ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING COURSE TITLE:

DRAUGHT ANIMAL TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC: CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO DRAUGHT ANIMAL TECHNOLOGY

YEAR: III SEMESTER: II ACADEMIC YEAR: 2011/2012 LECTURE: SIRAJ KEDIR

Chapter 1: Introduction to draught animal technology Introduction

The importance of draught animal welfare can be viewed from a number of

different perspectives; economic ecological, social, cultural, and emotional or effective.

Draught animals have contributed a great deal to human civilization. Even in this century, when petroleum-based mechanical and electrical

equipment has replaced animals in advanced countries, draught animals still

play in important role in certain developing countries, and will continue to do

so for many years.
Despite the past and present contribution of draught animals to mankind, the

care of these animals is currently neglected, with the result that owners of draught animals are incurring losses, and society suffers accordingly.
Therefore, measures are required to foster care and welfare of draught animals. Greater care of draught animals will also improve human welfare.

Draught animal technology in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country with a population of about 80 million and an area

of 1,000,000 square kilometers.

Its economy is very dependent on agriculture (Crop livestock

production).
Unfortunately, the countrys current agricultural production does not

meet the food requirement of the population, largely because of high population growth and ecological degradation.
Agriculture contributes 52% GDP, 85% of employment opportunities

and more than 90% of foreign exchange earnings and most food supply.
90% of the Ethiopian farmers, subsist on rain fed agriculture, crop

livestock are integrated.

Ethiopia has a large number of livestock of which cattle have more

important place (Table 1).

 Table 1: Livestock population and number of breeds in Ethiopia and Africa

Livestock contribute 18.8% of the total GDP, of which 80% is contributed by

cattle in Africa.
Cattle in Ethiopia make the backbone of the rural household economy.

 Cattle are the dominant livestock species (Figure 1.), they are highly valued

because the benefits they provide.

Having access to cattle, either by direct or indirect ownership through

borrowing or hiring have several advantages for farmers.

The main advantage provision of protein (milk and meat), socio cultural needs

(payment loans), security (source of cash, investment) fuel (dung cakes) and companionship.

 Ethiopia has a large number of draught animals it possesses 15% of the cattle

population half of Africa's equine population with 37%, 58% and 46% of all African donkeys, horses and mules, respectively and 8% of the camel.
There of animals have an important place in the Ethiopian agriculture. 90% of

the Ethiopian farmers subsist on rained agriculture.

Crop-livestock and fuel (manure) are integrated. Ethiopia is a major utilize of

animal power in Africa (Table 2).

Livestock contribute nearly all the draught power approximately 6 million of

oxen equivalent to 500,000 (80hp tractors) are utilized in the cultivation of 10

million hectares.
Draught animal technology (DAT) in Ethiopia unlike other African countries,

which is very recent, has been an integral component of the farming system for several millennia.
Occasionally horses, donkeys and camels are used for plowing however in

comparison to oxen the contribution to traction is less than 1%.

 Equine and camels are mainly used as pack animals for pulling carts.

Despite the countrys enormous animal population very little has been done to

improve draught animal technology.

The scratch plow stands at center of agricultural system because of simplicity

and efficacy in human labor it is used for minimum tillage a method of plowing in which disturbance of the soil does not affect the deeper layers.
The benefits are conservation of organic matter, leading to a better soil

structure and less soil erosion, better soil biodiversity and the use of less energy.
The Ethiopian version has eight basic parts all available locally the beam

(Mofer), the plowshare (Maresha) the sheath (Wogal) the stilt (erf) two wooden ears (diggir) inserted in to a plowshares sheath a yolk (Kenber) and a leather strap (Mangecha0 which adjust plow depth.
None of these basic parts has changed over course of plow record history.

 The plow is (12-20 kg) it is adjustable to specific needs a field or task for farmers

to carry from field to field farmers adjust the angle of the pull to the desired plowing depth by varying the shear and ear length, adjusting the angle between share and beam or exerting down word pressure on the handle during plowing the angle of the pull may vary also 15-25 degree.
The maresha design allows it to break the soil surface at fairly shallow angle an

efficient substantially different from heavy steal mold board plows of European origin.
The clods of soil pushed to the side on first pass can be broken up by repeated

passes depending on soil prior to field use and crop to be sown.

Recent attempts to introduce heavier steel mould board plows have ignored the

essential element of probability which allowed farmers to cultivate highly fragmented land holding at different altitude and long distance apart.

Draught animal selection;

Farmers must be able to select the animal or animals most appropriate for their

needs.
The animals they choose must be culturally acceptable, trainable, maintainable,

and profitable within the overall farm plan.

It is also important that the animal be available locally, since these animals are

already adapted to local feeds and climate and are likely to be resistant to diseases in the region.
Of course, farmers should choose healthy animals from strong stock. In some areas, farmers must consider social or religious traditions which restrict

the ownership or use of animals.

In this chapter the word "bovine" applies to cattle (or cows) and the word

"equine'' refers to horses and horse-like animals (donkeys and mules).

 Determining power requirements

Before attempting to determine the kind and number of animals required for

any particular farm, animal owners should be familiar with the concepts of pulling (draught) capacity and power.
They should also consider the work characteristics of draught animals.

Draught
In order to move any object, an animal must exert a force equal to the weight or

resistance of that abject.

For example, it takes 50 kilograms (kg) of force to move a 50kg log. If the movement is accomplished by pulling, rather than by lifting, or carrying,

the force is called draught.

The draught capacity of an animal increases with its weight.

 Power

Power is the combination of pulling capacity and speed, or pace. Under normal

conditions, a large horse will pull a 150-pound (lb) load at a steady rate of 2-1/2 miles per hour (mph).
This rate of work is defined as one horsepower (hp). A bull of the same weight,

pulling the same load, will assume a normal pace of 1-1/2 mph.
At the end of an eight-hour day, the horse will have moved the load further, or

produced more work than the bull, and is thus said to be more powerful than the bull.

 General rules concerning power requirements

The above information, qualified by the following rules, makes it possible to

determine the kind and number of draught animals needed to power various field operations:
Given the soil conditions of a region, the weight of the implement to be used

and the average depth at which the implement will work, the animal(s) must be able to deliver, for an extended period of time, a force equal to and preferably more than the total resistance, or draught requirement of the work.
Tables 1 and 2 gives the draught requirements of various field implements.

Table 1-Requirements of Some Farm Implements for Operations on Medium Loam Soils*

Table 1-Requirements of Some Farm Implements for Operations on Medium Loam Soils*

Table 2: Draught Requirements of Field Operations

 Choice of hitch-The decision is made based on these criteria: availability of animals,

cost of animals, daily work potential of animals, cost of harness, and availability and cost of feed.
If they are available and the farmer can afford them, bulls are generally the best

choice because they will work longer hours per day and they require less harness

equipment.
Bulls weighing less than 300 kg each could be used if they were harnessed in breast

bands or collars rather than in a yoke.

Animals can deliver more of their potential power when working in these types of

harnesses.
If animals to be used are of the same size, match draught requirement to figure in

TOTAL columns.
For example, an animal owner could meet a requirement of 56 kg of power by using

two 150-kg donkeys, three 110-kg donkeys, or four small animals of 90 kg apiece.
If animals are of different sizes, use single animal column for any size hitch, and add

individual power together to get hitch total.

 Table 3-Power of Donkeys (in breastband or collar)

 Determining weights of animals

To determine an animal's weight, first measure the length of the animal from

point of shoulder to point of rump (A-B) and the circumference of its torso at point of heart (C) with a tape or rope.
When taking the torso or girth measurement, observe these rules:
Measure in the morning before the animal drinks. Don't give it hay the night before. Have the animal stand squarely with its head in a normal position. Pull the tape snugly around the torso, at the smallest circumference behind

the shoulders.

 Selection of individual draught animals

Once farmers decide what kind of draught animal will be used, they must be

able to choose individual animals which are sound and trainable and have a considerable work expectancy and resale value.
Selecting a good draught animal is a matter of evaluating both physical and

behavioral attributes.
Age, sex, conformation (shape), and temperament are helpful criteria for

judging a draught animal's value.

The farmer's total animal needs must be noted when judging an individual

animal.
If it is to be used as a pair, it should be roughly the same age and size as its work

mate, and should be the same sex.

 Age of Bovine Animals

Ideally, farmers should raise their own draught cattle or purchase them when

they are very young.

This allows the farmers to provide proper nutrition during the critical growth

stage as well as to observe and shape the animal's behavior long before it is put to work.
Oxen are normally put to work between the ages of three and four years. They may be trained at two to three years of age and given light work for a

season.
However, before the age of three, oxen have little power, and hard work can

stunt their growth or cause abnormal development of bone and muscle.

After the age of four, animals may be difficult to handle and train; they must be

broken of old habits before their power can be used.

 Although oxen can work until they are 12 or older, many farmers prefer to sell

them as soon as their work capacity tapers off.

A common practice is to work oxen hard until age seven or eight, use them as a

reserve or alternate animal (or pair) for a season or two, and then sell them for butchering.
When buying an ox, the purchaser can determine the animal's age by counting

its teeth.
Because the approach of an unfamiliar person may cause the animal to shy or to

struggle, it is best to have the owner open the animal's mouth.

Otherwise restrain the animal and pry open the mouth by pulling up on the

nostrils and down on the lower jaw.

 Cattle have front teeth only in the lower jaw.

Temporary teeth appear at one month.

The first permanent teeth appear at age two. By age five, the animal has a full set of permanent teeth. The age of older animals can be determined by observing the wear patterns of

the teeth and matching them to the patterns shown in the illustration on the next page.
An alternate method is to count the number of rings on the animal's horns;

each ring corresponds to one year of growth, the first ring appearing at age two.

 Age of Equine Animals Recommended ages for training and working equine

animals are very similar to those outlined for cattle.

However, in practice, these animals are worked until they are older because

their meat is less valuable.

The age of a horse, donkey or mule can be determined by comparing the

animal's mouth to the diagrams on the following page.

As the animal grows older, the enamed wears off the tooth, giving it a smooth,

white grinding surface (the dark center disappears).

The teeth grow longer and begin to slant; the entire mouth elongates.
Compare the side views of the four-and thirty year-old horse and note the

increased pointing of the jaw.

The correct method for opening the animal's mouth is as follows: Place the palm of one hand under the animal's jaw; Insert the thumb and middle finger into the animal's mouth on either side of

the lower jaw, at a point behind the teeth;

Figure : Determining the Age of Cattle

 Sex of Bovine Animals Sex has a bearing on the power and temperament of draught animals. As a rule males tend to be bigger, more powerful, and more difficult to train than

females. Females have less endurance and, of course, cannot be used when they are carrying or nursing young.
Studies of African cattle have shown that within the same breed and age bracket,

males tend to be 50-100 kg heaver than females and can work twice as long during a given day (bulls, five to six hours; cows, two to three hours).
Studies from temperate zones show more pronounced differences in size and power.

Such evidence makes it clear that there is an advantage to using male animals.
However, the males of some breeds of cattle and buffalo have proven particularly

difficult to train. In these circumstances, the animals are castrated at the age of one

and a half years in order to make them more docile.

There is disagreement about the value of castration, however. Some farmers feel that this makes the animals lazy or interferes with their physical

development.

 Sex of Equine Animals

Castrated horses or donkeys (geldings) are preferred over stallions because they

are even tempered and manageable in the presence of females.

Female horses, mules and donkeys are nearly as powerful as males and geldings,

but are known for their stubbornness and unpredictable moods.

Conformation Conformation refers to the form or shape of an animal. An animal with good conformation has a shape which shows the normal

characteristics of its species and breed.

An animal used for draught must have a build well suited for pulling. It should

be low to the ground, have powerful shoulders and legs, and have a broad frontal dimension that will accommodate the placement of a harness.
It must be big enough to deliver, alone or in a pair, the power needed to pull

equipment for an extended period of time.

 It must also be able to exert the concentrated or "instantaneous" effort needed

to overcome temporary increases in the draught requirement caused by roots,

rocks, hard soil, or inclines.
While some animals are bred to produce good draught abilities, within any

breed individual animals vary greatly in these qualities, and care must be taken to choose those with the most potential.
A thin but well-balanced animal can be strengthened with a good diet, health

care, and work.

However, an animal with a swayback, bad legs or impaired vision will be a

constant source of trouble.

 Selection is a process of matching ideal qualities against those seen or latent in

a given animal.
Good draught animals, regardless of species or breed, will have the following

qualities:
Head well proportioned; sculptured look

Balanced vision and hearing; head carriage high and straight Normal mouth; good teeth and jaw structure Body should have depth and width; short, full neck, full shoulders, broad chest, and straight, broad beck

Wide, thick hindquarters, lowest and evenly-fleshed

Short legs, straight and square to the body; ample bone Clean, well-developed joints; no swelling or unusual boniness; no turning in or out of knees or hoofs; free movement of limbs

Feet straight, hard; normal angulations of hoof.

Conformation Faults of the Horse

 The proper and faulty conformation of the forelegs when viewed from the side: A-correct conformation B-forelegs too far under body C-forelegs too far advanced D-buck-kneed E-calf-kneed-standing with knees too far back.

 The proper and faulty conformation of the hind legs when viewed from the

side: A-correct conformation B-sickle-hocked-hind legs too far under body C-legs set too far back D-hock joint too straight.

 The proper and faulty conformation of the forelegs (top) when viewed from the

front, and the hind legs (bottom) when viewed from the rear. The forelegs: A-correct conformation B-splay-footed or base narrow forefeet, toe cut out, heels in C-bowed legs D-knock-kneed, set close together with toes pointing outward E-conformation predisposing to interfering F-knees set close together G-pigeon-toed or toe narrow-a conformation which will cause the animal to wing or throw out the feet as they are elevated.

 The hind legs: A-correct conformation B-hind legs set too far apart C-bandy-legged-wide at the hocks and hind feet toe-in D-hind legs set too close together i E-cow-hocked.

 Temperament Temperament refers to the nature or disposition of an animal. Part of its temperament is determined genetically, both by breed and

parentage; some of it is learned-a response to the treatment it receives from other animals or the people who raise and handle it.
Temperament is reflected in an animal's behavior, the way it moves and acts,

and the way it reacts to the things around it.

It is difficult to know much about temperament from the quick evaluation that

usually precedes the purchase of a draught animal.

The buyer must guess, from what is observable, whether or not an animal will

accept new routines or maintenance and training, behave well in a pair, and prove to be a spirited yet steady-paced and manageable worker.
Sometimes, what is observable is not typical of the animal's behavior. A basically lethargic bull, for example, may become very alert or nervous at the

approach of a stranger, exhibiting a fierceness that could be misinterpreted as a strong yet controllable spirit.

 A donkey that is mishandled and mismanaged might kick or butt at its owner,

or at any adult, but be led away quite easily by a child.

The buyer must be aware of such possibilities and at the same time drew some

basic conclusions about the animal's temperament.

The following are signs of good temperament:
Good overall conformation and health The animal accepts the handling of the owner It does not shy or kick at other animals

Popular draught animals;

Oxen
The most commonly-used draught animals are cattle. Among cattle oxen are

often preferred, because they are well-muscled and have good temperaments.
An ox is a bull which has been castrated and trained to pull loads, but the term

is sometimes used to describe a working cow.

In this manual, "ox" will refer to animals of either sex. Some stockmen define oxen by age as well, distinguishing them from younger

"bullocks" by their full mouths (present at four years of age.)

Oxen are well-adapted to savanna and forest-savanna lands. Their use in rain forest zones has been restricted by disease, most notably

bovine sleeping sickness.

 Donkeys

In arid areas, the cost of maintaining cattle is often too great to make oxen a

feasible source of farm power.

Donkeys are better suited to these climates and often supply sufficient power

for the kind of agriculture practiced.

Donkeys are popular draught animals because they are inexpensive (often less

than half the price of oxen on the live market), easy to train, and effective where shallow breaking rather than overturning of the soil is all that is needed before planting begins.
The use of light equipment and the improvement of husbandry techniques

have made it increasingly clear that donkeys are an important source of farm power.

 Horses

Horses, by contrast, have not been popular draught animals in some areas of

the world, notably West Africa.

Horses can be more expensive to feed than bulls because they are not ruminant

animals and therefore use roughage less efficiently.

While they theoretically provide more power than bulls, horses do not deliver a

sustained tractive, or pulling, effort under difficult conditions.

However, horses are much faster than oxen.

Camels

Camels are used as pack animals through much of the Sahara. In Mauritania, Niger, Chad, Mali and Senegal they are used to supply power for

drawing water; occasionally they are used to draw plows or light weeding implements.

 Mules

Mules found in Africa are rarely used for draught purposes.

Like horses, mules are expensive to feed. But where they are culturally acceptable, they have great potential.

They have the intelligence and sure-footedness of the donkey and the strength

of the horse, and are easily harnessed.

A mule is a cross between a male donkey (jack) and a female horse (mare).

The male offspring of this cross, called a horse mule, is always sterile, while the

female offspring, or mare mule, is usually infertile.

The female donkey, known as a jennet or jenny, is rarely bred with the male

horse, or stallion.
However, their offspring, the macho (male) and hinny (female), are basically

indistinguishable from mules, and are good work animals.

 Buffalo The domestic buffalo is used extensively as a draught animal in Asia; less

commonly in Egypt and the Near East.

Attempts have been made to cross Asian domestic and African wild breeds, but

in each instance the resulting population succumbed to disease.

Some researchers feel that further experiments will prove the value of

importing and breeding the animal in Africa, as its milk, meat, and labor potentials are high.
Today experimental herds are maintained in Mozambique and Tanzania.
Buffalo work at a slower rate than oxen, but are generally considered to be

stronger and better adapted to wet terrain.

Except for camels, any of the animals mentioned above can be trained and

harnessed using the methods described in the chapter on training.