CHOLELITHIASIS

BY: PRIYANKA THAKUR

PHYSIOLOGY OF GALLBLADDER
 Acts as a storage depot for bile.
 Between meals, when the sphincter of Oddi is
closed, bile produced by the hepatocytes enters the
gallbladder.
 During storage, a large portion of the water in bile
is absorbed through the walls, bile is 5-10 times
more concentrated than that originally secreted by
the liver.
 When food enters the duodenum, the gallbladder
contracts & the sphincter of Oddi relaxes, allowing
the bile to enter the intestine.
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION

 Elimination of excess cholesterol

 Solubilize cholesterol which prevent
precipitate in the gallbladder
 Facilitate digestion of triglycrides through
emulsification
 Facilitate absorption of fat soluble
vitamins.
 INTRODUCTION
 The presence of stones in the gallbladder is
referred to as cholelithiasis, from the Greek chol-
(bile) + lith- (stone) + -iasis (process).
 If gallstones migrate into the ducts of the biliary
tract, the condition is referred to
as choledocholithiasis
 Form from the solid constitutes of the bile; they
may vary greatly in size, shape, & composition.
 Uncommon in children & young adults but become
more prevalent with increasing age.
DEFINITION
 It is defined as the presence of stone in the gallbladder.
RISK FACTORS

 Women  Obesity

 Mutiparity  Diabetes

 Birthcontrol pills  Sedentary life style

 Pregnancy  Liver disease

 A family history  Rapid weight loss.

TYPES OF GALLSTONES

 There are three types of gall stone-

 CHOLESTEROL STONES
 Composed mainly of cholesterol (> 50% of stone
composition) & comprises multiple layers of
cholesterol &mucin glycoproteins.
 Pure cholesterol stones are not common;
they comprise less than 10% of all stones.
 Most other cholesterol stones contain variable
amounts of bile pigments & calcium.
 If excessive cholesterol or
insufficient bile acids are
secreted, bile becomes
supersaturated with
cholesterol which then
precipitates out as cholesterol
crystals & stones.
 The incidence increase with
age, & the prevalence higher
in women. Stones are usually
smooth & whitish yellow to
tan.
 PIGMENT STONES
 It probably form when
unconjugated pigments
in the bile precipitate to
form stone.

In these people bile
contains an excess
of unconjugated
bilirubin.
 Pigment stone are dark due to the presence of
calcium bilirubinate & are usually formed
secondary to hemolytic disorders such as sickle
cell disease & spherocytosis, & in those with
cirrhosis. Two types are recognized, black &
brown.
 Pigment stone cannot be dissolved & must be
removed surgically
Black pigment stones

 Most common
 Formed in gall bladder
 Common in hemolytic disorders,cirrhosis
 Multiple , small & hard in consistence.
 bilirubinate, phosphate, bicarbonate, calcium.
Brown stones-
 Rare
 Formed bile duct usually after bacterial
infection
in caused by bile stasis.

The bacteria responsible for the infection
enzymatically catalyze the conversion of bilirubin
glucuronide to insoluble unconjugated bilirubin.

Major constituents are precipitated calcium
bilirubinate & bacterial cell bodies.
MIXED STONES
 Most common type.
 It may be combination of cholesterol &
pigment stones or either of these with some
other substances.
 Calcium carbonate, phosphate, bile salts, &
palmitate make up more common minor
constituents.
 CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

May develop two types of symptoms:

 Due to disease of the gallbladder itself
 Due to obstruction of the bile passages by a
gallstone.
 May be acute or chronic.

 Epigastric distress, such as fullness, abdominal

distention & vague pain in the right upper quadrant.
 PAIN & BILIARY COLIC
 Gallstone obstructs the cystic duct, becomes
distended, inflamed & eventually infected (acute
cholecystitis).
 Develops a fever & may have a palpable abdominal
mass.
 May have biliary colic with excruciating upper right
abdominal pain that radiates to the back or right
shoulder, is usually associated with nausea &
vomiting & is noticeable several hours after a heavy
meal.
 Moves about restlessly, unable to find a
comfortable position ,the pain is constant rather
than colicky.
 Such a bout of biliary colic is caused by contraction
of the gallbladder, which cannot release bile
because of obstruction by the stone.
 When distended, the fundus of the gallbladder
comes in contact with the abdominal wall in the
region of the right ninth & tenth costal cartilages.
 Produces marked tenderness in the right upper
quadrant on deep inspiration & prevents full
inspiratory excursion.
 If dislodged & no longer obstructs the cystic duct,
the gallbladder drains & the inflammatory
process subsides after a relatively short time.
 If continues to obstruct the duct, abscess,
necrosis & perforation with generalized peritonitis
may result.
 JAUNDICE

 Occurs in a few patients & usually occurs with

obstruction of the CBD.
 The bile, which is no longer carried to the
duodenum, is absorbed by the blood & gives the
skin & mucous membrane a yellow color.
 frequently accompanied by marked itching of the
skin.
CHANGES IN URINE & STOOL COLOR

 The excretion of the bile

pigments by the kidneys
gives the urine a very
dark color.
 The feces, no longer
colored with bile
pigments, are grayish,
like putty, & usually
described as clay-
colored.
 VITAMIN DEFICIENCY
 Obstruction of bile flow also interferes with
absorption of the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, & K.
 May exhibit deficiencies of these vitamins.

 If biliary obstruction has been prolonged (eg,

bleeding caused by vitamin K deficiency, which
interferes with normal blood clotting)
ASSESSMENT & DIAGNOSTIC FINDINGS

 Abdominal ultrasound
 Ultrasonography

 Radionuclide imaging or cholescintigraphy

 Cholecystography

 Endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography
 Percutaneous
transhepatic
cholangiography
ABDOMINAL ULTRASOUND
 Ifgall bladder stone is suspected, an
abdominal x- ray may be obtained to
exclude other causes of symptoms.
However, only 10 to 15% gall stone are
calcified sufficiently to be visible on such x -
ray studies.
 ULTRA SONOGRAPHY
 Replaced cholecystography as the diagnostic
procedure of choice
 Does not expose patients to ionizing
radiation.
 Most accurate if the patients fasts overnight so that
the gall bladder is distended.
 Detect calculi in the gall bladder or a dilated
common bile duct with 90% accuracy.
 Obesity, ascites & distended bowel may be difficult
to examine satisfactorily with an ultrasound.
 Stones are acoustically dense & produce an
acoustic shadow. Stones also move with
changes in position.
 Polyps may be calcified & reflect shadows, but
do not move with change in posture.
 Thickened gallbladder wall & local tenderness
indicate cholecystitis.
 When a stone obstructs the neck of the
gallbladder, the gallbladder may become very
large, but thin walled.

A contracted, thick-walled gallbladder
indicates chronic cholecystitis .
RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING
CHOLESCINTIGRAPHY

 used successfully in the diagnosis of acute

cholecystitis or blockage of a bile duct.
 Radioactive agent is administered IV

 Taken up by the hepatocytes & excreted rapidly

through the biliary tract.
 Then scanned & image of the gall bladder &
biliary tract are obtained.
 More expensive than USG
 Takes longer to perform

 Expose the patient to radiation

 Often used when ultrasonography is not

conclusive such as acalculous cholecystitis.
 CHOLECYSTOGRAPHY

 Has been replaced by ultrasonography as the test

of choice
 Oral cholangiography may be performed to detect
gallstones & to assess the ability of the gallbladder
to fill, concentrate its contents, contract & empty.
 Iodide-containing contrast agent excreted by the
liver & concentrated in the gallbladder is
administered to the patient.
 Normal gallbladder fills with this radiopaque
substance.
 Appear as shadows on the x-ray film.
 Contrast agents include iopanoic acid (Telepaque),
iodipamide meglumine (Cholografin) & sodium
ipodate (Oragrafin).
 Administered orally 10 to 12 hours before the x-ray
study.
 To prevent contraction & emptying of the
gallbladder, the patient is NPO after the contrast
agent is administered.
 Asked about allergies to iodine or seafood.
 An x-ray of the right upper abdomen is
obtained.

If the gallbladder is found to fill & empty normally
& to contain no stones, gallbladder disease is
ruled out.
ENDOSCOPIC RETROGRADE
CHOLANGIOPANCREATOGRAPHY
 Permits direct visualization of structures that
could once be seen only during laparotomy.
 Examination of the hepatobiliary system is
carried out via a side-viewing flexible fiberoptic
endoscope inserted into the esophagus to the
descending duodenum.
 Multiple position changes are required during
the procedure, beginning in the left semiprone
position to pass the endoscope.
 Fluoroscopy & multiple x-rays are used.
PERCUTANEOUS TRANSHEPATIC
CHOLANGIOGRAPHY
 Involves the injection of dye directly into the
biliary tract.
 can be carried out even in the presence of liver
dysfunction & jaundice.
 useful for distinguishing jaundice caused by
liver disease from that caused by biliary
obstruction

for investigating the g.i symptoms of a
patient whose gallbladder has been removed,
for locating stones within the bile ducts, & for
diagnosing cancer involving the biliary system.
 Performed under moderate sedation on a patient
who has been fasting; the patient receives local
anesthesia & IV sedation.
 Coagulation parameters & platelet count should be
normal .
 Broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered

 Successful entry of a duct is noted when bile is

aspirated or upon the injection of a contrast agent.
 Ultrasound guidance can be used.
 Bile is aspirated & samples are sent for bacteriology
& cytology.
 A water-soluble contrast agent is injected to fill the
biliary system. The fluoroscopy table is tilted &
the patient repositioned to allow x-rays to be
taken in multiple projections
 Note

 Murphy sign- It is indicator of gall bladder

inflammation (acute pancreatitis). Pain on deep
breath when the finger on under the liver border
at the bottom of the rib cage. The inspiration
causes the gallbladder to descend onto the
fingers.
MANAGEMENT
 Nutritional
& supportive therapy
 Pharmacologic therapy

 Nonsurgical removal

 Surgical management

 Nursing management
NUTRITIONAL & SUPPORTIVE THERAPY
 The diet immediately after an episode is usually
limited to low-fat liquids.
 Include powdered supplements ↑ protein &
carbohydrate into skim milk.
 Cooked fruits, rice or tapioca, lean meats, mashed
potatoes, non–gas-forming veg, bread, coffee or
tea may be added as tolerated.
 Avoid eggs, cream, pork, fried foods, cheese, gas-
forming vegetables & alcohol.
 Fatty
foods may bring on
an episode.

 Dietarymanagement may
be the major mode of
therapy in patients who
have had only dietary
intolerance to fatty foods
& vague g.i. symptoms
PHARMACOLOGIC
THERAPY

 Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) , chenodeoxycholic

acid (chenodiol or CDCA).
 Acts by inhibiting the synthesis & secretion of
cholesterol, thereby desaturating bile.
 Existing stones can be reduced in size, small
ones dissolved & new stones prevented
from forming.
6 to 12 months of therapy are required.
 The effective dose of medication depends on body
weight.
 This method of treatment is generally indicated for
patients who refuse surgery or for whom surgery is
considered too risky.
 Patients with significant, frequent symptoms, cystic
duct occlusion, or pigment stones are not
candidates for this therapy.
 Symptomatic patients with acceptable operative
risk are more appropriate for laparoscopic or open
cholecystectomy.
NONSURGICAL REMOVAL OF
GALLSTONES

 Dissolving Gallstones
 Stone Removal by Instrumentation

 Extracorporeal Shock-Wave Lithotripsy

 Intracorporeal Lithotripsy
DISSOLVING GALLSTONES
 By infusion of a solvent (mono-octanoin or
methyl tertiary butyl ether [MTBE]) into
the gallbladder.
 Can be infused through a tube or catheter
inserted percutaneously directly into the
gallbladder; a tube or drain inserted through a
T-tube tract to dissolve stones not removed at
the time of surgery; an ERCP endoscope; or
a transnasal biliary catheter.
 Inthe latter procedure, the catheter is introduced
through the mouth & inserted into the CBD. The
upper end of the tube is then rerouted from the
mouth to the nose & left in place.
 This enables the patient to eat & drink normally
while passage of stones is monitored or chemical
solvents are infused to dissolve the stones.
 This method of dissolution of stones is not widely
used in patients with gallstone disease.
 Method used when the size of stone not more than
20 mm in diameter.
STONE REMOVAL BY
INSTRUMENTATION
 used to remove stones that were not removed at
the time of cholecystectomy or have become
lodged in the CBD.
 A catheter & instrument with a basket attached are
threaded through the T-tube tract or fistula formed
at the time of T-tube insertion; the basket is used to
retrieve & remove the stones lodged in the
common bile duct.
 A second procedure involves the use of the ERCP
endoscope .After the endoscope is inserted, a
cutting instrument is passed through the
endoscope into the ampulla of Vater of CBD.
 Another instrument with a small basket or balloon at
its tip may be inserted through the endoscope to
retrieve the stones.
 The patient is closely observed for bleeding,
perforation & the development of pancreatitis or
sepsis.
 The ERCP procedure is particularly useful in the
diagnosis & treatment of patients who have
symptoms after biliary tract surgery, for patients with
intact gallbladders, & for patients in whom surgery
is particularly hazardous.
EXTRACORPOREAL SHOCK-WAVE
LITHOTRIPSY
 Used for nonsurgical fragmentation of
gallstones.
 Derived from lithos, meaning stone & tripsis,
meaning rubbing or friction.
 Uses repeated shock waves directed at the
gallstones in the gallbladder or CBD to
fragment the stones.
 The energy is transmitted to the body
through a fluid-filled bag, or it may be
transmitted while the patient is immersed in
a water bath.
 Converging shock waves are directed to the stones
to be fragmented.
 After the stones are gradually broken up, the stone
fragments pass from the gallbladder or CBD
spontaneously are removed by endoscopy, or
dissolved with oral bile acid or solvent.
 Requires no incision & no hospitalization, patients
are usually treated as OPD , but several
sessions are generally necessary.
 INTRACORPOREAL LITHOTRIPSY

 Fragmented by means of laser pulse technology.


A laser pulse is directed under
fluoroscopic guidance with the use of
devices that can distinguish between
stones & tissue.
 Produces rapid expansion & disintegration of
plasma on the stone surface, resulting in a
mechanical shock wave.
 Electro- hydraulic lithotripsy uses a probe with two
electrodes that deliver electric sparks in rapid
pulses, creating expansion of the liquid
 This results in pressure waves that cause stones to
fragment.
 Can be employed percutaneously with the use of a
basket or balloon catheter system or by direct
visualization through an endoscope.
 Repeated procedures may be necessary due to
stone size, local anatomy, bleeding, or
technical difficulty.
 A nasobiliary tube can be inserted to allow for
biliary decompression & prevent stone impaction in
the CBD. This approach allows time for
improvement in the patient’s clinical condition until
gallstones are cleared endoscopically,
percutaneously, or surgically.
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

 Ifthe CBD is thought to be obstructed by a

gallstone, an ERCP with sphincterotomy may be
performed
 Performed through a small incision or puncture
made through the abdominal wall in the umbilicus.
CHOLECYSTECTOMY

 Gallbladder is removed through an abdominal

incision (usually right subcostal) after the cystic
duct & artery are ligated.
 Performed for acute & chronic cholecystitis.

 Drain may be placed close to the gallbladder bed

& brought out through a puncture wound if there is
a bile leak.
 Drain type is chosen based on the physician’s
preference.
SMALL INCISION CHOLECYSTECTOMY

 Gallbladder is removed through a small incision.

 If needed, the surgical incision is extended to
remove large gallbladder stones.
 Drains may or may not be used.

 The cost savings resulting from the shorter

hospital stay have been identified as a major
reason for pursuing this type of procedure.
 The procedure is controversial because it
limits exposure to all the involved biliary
structures.
CHOLEDOCHOSTOMY

 An incision into the common duct, usually for

removal of stones.
 After the stones have been evacuated, a tube
usually is inserted into the duct for drainage
of bile until edema subsides.
 This tube is connected to gravity drainage
tubing, the patient is monitored closely.
 A laproscopic cholecystectomy is planned for a
future date after acute inflammation has
resolved.
SURGICAL CHOLECYSTOSTOMY
 Performed when the patient’s condition prevents
more extensive surgery or when an acute
inflammatory reaction is severe.
 The gallbladder is surgically opened, the stones

& the bile or the purulent drainage are removed &

a drainage tube is secured with a purse-string
suture.
 The drainage tube is connected to a drainage

system to prevent bile from leaking around the

tube or escaping into the peritoneal cavity.
PERCUTANEOUS
CHOLECYSTOSTOMY
 Used in the treatment & diagnosis of acute
cholecystitis in patients who are poor risks for any
surgical procedure or for general anesthesia.
 Under local anesthesia, a fine needle is inserted
through the abdominal wall & liver edge into the
gallbladder under the guidance of ultrasound or
computed tomography.

Bile is aspirated to ensure adequate
placement of the needle & a catheter is
inserted into the gallbladder to decompress the
biliary tract.
NURSING MANAGEMENT
ASSESSMENT
 NURSING DIAGNOSIS

 Acute pain & discomfort r/t surgical incision.

 Impaired gas exchange r/t the high abdominal
surgical incision
 Impaired skin integrity r/t altered biliary drainage
after surgical intervention
 Imbalanced nutrition, less than body
requirements, r/t inadequate bile secretion
 Deficient knowledge about self-care activities r/t
incision care, dietary modifications (if needed),
medications, reportable signs or symptoms (eg,
fever, bleeding, vomiting)
PLANNING & GOALS

 Relief of pain
 Adequate ventilation.

 Intact skin & improved biliary drainage.

 Optimal nutritional intake.

 Absence of complications.

 Understanding of self-care routines.

 RELIEVING PAIN

 Observe & document location, severity (0–10 scale)

& character of pain (steady, intermittent, colicky).
 Splint the affected site & to take shallow breaths to
prevent pain.
 Gradually increased activity .

 Administer analgesic agents as prescribed.

 Helping the patient to turn, cough, breathe deeply &

ambulate as indicated.
 Use of a pillow or binder over the incision.
 Controlenvironmental temperature.
 Encourage use of relaxation techniques.

 Provide diversional activities.

 Make time to listen to and maintain frequent

contact with patient.
IMPROVING RESPIRATORY STATUS

 Reminds patients to take deep breaths & cough

every hour to expand the lungs fully & prevent
atelectasis.
 The early & consistent use of incentive
spirometry.
 Early ambulation prevents pulmonary
complications as well as other complications,
such as thrombophlebitis.
PROMOTING SKIN CARE & BILIARY
DRAINAGE
 Drainage tubes must be connected immediately to a
drainage receptacle.
 Fasten tubing to the dressings or to the patient’s
gown.
 Observe for indications of infection, leakage of bile
into the peritoneal cavity, & obstruction of bile
drainage.
 Note & report right upper quadrant abdominal pain,
nausea & vomiting, bile drainage around any
drainage tube, clay-colored stools, & a change in
vital signs.
 To prevent total loss of bile, the drainage tube or
collection receptacle is elevated above the level of
the abdomen.
 Every 24 hours, measure the bile collected &
records the amount, color, & character of the
drainage. After several days of drainage, the tube
may be clamped for an hour before & after each
meal to deliver bile to the duodenum to aid in
digestion. Within 7 to 14 days, the drainage tube is
removed.
 The patient who goes home with a drainage tube in
place requires instruction & reassurance about its
function & care of the tube.
 Observes the stools daily & notes their color.

Specimens of both urine & stool may be sent
for examination for bile pigments.
 In this way, it is possible to determine whether
the bile pigment is disappearing from the blood
& is draining again into the duodenum.
 Maintaining a careful record of fluid intake &
output is important.
IMPROVING NUTRITIONAL STATUS

 Encourage the patient to eat a diet ↓ in fats & ↑ in

carbohydrates & proteins immediately after surgery.
 Fat restriction usually is lifted in 4 to 6 weeks

 This is in contrast to before surgery, when fats may

not be digested completely or adequately, &
flatulence may occur.
 COMPLICATIONS GALL STONES
 Chronic cholecystitis
 Acute cholecystitis

 Choledocholithiasis

 Cholangitis,

 Gallstone pancreatitis,

 Gallstone ileus,

 Perforation of the gallbladder

 Gallbladder carcinoma
MANAGING COMPLICATIONS

 Bleeding

 Postop, monitor vital signs & inspects the surgical

incisions & drains for bleeding.
 Assess the patient for ↑ tenderness & rigidity of the
abdomen. Report to the surgeon.
 Instruct to report any change in the color of stools.

 After lap.cholecystectomy, assess for loss of

appetite, vomiting, pain, distention of the abdomen,
& temperature elevation.
PATIENT EDUCATION

Managing Pain
 Sitting upright in bed or a chair or walking may
ease the discomfort.
 Analgesic medications as needed & as
prescribed

Report to surgeon if pain is unrelieved even
with analgesic use.
Resuming Activity-
 Light exercise (walking) immediately.

 Shower or bath after 1 or 2 days.

 Drive a car after 3 or 4 days. Avoid lifting

objects exceeding 5 pounds after surgery,
usually for1 week.
Caring for the Wound
 Check puncture site daily for signs of infection.
Wash puncture site with mild soap & water.
Allow special adhesive strips on the puncture
site to fall off. Do not pull them off.
Resuming Eating
 Resume normal diet.

 If you had fat intolerance before surgery, gradually

add fat back into your diet in small increments.
Follow-Up Care
 Report any sign & symptoms of infection at or
around the puncture site: redness, tenderness,
swelling, heat, or drainage.
 Fever of 37.7°C (100°F) or more for 2 consecutive
days.
 Nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pain
TH
AN
K
S
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