Early appearances

The term "postmodern" was first used in 1870 by the artist John Watkins Chapman, who described "a Postmodern style of painting" as a departure from French Impressionism.^[30][34] Similarly, the first citation given by the Oxford English Dictionary is dated to 1916, describing Gus Mager as "one of the few 'post' modern painters whose style is convincing".^[35]

Episcopal priest and cultural commentator J. M. Thompson, in a 1914 article, uses the term to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing, "the raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition".^[36] In 1926, Bernard Iddings Bell, president of St. Stephen's College and also an Episcopal priest, published Postmodernism and Other Essays, which marks the first use of the term to describe an historical period following modernity.^[37][38] The essay criticizes lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the Enlightenment. It is also critical of a purported cultural shift away from traditional Christian beliefs.^[39][40][41]

The term "postmodernity" was first used in an academic historical context as a general concept for a movement by Arnold J. Toynbee in a 1939 essay, which states that "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".^[42]

In 1942, the literary critic and author H. R. Hays describes postmodernism as a new literary form.^[43] Also in the arts, the term was first used in 1949 to describe a dissatisfaction with the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style.^[5]

Although these early uses anticipate some of the concerns of the debate in the second part of the 20th century, there is little direct continuity in the discussion.^[44] Just when the new discussion begins, however, is also a matter of dispute. Various authors place its beginnings in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.^[45]

Theoretical development

In the mid-1970s, the American sociologist Daniel Bell provided a general account of the postmodern as an effectively nihilistic response to modernism's alleged assault on the Protestant work ethic and its rejection of what he upheld as traditional values.^[46] The ideals of modernity, per his diagnosis, were degraded to the level of consumer choice.^[47] This research project, however, was not taken up in a significant way by others until the mid-1980s when the work of Jean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson, building upon art and literary criticism, reintroduced the term to sociology.^[48]

Discussion about the postmodern in the second part of the 20th century was most articulate in areas with a large body of critical discourse around the modernist movement. Even here, however, there continued to be disagreement about such basic issues as whether postmodernism is a break with modernism, a renewal and intensification of modernism,^[5] or even, both at once, a rejection and a radicalization of its historical predecessor.^[12]

While discussions in the 1970s were dominated by literary criticism, these were supplanted by architectural theory in the 1980s.^[49] Some of these conversations made use of French poststructuralist thought, but only after these innovations and critical discourse in the arts did postmodernism emerge as a philosophical term in its own right.^[50][3]

In literary and architectural theory

According to Hans Bertens and Perry Anderson, the Black Mountain poets Charles Olson and Robert Creeley first introduced the term "postmodern" in its current sense during the 1950s.^[51][3] Their stance against modernist poetry – and Olson's Heideggerian orientation – were influential in the identification of postmodernism as a polemical position opposed to the rationalist values championed by the Enlightenment project.^[44]

During the 1960s, this affirmative use gave way to a pejorative use by the New Left, who used it to describe a waning commitment among youth to the political ideals socialism and communism.^[3] The literary critic Irving Howe, for instance, denounced postmodern literature for being content to merely reflect, rather than actively attempt to refashion, what he saw as the "increasingly shapeless" character of contemporary society.^[52][3]

In the 1970s, this changed again, largely under the influence of the literary critic Ihab Hassan's large-scale survey of works that he said could no longer be called modern. Taking the Black Mountain poets an exemplary instance of the new postmodern type, Hassan celebrates its Nietzschean playfulness and cheerfully anarchic spirit, which he sets off against the high seriousness of modernism.^[3][53]

(Yet, from another perspective, Friedrich Nietzsche's attack on Western philosophy and Martin Heidegger's critique of metaphysics posed deep theoretical problems not necessarily a cause for aesthetic celebration. Their further influence on the conversation about postmodernism, however, would be largely mediated by French poststructuralism.^[54])

If literature was at the center of the discussion in the 1970s, architecture was at the center in the 1980s.^[49] The architectural theorist Charles Jencks, in particular, connected the artistic avant-garde to social change in a way that captured attention outside of academia.^[3] Jenckes, much influenced by the American architect Robert Venturi,^[55] celebrated a plurality of forms and encourages participation and active engagement with the local context of the built environment.^[56] He presented this as in opposition to the "authoritarian style" of International Modernism.^[5]

Architecture

Scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect Charles Jencks, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post-Modern Architecture" from 1975.^[74] His magnum opus, however, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, first published in 1977, and since running to seven editions^[75] (in which he famously wrote: "Modern architecture died in St. Louis, Missouri, on 15 July 1972 at 3:32 p.m. (or thereabouts) when the infamous Pruitt–Igoe scheme, or rather several of its slab blocks, were given the final coup de grâce by dynamite."^[76]).

Jencks makes the point that postmodernism (like modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, usually other architects."^[77]

In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", Terry Farrell and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, particularly in architecture.^[78] For instance, in response to the modernist slogan of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe that "less is more", the postmodernist Robert Venturi rejoined that "less is a bore".^[79]

Dance

The term "postmodern dance" is most strongly associated with the Judson Dance Theater, located in New York's Greenwich Village during the 1960s and 1970s. Perhaps its most important principle is taken from the composer John Cage's efforts to break down the distinction between art and life,^[80][81] developed in particular by the American dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham, Cage's partner.^[81] The Judson dancers "[stripped] dance of its theatrical conventions such as virtuoso technique, fanciful costumes, complex storylines, and the traditional stage [and] drew on everyday movements (sitting, walking, kneeling, and other gestures) to create their pieces, often performing them in ordinary spaces."^[82] Anna Halprin's San Francisco Dancers' Workshop, established in the 1950s to explore beyond the technical constraints of modern dance, pioneered ideas later developed at Judson;^[83] Halprin, Simone Forti, and Yvonne Rainer are considered "giants of the field".^[84]

The Judson collective included trained dancers, visual artists, filmmakers, writers, and composers, exchanging approaches and critiquing traditional dance,^[85] with a focus "more on the intellectual process of creating dance than the end result".^[86] The end of the 1970s saw a distancing from this analytical postmodern dance, and a return to the expression of meaning.^[87] In the 1980s and 1990s, dance began to incorporate other typically postmodern features such as the mixing of genres, challenging high–low cultural distinctions, and incorporating a political dimension.^[80]

Fashion

One manifestation of postmodernism in fashion explored alternatives to conventional concepts of elegance. Rei Kawakubo’s Spring/Summer 1997 collection featured "dresses asymmetrically padded with goose down, creating bumps in unexpected areas of the body". Issey Miyake’s 1985 dreadlocks hat "offered an immediate, yet impermanent, 'multi-culti' fashion experience". Vivienne Westwood took "an extremely polyglot approach", from early work with copies of 1950s clothes, to exploration of historic modes and cultural influences: in 1981, her first runway show, "Pirate", merged British history, 18th- and 19th-century dress, and African textile design, with a rap and ethnic music soundtrack.^[88][89]

Fashion design through the 1950s focused on catering to the upper class, emphasizing elegance, epitomized by French haute couture. The 1960s saw a dramatic shift, first inspired by the pop art movement; "throwaway" dresses made of paper came to be high fashion.^[88] Cristóbal Balenciaga, called "the master of us all" by Christian Dior and "the only couturier in the truest sense of the word" by Coco Chanel,^[90] abruptly closed his Paris couture house in 1968, saying only, "High fashion is mortally wounded."^[91][92] Others adapted to the new role of designer as interpreter of popular attitudes. Fashion editor Diana Vreeland noted, "Yves Saint Laurent has a fifty–fifty deal with the street. Half of the time he is inspired by the street and half of the time the street gets its style from Yves Saint Laurent."^[88]

The postmodern fashion sensibility appeared also through the subcultures of the 1960s and 1970s. Hippies, punks and other countercultural groups constructed their own nonconformist identities through choices in music, drugs, slang, and appearance. As these styles gained mainstream popularity, they lost their deeper meaning: "the adoption of surface attributes offers the frisson of rebellion without a commitment to a subcultural lifestyle."^[88]

In 2021, the Balenciaga couture house reopened;^[93] the following year, i-D magazine noted, "Haute Couture isn’t just surviving — it’s thriving". The observation highlighted how haute couture caters to the "0.001 per cent", while captivating the public and serving as a marketing mechanism for more commercially viable mass-produced lines.^[94] Drawing from many sources, postmodernism eclecticism has been integrated into everyday fashion, as evidenced by designer jeans, business casual, and elevated sportswear.^[88]

Film

Postmodern film aims to subvert the mainstream conventions of narrative structure and characterization, and to test the audience's suspension of disbelief.^[95][96][97] Typically, such films also break down the cultural divide between high and low art and often upend typical portrayals of gender, race, class, genre, and time with the goal of creating something that does not abide by traditional narrative expression.^[98]

Certain key characteristics are used to separate the postmodern from modernist cinema and traditional narrative film.^[99][100] One is an extensive use of homage or pastiche, imitating the style or character of other artistic works. A second is meta-reference or self-reference, highlighting the relation of the image to other images in media and not to any kind of external reality.^[99] Viewers are reminded that the film itself is only a film, perhaps through the use of intertextuality, in which the film's characters reference other works of fiction. A third characteristic is stories that unfold out of chronological order, deconstructing or fragmenting time to emphasize the constructed nature of film. Another common element is a bridging of the gap between highbrow and lowbrow,.^[96][97][99] Contradictions of all sorts are crucial to postmodernism.^[96][101]

Ridley Scott's Blade Runner (1982) has been widely studied as a prime example of postmodernism. The setting is a future dystopia where "replicants", enhanced android workers nearly indistinguishable from humans, are hunted down when they escape from their jobs. The film blurs boundaries between genres and cultures, and fuses disparate styles and periods: futuristic visuals "mingle with drab 1940s clothes and offices, punk rock hairstyles, pop Egyptian styles and oriental culture."^[99][96] The blending of film noir and science-fiction into tech noir illustrates the deconstruction of both cinema and genre.^[102] The film can also be seen as an example of major studios using the "mystique and cachet of the term 'postmodern' as a sales pitch", resulting in Hollywood movies that "demonstrate all the postmodern characteristics".^[99] From another perspective, "critical responses to Blade Runner fall on either side of a modern/postmodern line" – critical analysis from "modernist" and "postmodernist" approaches produce entirely different interpretations.^[103]

Graphic design

Early mention of postmodernism in graphic design appeared in the British magazine, Design, during the late 1960s.^[104] The discussion took a pragmatic if not entirely comfortable view of graphic design as engaging with the economic necessities of a changing world. Graphic design had the role of "active stylization of product surfaces (such as those of packaging and promotion)", engaging without moralizing with consumer desires. Close involvement with the industrial design process, and the potential need for strong visual identities from the "new giant corporations" and "internationalization", were examined. Editor Corin Hughes-Stanton concluded, "Post-Modernism' is an attitude that takes the form of a creative response to unfolding developments in the socio-economic sphere; it is a sign of active engagement rather than an academic retreat from its commercial and professional concerns."^[105]

In the 1970s, the American Cranbrook Academy of Art began to reject the modernism of the International Style and incorporate postmodern ideas through post-structuralist theory.^[106] By the 1980s, Cranbrook was considered to be at the forefront of design in the US.^[107] Mid-decade, the work of Roland Barthes and Hal Foster's The Anti-Aesthetic anthology took hold at the school. Co-director of design Katherine McCoy explained that, rather than applying specific theories to particular projects, Cranbrook was broadly drawing from the literature circulating within the art and architecture fields.^[106]

Writing in 2003 in No More Rules: Graphic Design and Postmodernism, Rick Poynor stated that, in the preceding 15 years, graphic designers had produced "some of the most challenging examples of postmodernism in the visual arts", yet this work had largely been overlooked by commentators in cultural studies. And, while some graphic designers, predominantly American, would claim the label, many associated with postmodernism "would reject the term vehemently". Regarding intellectual motivation, "graphic design as a profession has long had an aversion to theory and many of the key postmodernist texts are highly demanding, even for those who possess a basic sympathy for their arguments."^[108]

In a broad historical context, Graphic Design History: A Critical Guide (2008) situates postmodernism in a chronology of visual communication from prehistoric times to the digital age. "Retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends", each with its own "sites and venues, detractors and advocates." A shared attitude went beyond surface style to "raise profound questions about knowledge, history and power."^[109]

Literature

In 1971, the American literary theorist Ihab Hassan made "postmodernism" popular in literary studies with his influential book, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature. According to scholar David Herwitz, American writers such as John Barth (who had controversially declared that the novel was "exhausted" as a genre), Donald Barthelme, and Thomas Pynchon responded in various ways to the stylistic innovations of Finnegans Wake and the late work of Samuel Beckett. Postmodern literature often calls attention to issues regarding its own complicated connection to reality. The postmodern novel plays with language, twisted plots, multiple narrators, and unresolved endings, unsettling the conventional idea of the novel as faithfully reflecting the world.^[110]

In Postmodernist Fiction (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that postmodern works developed out of modernism, moving from concern with what is there ("ontological dominant") to concern with how we can know it's there ("epistemological dominant").^[111] McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)^[112] follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. Others argue that postmodernism in literature utilizes compositional and semantic practices such as inclusivity, intentional indiscrimination, nonselection, and "logical impossibility."^[113]

Music

Postmodern influence extends across all areas of music; its accessibility to a general audience requires an understanding of references, irony and pastiche that varies widely between artists and their works.^[114] In popular music, Madonna, David Bowie and Talking Heads have been singled out by critics and scholars as postmodern icons. The belief that art music – serious, classical music – holds higher cultural and technical value than folk and popular traditions, lost influence under postmodern analysis, as musical hybrids and crossovers attracted scholarly attention.^[114][115]

Across musical traditions, postmodernism can be identified through several core characteristics: genre mixing; irony, humor, and self-parody: "surface" exploration with less concern for formal structure than in modernist approaches; and a return to tonality.^[115] This represents a loss of authority of the Eurocentric perspective on music and the rise of world music as influenced by postmodern values. Composers took different routes: some returned to traditional modes over experimentation, others challenged the authority of dominant musical structures, others intermingled disparate sources.^[114]

The composer Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."^[116] In the 1960s, composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies,^{[citation needed]} whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to modernism.^[117]

In 2023, music critic Andy Cush described Talking Heads as "New York art-punks" whose "blend of nervy postmodernism and undeniable groove made them one of the defining rock bands of the late 1970s and ’80s."^[118] Media theorist Dick Hebdige, examining the "Road to Nowhere" music video in 1989, said the group "draw eclectically on a wide range of visual and aural sources to create a distinctive pastiche or hybrid 'house style' which they have used since their formation in the mid-1970s deliberately to stretch received (industrial) definitions of what rock/pop/video/Art/ performance/audience are", calling them "a properly postmodernist band."^[119] According to lead vocalist/guitarist/songwriter David Byrne, commenting in 2011, "Anything could be mixed and matched – or mashed up, as is said today – and anything was fair game for inspiration.”^[120]

Avant-garde academics labelled American singer Madonna a "personification of the postmodern" and created a sub-discipline of cultural studies known as Madonna studies.^[121] Her self-aware constructs of gender and identity, and classic film references in music videos for “Material Girl” (1984) and “Express Yourself" (1989), made her a favorite of cultural theorists, who saw her as "enacting postmodernist models of subjectivity."^[122] Madonna was seen to embody fragmentation, pastiche, retrospection, anti-foundationalism and de-differentiation; her "subversion of the subversion of the subversion of the male gaze" in the "Material Girl' video was analyzed.^[121] Outside academia, Anglican bishop Graham Cray said she is "perhaps the most visible example of what is called post-modernism"; novelist Martin Amis described her as "perhaps the most postmodern personage on the planet".^[123]

Sculpture

Sculptor Claes Oldenberg, at the forefront of the pop art movement, declared in 1961: "I am for an art that is political-erotical-mystical … I am for an art that embroils itself with everyday crap and still comes out on top."^[125] That year, he opened The Store in a dime store area of New York's Lower East Side, where he blurred the line between art and commerce by producing and selling brightly painted plaster replicas of hamburgers and cans of soda, dresses, underwear, and other everyday objects: "Museum in b[ourgeois] concept equals store in mine".^[126][127] Oldenburg was one of the most recognizable sculptors identified with postmodernism, a group that included Jeff Koons, Eva Hesse, Louise Bourgeois, Anish Kapoor, Damien Hirst, Rachel Whiteread, and Richard Serra.^{[citation needed]}

Theater

Postmodern theater emerged as a reaction against modernist theater. Most postmodern productions are centered on highlighting the fallibility of definite truth, instead encouraging the audience to reach their own individual understanding. Essentially, thus, postmodern theater raises questions rather than attempting to supply answers.^{[citation needed]}

Poststructuralist precursors

In the 1970s, a disparate group of French theorists – often grouped together as "poststructuralists" – developed a critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger's critique of metaphysics.^[128] Although few themselves relied upon the term, they became known to many as postmodern theorists.^[129] And, while their ideas exerted a great influence on debates about the postmodern, they themselves did not intervene or attempt to provide their own definitions of the postmodern.^[130]

Poststructuralists, like structuralists, start from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic conditions determine each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation.^[131] While structuralism explores how meaning is produced by a set of essential relationships in an overarching quasi-linguistic system, poststructuralism accepts this premise, but rejects the assumption that such systems can ever be fixed or centered.^[132] Instead, poststructuralists stress the various ways that cultural structures are produced in history.^[133] They also emphasize how meaning is generated, rather than discovered, and they replace the traditional concept of "representation" (according to which meaning is determined by the objected signified) to focus instead upon the elastic potentialities of language to generate new meanings.^[133]

A crisis of legitimacy

The Postmodern Condition

Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to use the term "postmodern" in a philosophical context. This appeared in his 1979 The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. In this influential work, Lyotard provided the following definition: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards metanarratives".^[144]

By "metanarratives", Lyotard meant such overarching narrative frameworks as those provided by Christianity, G. W. F. Hegel, and Karl Marx that unite and determine our basic sense of our place and significance in the world.^[145] In a society with no unifying narrative, he argued, we are left with heterogeneous, group-specific narratives (or "language games", as adopted from Ludwig Wittgenstein^[3]) with no universal perspective from which to adjudicate among them.^[146]

According to Lyotard, this introduced a general crisis of legitimacy, a theme he adopts from the philosopher Jürgen Habermas, whose theory of communicative rationality Lyotard rejected.^[147][148] While he was particularly concerned in that report with the way that this insight undermined claims of scientific objectivity, Lyotard's argument undermines the entire principle of transcendent legitimization.^[149][150] Instead, proponents of a language game must make the case for their legitimacy with reference to such considerations as efficiency or practicality.^[3] Far from celebrating the apparently relativistic consequences of this argument, however, Lyotard focused much of his subsequent work on how links among games could be established, particularly with respect to ethics and politics.^[151]

Richard Rorty's neopragmatism

Richard Rorty was an American philosopher known for his linguistic form of neopragmatism. Initially attracted to analytic philosophy, Rorty later rejected its representationalism. His major influences, rather than the poststructuralists, include Charles Darwin, Hans Georg Gadamer, G. W. F. Hegel, and Martin Heidegger.^[162]

Rorty challenged the notion of a mind-independent, language-independent reality. He argued that language is a tool used to adapt to the environment and achieve desired ends. This naturalistic approach led him to abandon the traditional quest for a privileged mental power that allows direct access to things-in-themselves.^[162]

Instead, Rorty advocated for a focus on imaginative alternatives to present beliefs rather than the pursuit of independently grounded truths. He believed that creative, secular humanism, free from authoritarian assertions about truth and goodness, is the key to a better future. Rorty saw his neopragmatism as a continuation of the Enlightenment project, aiming to demystify human life and replace traditional power relations with those based on tolerance and freedom.^[162]

Anthropology

Postmodern theory in anthropology originated in the 1960s, alongside the literary postmodern movement.^{[citation needed]} Central to postmodernist practice are: an emphasis on including the opinions and perspectives of the people being studied;^[164] cultural relativism, considering values and beliefs relative to their own cultural context, as a method of inquiry;^[165] skepticism towards the claims of science to producing objective and universally valid knowledge;^[166] and the rejection of grand, universal schemes or theories which explain other cultures.^[164]

Anthropologists working in a postmodern vein seek to dissect, interpret and write cultural critiques, analyzing of cultural texts and practices, rather than relying on empirical observation.^{[citation needed]} The issue of subjectivity is a concern: as ethnographies are influenced by the perspective of the author, the question arises in the study of individual cultures as to whether the author's opinions should be considered scientific.^[167] Clifford Geertz, considered a founding member of postmodernist anthropology,^[168] holds that, "anthropological writings are themselves interpretations, and second and third order ones to boot. (By definition, only a 'native' makes first order ones: it's his culture.)"^[169] In the 21st century, some anthropologists use a form of standpoint theory, which prioritizes the perspectives of the subject over the perspective of the observer in cultural interpretation.^{[citation needed]}

Archaeology

Significant postmodern influence is found in post-processual archaeology,^[170][171] a movement in archaeological theory that emphasizes the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations and the importance of understanding the social environment.^[172] Post-processualism can be seen as a direct response to the processual archaeology movement.^[173] According to A History of Archaeological Thought, the discipline has evolved through three periods. From 19th century, the culture-historical approach relied on examination of the objects and architecture of material culture. During the 1960s, the processual movement believed that rigorous use of the scientific method, for example, analyzing the spatial distribution of objects in a settlement, allowed for conclusions that went beyond the limits of the archaeological record. The New Archaeology, as it was also known, dominating the Anglophone world in the 1970s. The post-processual school emerged to critique the processualists for that belief, and for their failure to investigate the social context.^[174]

The post-processual movement originated in the United Kingdom during the late 1970s and early 1980s, pioneered by archaeologists such as Ian Hodder, Daniel Miller, Christopher Tilley and Peter Ucko They were responding to three central influences: Marxist-inspired social anthropology that developed in France in the 1960s, postmodernism, and the new cultural anthropology that emerged in the US.^[175] The movement came to consist of "very diverse strands of thought coalesced into a loose cluster of traditions,"^[176] with a common emphasis on understanding human behavior and agency through archeological materials.^[173] The multiple lines of inquiry included "discussions of power and ideology, feminism, shifts to and from the notion that material culture can be read as a text, phenomenology, accounts of agency, landscape, the body, memory, materiality, the links between archaeology and heritage, indigenous rights, and ethics."^[177]

Although itself no longer a central topic of academic debate, post-processualism's practical influence remains significant.^[178] In the US, post-processualism is often as seen as accompanying the processual approach; in the UK, post-processual archaeology is often seen as dominant and in opposition to other theoretical movements. In Latin America and parts of Spain, post-processualism has been integrated with the already dominant Marxist sociopolitical theoretical debate. Elsewhere in the world, the post-processual perspective has often contributed to postcolonial, indigenous, and political movements in archaeology.^[179]

Feminism

Postmodern feminism mixes postmodern theory and French feminism^[180] that rejects a universal female subject.^[181][182] The goal is to destabilize the patriarchal norms entrenched in society that have led to gender inequality.^[181] Essentialism, philosophy, and universal truths are opposed, in favor of embracing the differences that exist amongst women to demonstrate that not all women are the same.^[182] Applying universal truths to all women in a society minimizes individual experience; ideas displayed as the norm in society stem from masculine notions of how women should be portrayed.^[183]

Postmodern feminism seeks to analyze notions that have led to gender inequality, and attempts to promote equality through critiquing logocentrism, supporting multiple discourses, deconstructing texts, and seeking to promote subjectivity.^[180][182] This approach is not readily accepted by all feminists—some believe postmodern thought undermines the attacks that feminist theory attempts to create, while other feminists are in favor of the union.^[180]

Law

Postmodern interpretations of the law can involve critically considering legal inequalities connected to gender, class, race, and ethnicity by acknowledging "diversity and multiplicity". Critical practices connected to postmodern philosophy, such as critical literacy and deconstruction, can be used as an interpretative tool to ensure that a range of different and diverse values and norms are acknowledged or considered.^[184]

Marketing

Postmodernism in marketing focuses on customized experiences where broad market generalizations are no longer applied.^[185] According to academic Stephen Brown, "Marketers know about consumers, consumers know about marketers, marketers know consumers know about marketers, and consumers know marketers know consumers know about marketers." Brown, writing in 1993, stated that the postmodern approach in many ways rejects attempts to impose order and work in silos. Instead marketers should work collectively with "artistic" attributes of intuition, creativity, spontaneity, speculation, emotion, and involvement.^[185]

A 2020 study in the Journal of Business Research investigated the reported transition from postmodernism to post-postmodernism, those "changing social conditions that lead the consumer to consume in a particular manner". Song lyrics were selected from Madonna (postmodern), Taylor Swift (post-postmodern), and Lady Gaga as a transitional example. Five postmodern characteristics consistently found in marketing literature were compared to their post-postmodern counterparts: anti-foundationalism to rewriting; dedifferentiation to redifferentiation; fragmentation to reengagement; reversal of production and consumption to rebalancing of production and consumption; and hyperreality to alternative reality. Postmodernism, it finds, "remains vibrant, re-inventive, and calls for its demise may be somewhat overblown." Swift's success "suggests a significant shift from deconstructive to reconstructive positions regarding the self and its surroundings", noting that her "post-postmodern engagement, enthusiasm and sincerity" appeared to be "somewhat superficial, sociopathic, and couched in fabulation."^[186]

Psychology

Under the headline, "A New Breed of Psychologists Says There’s No One Answer to the Question 'Who Am I?'", a 1992 article in the Los Angeles Times reported on "a group of increasingly influential psychologists – postmodern psychologists seems to be the name that is sticking", who had come to the conclusion that "the American conception of an isolated, unified self" does not exist. People are composed of many different selves, constructed for different situations.^[187] In this way, postmodernism challenges the modernist view of psychology as the science of the individual,^[188] in favor of seeing humans as a cultural/communal product, dominated by language rather than by an inner self.^[189]

In 2001, Kenneth Gergen, a pioneer in postmodern psychological theory, identified three themes -- "emphasis on the individual mind, an objectively knowable world, and language as carrier of truth" -- as the cornerstones of traditional modernist psychology. He noted the critiques of these assumption "from every quarter of the humanities and the sciences", and the beginning of a psychology in which "colonialist universalism is replaced by a global conversation among equals". However, considering the existence of "strong critical reservation", he discussed three of the major criticisms of the postmodern approach – the realists argument against a socially constructed world in the face of a clearly observable real world; the claim of incoherence, postmodernism's allowing of no truth, objectivity or knowledge, while making those very claims; and moral relativism, the failure to take a stand. Ultimately, he concluded that psychology's future is "hanging in the balance".^[190]

In 2021, psychologist Jan Smedslund discussed how psychology tried for decades to emulate the natural sciences and address unpredictable individual behavior. He described how it came to "rely exclusively on statistical analysis of group level data and the resulting methodology based on average findings lost contact with the psychological processes going on in individual persons." He advocated for abandoning the natural science approach that had "led into a clearly discernible blind alley."^[191]

In 2024, American psychology professor Edwin Gantt wrote that psychology remains in a state of continual struggle "to decide whether its true intellectual home is to be found among the humanities, especially philosophy and literature, or among the STEM disciplines." He finds psychology "a key site where the intellectual tug-of-war between modernism and postmodernism plays itself out in academia."^[192]

Urban planning

Modernism sought to design and plan cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardization, and prefabricated design solutions.^[193] This approach was found to have eroded urban living by its failure to recognize differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes.^[194] Jane Jacobs's 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities,^[195] was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within modernism,^[196] and played a major role in turning public opinion against modernist planners, notably Robert Moses.^[197]

Postmodern urban planning involves theories that embrace and aim to create diversity, elevating uncertainty, flexibility, and change, and rejecting utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting.^[198] The postmodernity of "resistance" seeks to deconstruct modernism, a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them.^[199] As a result,, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to there being one single "right way" of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of "how to plan".^[200]

This postmodern reaction is often compared with the modernist Chicago School, the then dominant movement founded at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. Sociologist Ernest Burgess's prominent concentric circle model depicted urban areas as a series of concentric functional zones that sorted population groups.^[201][202] It proposed a central business core, circled by transitional immigrant and working class areas, then by more affluent outer commuter rings.^[203] In contrast, for example, the postmodernist Los Angeles School, primarily associated with the University of California at LA, viewed Los Angeles as a prototypical postmodern city, a "multi-nucleated megacity encompassing hundreds of municipalities", sprawling and centerless. The LA School analysis emphasized the global-local connection, pervasive social fragmentation, and a "reterritorialization of the urban process in which hinterland organizes the center (in direct contradiction to the Chicago model)".^[204]

A review of postmodern urbanism literature, published in 2018 in the Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, examined coverage of style, epoch, and method, noting a general lack of cohesive definition, and the use of questionable interpretation to form conceptual statements. The review concluded that as a theoretical construct, postmodern urbanism "is relevant to planning and design theory insofar as it rejects modernist 'rational' planning." However, given that urban planning and design are grounded in practice, postmodern theoretical ideas offer "little insight that professionals can use."^[205]

Theology

The postmodern theological movement interprets Christian theology in light of postmodern theory and various forms of post-Heideggerian thought, using approaches such as post-structuralism, phenomenology, and deconstruction to question fixed interpretations, explore the role of lived experience, and uncover hidden textual assumptions and contradictions.^[206] The movement emerged in the 1980s and 1990s when a handful of philosophers who took philosopher Martin Heidegger as a common point of departure began publishing influential books engaging with Christian theology.^[207][208] Such works include Jean-Luc Marion's God Without Being (1982), Mark C. Taylor's Erring (1984), Charles Winquist's Desiring Theology (1994), John D. Caputo's The Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida (1997), and Carl Raschke's The End of Theology (2000).

The Cambridge Companion to Postmodern Theology (2003) combined and expanded on other scholarly classifications to present seven types of postmodern theology: postliberal, postmetaphysical, deconstructive, reconstructive, feminist, Anglo-American postmodernity, and radical orthodoxy. It notes that the typology should be considered "provisional and fallible [yet] not entirely arbitrary", having met two main criteria: each is an approach taken by more than one theologian, and each "believes itself to be responding to, rejecting, or passing through modernity, not inhabiting it."^[209]

Post-postmodernism

The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms Post-postmodernism and postpoststructuralism were first coined in 2003:^{[219][220][221]}

More recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth-Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace".

A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction.^[222]