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Cyanobacteria and microcystins contamination in drinking water sources: a review of occurrence, exposure, and mitigation measures

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Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive literature search on the occurrence of cyanobacteria blooms and microcystins contamination in drinking water sources, potential human exposure, mitigation, and the associated challenges. A total of 49 relevant studies indicate that cyanobacterial blooms are commonly reported on six continents, including Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, and Australia. Overall, cyanobacterial biomass reported in these reviewed studies falls within the classification of Alert Level 2, which is indicated by chlorophyll-a concentrations exceeded 12 μg/L. Moreover, the published data also revealed that 59% of the reported microcystins concentrations exceeded the WHO guideline value for safe lifetime consumption of 1 μg/L. These potential human exposures to cyanobacteria and microcystins are based on the concentrations reported in raw drinking water sources, as a lack of studies have emphasized the detection of microcystins in the treated drinking water or at the last stage of the water treatment process. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge the potential health risk associated with the exposure to microcystins contamination in drinking water, as this metabolite is potent and chemically stable. Mitigation measures, including management approaches, physical, chemical, and biological techniques, can be applied to control cyanobacterial blooms and microcystins contamination in drinking water sources.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2021/STG03/UPSI/02/1). We would like to thank everyone who was directly or indirectly involved in this review article.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Biology Department, Sultan Idris Education University, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia

    Nurul Awatif Ahmad & Som Cit Sinang

  2. Pathology Department, Hospital Tengku Ampuan Afzan, Kuantan, Malaysia

    Amy Rose Aeriyanie A Rahman

  3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shantou University, Shantou, China

    Haihong Song

Authors
  1. Nurul Awatif Ahmad
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  2. Som Cit Sinang
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  3. Amy Rose Aeriyanie A Rahman
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  4. Haihong Song
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Contributions

N.A.A. and S.C.S. collected the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the original manuscript draft. S.H. and A.R.A. performed data analysis and structured the manuscript. All authors agreed and collaboratively reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Som Cit Sinang.

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Conflict of interest

Nurul Awatif Ahmad, Som Cit Sinang, Amy Rose Aeriyanie A Rahman, and Haihong Song declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Ahmad, N.A., Sinang, S.C., Rahman, A.R.A.A. et al. Cyanobacteria and microcystins contamination in drinking water sources: a review of occurrence, exposure, and mitigation measures. Toxicol. Environ. Health Sci. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-024-00239-3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-024-00239-3

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