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    Aliaappp Id en

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    Alia Putri
    Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy. It occurs in the cytoplasm and can be aerobic or anaerobic. Glycolysis produces pyruvate and ATP. When oxygen is limited, anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate and glucose to increase blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It is stimulated by glucagon and substrates from glycolysis and the TCA cycle.

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    Aliaappp Id en

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    Alia Putri
    12 views20 pages
    Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy. It occurs in the cytoplasm and can be aerobic or anaerobic. Glycolysis produces pyruvate and ATP. When oxygen is limited, anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate and glucose to increase blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It is stimulated by glucagon and substrates from glycolysis and the TCA cycle.

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    Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy. It occurs in the cytoplasm and can be aerobic or anaerobic. Glycolysis produces pyruvate and ATP. When oxygen is limited, anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate and glucose to increase blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It is stimulated by glucagon and substrates from glycolysis and the TCA cycle.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    12 views20 pages

    Aliaappp Id en

    Uploaded by

    Alia Putri
    Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy. It occurs in the cytoplasm and can be aerobic or anaerobic. Glycolysis produces pyruvate and ATP. When oxygen is limited, anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate and glucose to increase blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It is stimulated by glucagon and substrates from glycolysis and the TCA cycle.

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    Translated from Indonesian to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

    com

    01
    Carbohydrate metabolism
    ALIA PRINCESS
    2108260050
    1. Blood glucose increases:
    • Glycolysis (catabolism)
    • Glycogenesis (anabolism)
    2. Blood glucose decreases:
    • Glycogenolysis (catabolism)
    • Gluconeogenesis(anabolism)
    GLYCOLYSIS

    • Is a glucose breakdown pathway to produce energy


    • This process is ongoingcytoplasm, the enzymes of this pathway were discoveredcytoplasm
    • Can take place aerobically and anaerobically
    • Under aerobic conditions, glucose is oxidized topyruvate→ aerobic glycolysis
    • HereO2 is used forreoxidizeNADH formed during oxidationGlyceraldehyde3 Phosphates
    GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY

    ● Glucose enters the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation to glucose 6phosphate


    ● Blood glucose uptake for phosphorylation for all cells except liver parenchyma cells and
    →LangerhansThe pancreas is catalyzed by enzymesHexokinase
    ● In liver parenchyma cells and →LangerhansThe pancreas is phosphorylation of glucose
    catalyzed by enzymesGlucokinase.
    ● ATP is required in this reaction for a phosphate donor
    ● Mg2+ metal ion (or metal iondivalentothers (e.g. Mn2+) are required to react as
    complexesMg-ATP
    ● Under physiological conditions this reaction can be considered as irreversible.
    ● glycolysisUnder anaerobic conditions it occurs in non-containing
    cellsmitochondria(eg: erythrocyte cells) or tissue that is in a stateanoxia
    ● Lactic acid as the end product in this anaerobic glycolysis
    ● Lactic acid buildup in muscle cells can causenumbmuscle
    ● Lactic acid is usually (although slowly) can be removed from the cell, follow
    the blood circulation to form glucose throughgluconeogenesisin the liver or in
    the kidney
    ENERGY FORMED IN GLYCOLYSIS

    ● The formation of ATP follows through an enzyme-catalyzed phosphorylation


    reactionpyruvate kinase.
    ● Phosphoenolpyruvate+ ADP →pyruvate+ATP
    ● This is an example of phosphorylation at the substrate level.
    ● From this substrate-level phosphorylation, 2 ATP molecules are formed each
    ● NAD asacceptorelectrons on oxidationglyceraldehyde3 phosphates must be
    regenerated for glycolysis to continue
    ● The NADH formed along the glycolysis pathway will transfer its electrons to the
    respiratory chain
    OXYGEN FORMATION IN GLYCOLYSIS

    ● An increase in the concentration of lactate in the blood is called lactic acidosis


    ● Takes place in the failure of the circulatory systeme.g: on the circumstancesinfarction
    myocardial, pulmonary embolism, and uncontrolled bleeding
    ● Failure to provide sufficient O2 to the tissues causes disruption of the process of
    oxidation phosphorylation and the formation of ATP
    ● To meet the needs of ATP, the process of anaerobic glycolysis takes place in cells
    GLYCOGENOLYSIS

    • Solving processglycogento glucose-1-phosphate andglycogen


    • The reaction occurs inhepatocyteandmyocyte
    • This process is not a reversal of Glycogenesis but rather a separate trajectory
    • Two main regulatory enzymes: 1) Glycogen phosphorylase, breaking bonds
    1-4 glycogen, 2)phosphorylase kinase
    MECHANISM OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS

    1. Branch chain shortening


    2. Remove branch
    3. Conversion of glucose 1-phosphate to
    glucose 6-phosphate
    4. Lysosomaldegradeglycogen
    Stimulation and inhibitionglycogenolysis

    1. Activationproteinskinase A
    2. Activationfromphosphorylase
    kinase
    3. Activation glycogen
    phosphorylase
    GLYCOGENESIS

    • In the muscles, this element only meets the needs of the organ itself and a ready-made
    source of fuel for muscle contraction
    • If glucose is not stored as glycogen alone, the excess is diverted and formed into free
    fatty acids through the processlipogenesis
    GLYCOGENESIS PATHWAY
    1. SynthesisUDP-glucose
    • α-D-glucose is in addition touridine
    diphosphate(UDP) is the source
    ofglucosylresidues added for molecular
    growthglycogen.
    • UDP-glucose is synthesized from glucose 1-
    phosphate and ATP by UDP-
    glucosepyrophosphorylase. Bondenergydeep
    highpyrophosphate(PPi), the second product of
    the reaction ishydrolysisbe twophosphate
    inorganic(Pi) bypyrophospatase.
    2.Synthesisprimer to initiate synthesisglycogen
    • glycogen synthaseresponsible for creatingalpha(1-4) linkage insideglycogen.
    • enzymesit cannot initiate the formation of a chain that uses free glucose
    asacceptorof the glucose molecule from UDP-glucose.
    3.Chain elongationglycogenbyglycogen synthase
    • Glycogen chain elongation is involved in the
    transfer of glucose from the UDP-glucose to the
    endnonreducingof chain growth, forming
    bondsglycosidicnew withanimerik
    hydroxylfrom carbon 1 of glucoseactivatedand
    the 4 carbons of the glucose residue received.
    • enzymesresponsible for creatingalpha(14)
    inglycogenisglycogen synthase.
    GLUCONEOGENESIS
    Substrate Gluconeogenesis

    • Precursorgluconeogenicare molecules that can be used to produce glucose.


    • Procursorthe intermediates ofglycolysisandcycle tricarboxylic AC ID(TCA)
    • Substrateforgluconeogenesis:
    a. glycerol,
    b. Lactate
    c. Andα-keto acids
    ArrangementGluconeogenesis

    a. Glucagonhormonesit comes from cellsαpancreatic


    isletsstimulatinggluconeogenesiswith 3 mechanisms
    • Change the effectorallosteric Glucagon lowers the level of fructose 2,6-
    bisphosphate, yieldingActivationof Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and
    inhibition of phosphofructokinase-1, thereby supporting the
    genesisgluconeofrom glycolysis.
    B. Abilitysubstrate: Precursor availabilitygluconeogenic, specificallyglucogenicamino
    acids, significantly affect the rate of hepatic glucose synthesis.
    • Decreased insulin levels support the mobilization of amino acids from muscle proteins,
    and provide the frameworkcarbonfor gluconeogenesis.
    • Additionally, ATP and NADH, coenzyme-cosubstrateneeded forgluconeogenesis,
    mainly provided by fatty acid catabolism.
    C. Activationallostericbyacetyl CoA:
    Activationallosteric ofpyruvate carboxylasebyacetyl CoAoccurs during fasting.
    As a result of the increaselipolysisin adipose tissue,liverflooded with fatty acids.
    REFERENCE

    ● Victor Rodwell, David Bender, Kathleen M. Botham, P. Anthony Weil, Peter J. Kennelly,
    2015, BAGIAN iv: metabolisme karbohidrat dalamHarper's Illustrated Biochemistry,
    Edisi ke-30(Ilmu Dasar LANGE)-McGraw-Hill Medical ; hal:139- 210
    ● Bhagawan, NV, Ha, C., 2011, Pentingnya Biokimia Medis dengan Kasus Klinis, Elsevier
    ● Brosnan,JT. 2018. Glutamat, pada Persinggungan antara Asam Amino dan Metabolisme
    Karbohidrat, J. Nutrisi 130 (Supl 9885-905).

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