, P.; Zhao, P.; Wang, H.; Ali, M.U.; An, X. Known and Unknown Environmental Impacts Related to Climate Changes in Pakistan: An Under-Recognized Risk to Local Communities. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6108. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146108

AMA Style

Adnan M, Xiao B, Bibi S, Xiao P, Zhao P, Wang H, Ali MU, An X. Known and Unknown Environmental Impacts Related to Climate Changes in Pakistan: An Under-Recognized Risk to Local Communities. Sustainability. 2024; 16(14):6108. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146108

Chicago/Turabian Style

Adnan, Muhammad, Baohua Xiao, Shaheen Bibi, Peiwen Xiao, Peng Zhao, Haiyan Wang, Muhammad Ubaid Ali, and Xianjin An. 2024. "Known and Unknown Environmental Impacts Related to Climate Changes in Pakistan: An Under-Recognized Risk to Local Communities" Sustainability 16, no. 14: 6108. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146108

APA Style

Adnan, M., Xiao, B., Bibi, S., Xiao, P., Zhao, P., Wang, H., Ali, M. U., & An, X. (2024). Known and Unknown Environmental Impacts Related to Climate Changes in Pakistan: An Under-Recognized Risk to Local Communities. Sustainability, 16(14), 6108. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146108

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