LITERATURE NOTES

Literature is just about anything written. Literature is a kind of art usually written, which
offers pleasure and illumination and there is an oral literature, too.

Literature is divided into 3 major genres or groups. A. Prose, B. Poetry, C. Drama.

A. PROSE: Prose is the ordinary form of written language. Most writing that is not poetry, drama or song is
considered prose. Prose occurs in two forms: Fiction and Non- fiction.

1. Fiction: fiction is prose writing that tells about imaginary characters and events. Short stories, novels and
folk tales are works of fiction.

2. NON-FICTION; Non-fiction is prose writing that presents and explains idea or that tells about real people,
places, objects, or events. Autobiographies, biographies, essays, newspapers, and articles are all types of Non-
fiction.
•PLOT AND SETTING
•The plot of a literary work is what happens in it or the
plot is the sequence of events in a literary work. In most
novels, dramas, short stories, and narrative poems, the
plot involves both characters and a central conflict. The
plot usually begins with an exposition that introduces the
setting, the characters and the basic situation. This is
followed by an introduction of the central conflict. The
conflict then increases during the rising action until it
reaches a high point of interest or suspense, the climax.
The climax is followed by the falling action, or end of the
central conflict. Any events that occur during the falling
action make up the resolution, or denouement.

•Some plots do not have all these parts. Some stories

begin with the inciting incident and end with the
resolution. In some, the inciting incident has occured
before the opening of the story. The time and place, the
‘when and where’ of the plot, are called the setting.
 Techniques of plot

Exposition: What you need to know. Background information and setting are presented, main characters are introduced,
and the conflict is established.

Rising Action: The conflicts and challenges encountered by the characters. How they respond keeps the story moving
forward.

Climax: The turning point in the conflict. Tension builds until the main character must make a decision or take action that
determines the direction of the story. In Lés Misérables the climax is when Marius, Valjean, and inspector Javert interact
dramatically at the barricades

Falling Action: The events that occur after the main character makes the key decision in the story.

Resolution: ( Catastrophe)The resolution is where all the questions are answered and loose ends are tied, providing a
clear ending.
•Setting: The setting of a literary work is the time and the place of the action. The time
includes not only the historical period- the past, present, or future but also the year, the
season, the time of day, and even the weather. The place may be a specific country, state,
region, community, neighbourhood, building, institution, or home. Details such as
dialects, clothing, customs, and modes of transportation are often used to establish
setting. In most stories, the setting serves as a backdrawn- a context in which the
characters interact. In some stories the setting is crucial to the plot; it almost becomes a
character in itself. For example: In Murder on the Orient Express It is expected that the
events of the story happened in 1934 and the place is the Simplon-Orient-Express. the
weather in the story plays a great role. winter is a significant detail because the
characters become trapped with no way out when the train becomes stuck in a snowdrift
early in the morning. Further, the detective is convinced that the murderer is still on the
train because there are not any footprints in the snow leading away from the victim's
open window.
Exercise: Read each passage and look for clues that reveal the setting. Then explain your answer. Remember the
setting is the time and place that a story happens.
1. Alex shut the lid to his laptop with a loud clap. Some of the people sitting at the tables near him looked up from their
books and gave him annoyed looks. Alex realized that he had disturbed them and held up his hand apologetically. The
librarian turned toward him and shushed him loudly, perhaps louder than the noise that he had made. Alex put the
laptop in his bag and began walking toward the door. He held his head down low.
1. Where is this story taking place? ______________________________________________________
How do you know?
2. When is this story taking place? _______________________________________________________
How do you know?
2. Carrie walked through the doors of the building with her package in hand. There was no line so she walked right up to
the counter. She handed the man her package. He placed it on a creaky scale, turned a knob, and adjusted some weights.
"One pound and four ounces," He said, writing down the number on a ledger. He did some multiplication on a notepad and
looked up at her from behind his glasses. Then he asked, "It's going to Boston?" She nodded. "That'll be 44 cents." He said.
She opened up her change purse and removed the coins, placing them on the counter. "Thank you kindly, Sir," she
remarked before departing.
1. Where is this story taking place? ______________________________________________________
How do you know?
2. When is this story taking place? _______________________________________________________
How do you know?
 Point of view:

: is the perspective, or vantage point, from which a story is told. The three most common points of view in narrative
literature are first person, omniscient third-person, and limited third-person. In the story from first person point of view,
the narrator is a character in the story like Sherlock Holmes stories. The character referes to himself or herself by using
the pronoun “I”. In a story written from the omniscient, or “all knowing,” third person point of view, the narrator is not
a character in the story but views the events of the story through the eyes of more than one of the characters, using third
person pronouns such as “he or she”. In a third person limited point of view, the narrator is not a character, but he or she
presents the story from the perspective of one of the characters, also by using third person pronouns.

Foreshadowing:

Foreshadowing is an advance sign or warning of what is to come in the future. The author of a mystery novel might
use foreshadowing in the early chapter of his book to give readers an inkling of an impending murder. When you want
to let people know about an event that is yet to occur, you can use foreshadowing. Foreshadowing is used as a literary
device to tease readers about plot turns that will occur later in the story. A fortune teller might use foreshadowing,
warning that a short life line is a sign of some impending disaster.
e.g The witches in the opening scene of Shakespeare's Macbeth foreshadow the evil events that will follow.
 Flashback: A
flashback is a section
of a literary work that
interrupts the sequence
of events to relate an
event from an earlier
time.
Suspense:

Suspense is a feeling of anxious uncertainty about the outcome of events in literary work.
Writers create suspense by rising questions in the minds of their readers. For example; in
Lés Misrérables the writer raises questions about whether inspector Javert is going to arrest
Jean Valjean.
Surprise Ending/Twist ending:

A surprise ending is a conclution that is unexpected. Sometimes a surprise ending follows a false resolution.
The reader thinks that the conflict has already been resolved but then is confronted with a new twist that
changes the outcome of the plot. a surprise ending often foreshadowed or subtly hinted at the course of the
work. e.g The surprise ending in Murder on the Orient Express when the readers discover that the 12
passengers were part of the crime and when the police were not called by the dedective Hercule Poirot to
arrest them.
 CHARACTERS AND CHARACTERIZATION

Character: A character is a person or animal who takes part in the action of a literary work. The main character is the
most important character in the story, poem, or play. The minor character is one who takes part in the action but who is
not the focus of attention.

Protagonist: is the main character in a literary work. Normally, the reader sympathizes with or at least learns to
understand the protagonist.

Antagonist: is a character or force in conflict with a main character or protagonist.

Characters are sometimes classified as flat or round.

Dynamic character: is one who changes or grows during the course of the work, e.g both Valjean and Cossete are dynamic
characters in Lés Misérables as Valjean stopped stealing because of the impact of the bishop and Cosette grew physically
throughout the story and became a beautiful young lady.

Static character: is one who does not change. in Lés Misérables Mr. Thénardier is a static character.
•Characterization: Characterization is the act of creating and developing a
character. Writers use two major methods of characterization, direct and
indirect methods.
•When describing a character directly, a writer states the character’s trait
or characteristics. When describing a character indirectly, the writer
describes the character’s appearance, actions or speech. At other times
the writer tells what other participants in the story say and think about
the character. The reader then draws his or her own conclusions.
 TECHNIQUES USED IN LITERATURE

Irony: Irony is the general name given to literary technique that involves surprising, interesting, or amusing contradiction.
In irony situation, an event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the characters, the reader or the audience.
There are three types of irony,
1. Verbal irony: In verbal irony, words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meanings.
Examples: * In Shrek, Donkey asks Shrek if he can stay with him. Shrek replies, "Of course," when he really means,
"No, not really."
* Someone shopping for a mattress lays down on a really firm one and says, "It's so soft, I may float away."

* When the air conditioning goes out on a hot summer afternoon, a tenant says to their landlord, "I'm really enjoying
the cool climate in my apartment!"

2. Situational irony: an event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the characters or the readers. In other
words, it is the opposite of what we expect will be or happen. For example: In Lés Misérables, Inspector Javert spent most
of his life like trying to imprison Valjean , but ended up killing himself because of Valjean’s kindness towards him.
3. Dramatic Irony: In dramatic irony, there is contradiction between what a character thinks and what the reader or
audience knows to be true. The audience or the reader knows more than the character in the story. For Example. In Lés
Misérables Marius wanted to find Mr Thénardier as he promised his father to help him because Mr Thénardier saved his
father’s life at Waterloo Battle. But the readers know that the truth is that he didn’t want to save him, he wanted to rob him.

Exercise: Identify the three kinds of ırony in the following examples and then explain your answer.
1. As soon as Bob heard that math test was going to be worth 30% of his grade, he began studying. He studied in
class. He studied on the bus ride home. He even tried to study while walking home from the bus but stopped after
bumping into a lamppost. When he got home, he didn’t watch any TV because he was studying so intensely. He
completed the study guide that Mr. Scott gave him and then he completed one that he had made himself. Bob
refused to quit. He stayed awake all night finding and completing extra problems on the internet. By the time the sun
rose, Bob had mastered the content. As he entered the classroom, he felt prepared. He sharpened his pencil, sat at
his desk, put his head down, fell asleep, and failed his test.
Which type of Irony is used? …………………………..
Explain your answer:
•2. Bram hated his roommate Keith's dog. Bram resented how Keith didn't even ask him before he
got the dog. Keith just came home one night with a dog. Now Bram shared his living space with a
furry, poorly trained pest. The dog was not potty trained. It barked hours on end for no reason. It
bothered Bram's guests by jumping and slobbering on them. Bram tolerated all this because he
was a good roommate and Keith was his friend. Then Bram came home from work one day and
found that Keith's dogs had chewed up Bram's limited edition shoes. Bram snapped. "Keith, do
you know what your really awesome dog did? He tore up my favorite shoes. Thank you so much. I
didn't want those anyway." Keith came from his room looking confused and upset. Bram
continued, "Oh, I never said 'thank you,' by the way, for surprising me with this really well-
behaved dog. I am so pleased to share my home with him!" Bram was shouting now. Keith
grabbed his dog by the color and slowly backed him into his bedroom.
•Which type of irony is used? ………………………..
•Explain your answer:
•3. Moving to a new school had been tough for Janie, but things were finally turning around. She
was making friends and she even received an invitation to Angie's pool party. There was one
problem: Janie didn't know how to swim. Janie felt like admitting this might risk her new
friendships. So she decided to go to the party and pretend like she knew how to swim. The first
hour of the party went by swimmingly. Janie floated on a large raft and gossiped with the other
girls. Then the girls started doing cannonballs and dives. Bridget did a jackknife. Angie did a can-
opener. Now all eyes were on Janie. Bridget started teasing her, "Let's see what you can do,
Brainy Janie!" Janie didn't know how to respond. Then Angie egged her on, "Come on, Janie. Do a
flip!" Janie felt this tremendous pressure building, so she paddled to the edge of the pool and
climbed out. How hard could it be? Janie thought. Angie and the other girls couldn't wait to see
what kind of wild jump Janie would attempt. Little did they know how wild things were going to
get.
•Which type of irony is used? ……………………………
•Explain your answer:
Internal conflict: is one that takes place within the mind of a character. The character
struggles to make a decision, take an action or overcome a feeling. For example, in Lés
Misérales the central conflict is internal which revolves around Valjean, and how he
doesn’t want to go back to prison. One more after he had met the bishop, Valjean
struggles to transform himself from a thief into an honest man. Person vs self

External conflict: is one in which a character struggles againts some outside force(againts
nature, weather conditions or an antagonist). For Example, in Lés Misérables Valjean
struggles to stay a step ahead of the police inspector Javert and tries to raise his adopted
daughter, Cosette. Person vs Person&Society
Exercise: Read the brief description of each plot. Identify the protagonist and the
antagonist and determine the type of conflict.
 1. It's Carly's 8th grade year and she wants to graduate more than anything else. Unfortunately she's been playing in her
reading class and now she's backed into a corner. She has to get a perfect score on the final exam or she won't graduate.
With the help of a foreign exchange student whom she calls Beans, Carly studies harder than ever before. Will it be
enough?
Protagonist: ______________________________ Antagonist: ______________________________
Type of Conflict:____________________________

2. When Diego and his buddies accept a dare to stay in an old abandoned house, they knew that it would be scary, but they
had no idea just how scary it would be. As his friends begin disappearing one by one, Diego learns that the house is not
abandoned at all, but inhabited by a vampire. Diego no longer cares about spending the night in the house. All he cares
about now is getting out alive. Will he escape or be a vampire's lunch?
Protagonist: ______________________________ Antagonist: ______________________________
Type of Conflict: ____________________________
3. Freddy just turned sixteen and he wants a car badly, so he starts mowing lawns and landscaping to earn money with
his neighbour Eric. After a few days working together, Freddy and Eric have a disagreement and Eric leaves to start his
own company. Now the former friends are competing ferociously for work in their neighbourhood. Things take a turn
for the worse when Eric starts sabotaging Freddy's operation. Will Freddy retaliate? Can the former friends reconcile?
Will Freddy ever get a car?
Protagonist: ______________________________ Antagonist: ______________________________
Type of Conflict: ____________________________

4. It’s the year 1847 and Hallie is tired of being treated as a second-class citizen. As a married woman, she does not
have the right to own property and she has no legal claim to any money that she earns. She and a group of concerned
activists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, hold a convention in Seneca Falls, New York with a
plan to change the world. Join Hallie as she marches, lobbies, and struggles to win equal rights for her gender, one
mind at a time.
Protagonist: ______________________________ Antagonist: ______________________________
Type of Conflict: ____________________________
Symbol: A symbol is anything that stands for or represents something else. Symbols are common in everyday life. A
dove with an olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace. A blindfolded woman holding a balanced scale is a symbol
of justice.
In Lés Misérables candlesticks Which were given by the bishop at the beginning of the story, are the most prominent
symbol of compassion, and they shed a light that always brings love and hope. When Valjean died, the candlesticks
shone brightly across his face, a symbolic affirmation that he has attained his goal of love and compassion.
Image/Imagery: An image is a word or phrase that appeals to one or more of the five senses. Writers use images to
describe how their subjects look, sound, feel, taste and smell. Images are also used to create specific description, to
create setting. Images can also be a mean of characterization, and can lead us to appreciate the theme of the novel.
Examples:

The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground.

His words felt like a dagger in my heart.
My head is pounding like a drum.
The kitten’s fur is milky.
The siren turned into a whisper as it ended.
I came inside because the house smells like a chocolate brownie.
Description: A description is a portrait, in words of a person, place or objects. Descriptive writing uses images that
appeal to the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

MOOD: mood or atmosphere is the feeling created in the reader by literary work or passage. Writers use many
devices to creat mood; including images, dialogues, setting and plot. A writer often creats a mood at the beginning of
a work and then sustains this mood throughout. However, sometimes the mood of the work changes dramatically.

Moral: A moral is a lesson which is taught by a literary work. A fable usually ends with a moral that is directly stated.
A poem, novel, short story or an essay often suggests a moral that is not directly stated. Moral must be drawn by the
reader based on other elements in the work.

Theme: A theme is a central message, concern or purpose in a literary work. A theme can usually be expressed as a
generalization or general statement about people or about life. The theme of a work is not a summary of its plot. the
theme is the central idea that the writer communicates. A theme may be stated Directly by the writer, although this is
unusual. Instead most themes are not directly stated but are implied. When the theme is implied, the reader must figure
out what the theme, by looking carefully at what the work reveals about people or about life.
 Figurative language: figurative language is writing or speech that is not meant to be taken literally. Many types of
figurative language are known as figures of speech, common figures of speech include hyperbole, metaphor,
personification and simile.

1) Hyperbole: Hyperbole is a way speaking or writing that makes someone or something sound bigger, better, more
than they are. It is used for exaggeration of effects. Examples:
He's running faster than the wind.
This bag weighs a ton.
That man is as tall as a house.
My dad will kill me when he comes home.
Your skin is softer than silk.
She's as skinny as a toothpick.

2) Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech in which something is described as though it was something else. A
metaphor, like simile, Works by pointing out similarity between two unlike things. A metaphor can be composed of nouns,
adjectives and verbs.
‘my days are in the yellow leaf;
The flowers and fruits of love are gone’
Lord Byron
Here, age is compared to the yellow leaves of Autumn and love is compared to fruit and flowers.
3) Personification: Personification is a type of figurative language in which non human subject is given human
characteristics.

Examples: Lightning danced across the sky.

The wind howled in the night.
The car complained as the key was roughly turned in its ignition.
Rita heard the last piece of pie calling her name.
My alarm clock yells at me to get out of bed every morning.

4) Simile: A simile is a figure of speech that uses ‘like’or ‘as’ to make a direct comparison between two unlike ideas.
Everyday speech often contains similes, such as ‘pale as ghost’ ‘good as gold’ and ‘clever as fox’. Writers uses similes to
describe people, places and things vividly.

5) Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitates sounds, crash, buzz, screech, hiss, neigh, jingle, and
cluck are examples of onomatopoeia. Examples:
The sheep went, “Baa.”
The best part about music class is that you can bang on the drum.
It is not unusual for a dog to bark when visitors arrive.
Silence your cellphone so that it does not beep during the movie.