Chapter 2

Frameworks for thought

and practice in I-O
psychology
 Outcomes
• Describe the focus of structuralism and functionalism
and indicate their current relevance
• Explain and compare how behaviourism,
psychoanalysis and cognitive psychology study the
human mind, behaviour and personality
• Describe and compare human behaviour and
personality according to the trait, biological and
African and Eastern psychological approaches
• Explain humanist and positive psychology
assumptions and their value in studying well-being
• Discuss and compare the assumptions of Gestalt
psychology, eco-systemic and cultural approaches to
explain human behaviour and personality
 Outcomes
• Evaluate the meaning and value of nature, nurture
and context when used in psychology
• Explain paradigms specific to I-O psychology with
regard to employee and organisational
management
• Discuss postmodernism and constructivism as
approaches which emphasise how knowledge and
meaning can be adapted and changed in
psychology
• Reason how the concepts of context and culture
relate to diversity management in the work context
 Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Various psychological schools of
thought
2.3   Utilising multiple perspectives
2.4 Approaches unique to I-O
psychology
2.5 Summary and reflection
2.6 Assessment tasks
 2.1 Introduction and background

Paradigm -  A paradigm, translated from the

Greek word paradeigma, means a pattern,
model or example.

In psychology and I-O psychology, paradigms

refer to schools of thought, which are broad
models or approaches to study and understand
the human mind, e.g. behaviourism.

Paradigms are based on an epistemology ,

which refers to a knowledge base or the way of
knowing something (the theory of knowledge).
 2.1 Introduction and background

A psychological theory refers to more specific

epistemologies or frameworks for studying,
understanding and predicting human behaviour,
thoughts and emotions.

• Psychological theory is often established by

making assumptions about human behaviour
and then testing these assumptions through
empirical research.
• Theories can be found on most topics, e.g.
work, motivation, etc.
 
 2.1 Introduction and background.

A paradigm is a school of thought of theorists/

researchers who share the same views about what
the human mind is and how it should be studied:

It is characterised by:
• Theoretical assumptions e.g. on human
behaviour.
• Paradigms (or schools of thought) may have
different or similar explanations for the same
phenomena e.g. the reason for an employee
behaving aggressively.
 2.1 Introduction and background

• In the human sciences e.g. psychology disciplines

there are many concepts, theories and
methodologies used to think about, understand,
measure and predict human behaviour in various
contexts – including work behaviour.

• Through scientific inquiry/research has developed

into explanations that can be considered to be the
truth—is valid and reliable.

• All paradigms in psychology have contributed to what

contemporary psychology and its sub-fields are.
 2.1 Introduction and background

• Schools of thought in psychology have been

developed and applied in different parts of the
world and have been influenced by socio-cultural,
economic, political, intellectual, industrial and
business events.

• An understanding by I-O psychologists of the

different schools of thought is a necessary
foundation for the management and development
of behaviours and processes involved in employee
and organisational functioning.
 2.2 Various psychological schools
of thought

Structuralism (Wendt and Titchener)

• Structuralism (1875–1920s) – first
psychological school of thought.
• Influenced by the physical/natural
sciences.
• Main focus on studying the structure of
the human mind or consciousness.
  Structuralism (Wendt and Titchener)
cont.

• Analyse consciousness into basic elements

e.g. study feelings, physical sensations,
thoughts and study the relationship between
these elements.
• Use method of introspection ─ self-
observation of one’s immediate experience
of a stimulus e.g. write down your sensations
when you look at a red rose.
  Structuralism (Wendt, Titchener)
cont.

• Criticism: Too simplistic, subjective approach

and unreliable method to understand and
measure behaviour fully.

• Structuralism’s great contribution was to:

• establish psychology as a science.
• scientific inquiry through experimental
research.
• the use of systematic methods to identify,
analyse and describe psychological
phenomena.
   Functionalism (James)
• Functionalism (1888–1912) - studying the functions
of the consciousness/the mind.
• How does the mind affect what people do?
• How the individual adapts to the environment -
assumed that attributes which influence adaptation
are common for human beings and certain animals.
• Influenced by evolution theory (Darwin) - how
species changed and adapted by physical changes,
thinking and learning to survive.
• Evolution theory facilitates study of individual
differences.
   Functionalism (James)
• Use observation tests, animal research, experiments
and statistics in research and assessment.
• Studied individual differences through heredity and
mental abilities.
• Also criticised for being too simplistic, but influenced
behaviourism.
• Methods of measurement and research still used in
contemporary psychology.
• Emphasis on individual differences and mental
abilities still relevant.
  Behaviourism (Watson, Skinner and
Bandura)

• (1910 – 1960s) Referred to as ‘first force’ in

psychology.
• Human nature and the mind can only be studied
objectively through observable behaviour.
• People react to stimuli from their internal and
external environments, creating stimulus and
response associations.
• A belief that environmental influences are
deterministic because people are reactive.
   Behaviourism (Watson, Skinner and
Bandura)
• Stimuli/events which people associate with or learn
from are the basics of mental processes e.g.
behaviour and personality.
• Peoples’ environments can be manipulated
/controlled to get certain effects.
• Learning approach: environmental and other
influences provide stimuli which people respond to
and if such responses are rewarded or strengthened
certain responses are then formed - classical
conditioning (Stimulus–response (S–R) approach)
(Watson).
   Behaviourism (Watson, Skinner and
Bandura)
• Operant conditioning: People (organisms) can
influence their behaviour / learning e.g. only
repeating behaviour if they think they will like the
consequences.
• Later neo-behaviourist approaches – a person can
have cognitive control over the stimuli and the
responses in order to determine how learning
happens (stimulus-organism-response (SOR)
principle.
• In observational learning (modelling), social and
cognitive processes like perception and expectation
largely determine how learning takes place.
   Behaviourism (Watson, Skinner and
Bandura)
• Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy, or a person’s beliefs
that they can achieve their goals, is prominent in
applications of career counselling.

• Personality in behaviourism:
• Characterised by acquired observable behaviours and
thoughts as learnt, rewarded and strengthened in the
different environments in which humans function.
• People’s environments and circumstances are
deterministic causes of what they become.

• Used in many applied areas of psychology and industrial

psychology.
 Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer)

• Gestalt psychology (1900–1930 / ongoing) emerged

in opposition to structuralism.

• Emphasised the wholeness (Gestalt) of experience

and not just certain elements.

• The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

• Illustrated Gestalt principle with two flashing lights,

which created an illusion in movement perception –
in that the lights were seen as one light only - phi-
phenomenon.

 
 Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer)
 
• All aspects of the human mind and behaviour
function according to an integrated whole.

• Personality cannot be fully understood if its various

contexts of functioning are not considered, for
example, family, culture and society.

• Gestalt meanings applied to give totality and

integration in meaning.

• Gestalt principles are applied to the work context,

e.g. understanding culture in groups or organisational
climate.
 Psychoanalytic psychology
(Freud, Jung)

• Psychoanalytic school of thought (1885–1960s and

ongoing) is viewed as the ‘second force’ in psychology.

• Studying the psyche by analysing unconscious processes in

mental functions and psychological disorders.

• Within the three levels of consciousness, three other

psychic structures direct human behaviour; the id, ego
and super-ego which each relates to one or more of the
conscious levels.

• Methods of study and therapy relates to clinical

observation and free association (talking freely or under
hypnosis about experiences etc.).
  Psychoanalytic psychology
(Freud, Jung)
• Negative and positive adult behaviours may result
from how conflicts in and between psychic structures
have been resolved during personality development,
especially during early childhood years.

• A function and result of unconscious conflicts can be

seen in how people use defence mechanisms e.g.
projection (transfer) of own faults on others, see
Table 2.1, page 53.

• Understanding unconscious processes and resulting

conflicts etc. lead to deeper understanding of issues.
  Psychoanalytic psychology
(Freud, Jung)
• Personality/behaviour consists of and results from the
functions and conflicts in and between psychic structures,
especially repressed unconscious content.

• Personality development is centred on certain early psycho-

sexual stages between birth to approximately six years for the
development and maturation of psycho-sexual behaviours, see
Table 2.2 page 56.

• Psychodynamic theorists after Freud showed influence of his

ideas.  See Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious.

• In the work context, used to understand the underlying

dynamics in individual and group/organisational behaviour.
  Humanism (Rogers, Maslow)
• Humanism (1950 onwards) is a person-oriented approach with
a positive view and focus on what it means to be human –
integrated, whole beings with worth, potential, are rational and
thinking.

• Developed in the midst of increasing technology,

commercialisation and population growth.

•  Emphasise the positive aspects of conscious mental activity.

• People strive for psychological growth, self-actualisation,

autonomy and self-fulfilment.

• Regarded as the ‘third force’ in psychology.

  Humanism (Rogers, Maslow)
• Personality development centres on the personal
experiences of each individual, which are continually
evaluated and integrated into the emerging self-concept.

• Maslow’s hierarchy of motivational needs where the

highest motive for self-actualisation is the need to fulfil
one’s potential.

• The human-management relations approach can be

associated with humanist principles.

• Emphasis on the employee as a person who wants to be

recognised, supported and enjoy personal growth.
   Cognitive psychology (Piaget, Kelly)
• Developed 1950s onwards in response to
behaviourism.

• Signalled a return to studying consciousness, but

referring to it as cognition.

• Focus on cognition and the relationship between the

body and the mind.

• How do people form their cognitive constructs (their

own understanding of the world)?

• How does the human mind obtain, process and

organise information through cognitive processes?
   Cognitive psychology (Piaget, Kelly)
• Cognitive constructs give meaning to people through
that which they can understand and anticipate in life.
• People do not only react to their environments —
they perceive, appraise and use their cognitive skills
to influence their learning and the world.
• Personality is formed, maintained and functions
within a system of  cognitive constructs that people
develop.
• Cognitive constructs can be adapted or changed.
• Popular approach – used in assessment, counselling
and influencing people.
• Important in forming and changing attitudes, e.g. in
organisational change.
  Biological and evolutionary
perspectives
• Biological psychology (1800s ongoing) is also referred
to as biopsychology, physiological psychology or
neuroscience.

• Study how biological processes influence people’s

behaviour, feelings and thinking.

• Emphasis on genetics and neurological processes.

• Evolutionary psychology - human behaviour and

attributes are predetermined or genetically
programmed to direct people to act and think in
certain ways.
 Positive psychology (Antonovsky,
Seligman, Strumpfer)
• Positive psychology (late 1900s ongoing) has an emphasis
on positive aspects and health/wellbeing and optimal
functioning even in the face of adversity.

• Concepts such as
• salutogenesis ( refers to finding the origins of health –
what strengths do people / organisations have to stay
healthy?)
• Fortigenesis (expands theory of salutogenesis and
refers to the source of the strengths – e.g. a person
takes action to solve a problem).
• Hardiness, internal locus of control, positive emotions
and optimism are used to indicate resources for
staying healthy and functioning optimally.
  Positive psychology (Antonovsky,
Seligman, Strumpfer)
• Does not deny challenges with regard to psychology
disorders, but seeks ways to positively enhance the
well-being of people with problems.
• No theory on personality as such, but agrees with
the assumptions of (Rogers and Maslow) on positive
regard and self-actualising aspects in personality.
• Focus on internal strengths and virtues in people
and organisations to promote health and optimal
functioning.
• Regarded as most recent and an influential school of
thought in contemporary psychology.
 Trait psychology (Eysenck, Cattell)
• Not traditionally viewed as an accepted paradigm, but
should enjoy more recognition.
• Established through empirical research and psychometric
assessment.
• Trait concepts based on a broad base of psychological
knowledge (eclectic).
• It explains human behaviour according to different traits.
• Traits considered to be neuro-psychic structures which
indicate certain attributes and behaviour in people.
• Various trait models: e.g. Three-, Five- and 16- to describe
personality. See Table 2.3 page 67 for Five-Factor Model.
 Trait psychology (Eysenck, Cattell)

• Personality consists of traits that people possess and

are enduring characteristics of that person.
• Enduring traits direct behaviour and give each person
an identifiable profile.
• Trait research has identified many traits, e.g.
motivation, intelligence, abilities, interests, values,
managerial behaviours, leadership, entrepreneurial.
• Used in psychological assessment – personality
questionnaires and psychological research in many
fields.
• Important in forming and changing attitudes.
• In I-O psychology important in emphasising
employee relations, health and growth.
 Socio-cultural approach
• There isn’t an integrated socio-cultural paradigm, it is an
approach.
• Refers to:
• Social determinants like friends, family
• Environmental social influences like schools, clubs
• Culture
as specific social influences.

• Social, cultural and cross-cultural factors are usually regarded as

influencing factors and are well recognised in psychology.
• Personality isn’t integrated into one theory;  mutual influences
exist between personality and culture.
• Certain behaviours are a consequence of cultural learning and
are not motivated by a personality trait or genetic influence.
• A cultural approach in psychology emphasises the need to
consider the context and relevance of knowledge and practice.
 An African perspective

• Unique cultural or indigenous African context and

thinking in explaining human behaviour and
personality.
• African psyche exposed to many influences and
African psychologists have asked the question ‘of
which psychology is African psychology the
psychology of?’
• Understanding the human psyche is to understand
the relatedness of people to the greater cosmos, the
metaphysical, nature, God and people.
• Macrocosmos – spiritual
• Mesocosmos – individual and collective imagination /
metaphysical reality
• Microcosmos – individual’s daily life
 An African perspective
• Importance of the survival of the collective – see Table 2.4
page 74, for an interesting comparison of African and
Western worldviews.
• Western more individualistic.
• The emphasis on communal identity and social order does
not exclude needs for independence or self-actualisation.
• Ubuntu is central to true ethos of being African: reflects in
interpersonal and interactional behaviour through
demonstrations of empathy, forgiveness and sharing.
• No personality structure is offered but is viewed as
purposeful behaviour, a holistic concept of
interdependent physical, mental and spiritual dimensions
in harmony with the laws of nature, history and life.
 
 Eastern approaches
• Many different Eastern cultures and subcultures which
influence their psychologies.
• Influence from East in Africa is increasing.
• Eastern psychologies influenced by religion and philosophy e.g.
Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Accepted Western training and teaching.
• Emphasis on various states of consciousness, less emphasis on
the I or ego-identity of people and an emphasis on collectivism,
unity and connection in and with the cosmos, nature and other
people.
• Personality in some Eastern psychologies is denied as a concept
in the Western sense of an individualised self.
• Personage relates to interpersonal relationships / collective
meaning.
   An eco-systemic perspective
• An eco-systemic approach is not a paradigm, but a way to think
about the human mind.
• It is a combination of the knowledge base from general systems
theory, cybernetics and ecology – all share similar ways of
thinking.
• General systems theory (Bertalanffy, 1950) is based on
holism, in which all systems consist of subsystems, but are
interconnected.
• Cybernetics involves how information is controlled,
processed and exchanged.
• Ecology states that all things in nature and the cosmos are
connected in a complex but systemic way.
• Important to understand and consider the interaction and
relationships between all possible factors that define, explain
and influence the context of the functioning of a system – for
example, a person, family, work group, organisation.
   An eco-systemic perspective
• A system consists of its subsystems and attributes and relationships and
the interaction between these subsystems, attributes and relationships.
• Emphasises the following principles:
• Gestalt
• Holism
• Connectedness or interrelatedness
• Contextualisation
• The concept of context is very important (and should form the
foundation of psychological study – author view).
• Embraces many aspects of human existence, each with its specific sub-
contexts e.g. biological, psychological, emotional, interpersonal, work,
spiritual or religious, ethnic, community,
• Personality is seen as a fluid concept – it depends on the individuals
unique construction of reality.
• Consider the influences of all the subsystems on the self-system
(person) / the self-system has its own subsystems which are influential.
• Work organisations are living systems.
• See Figure 2.5, following slide.
  An eco-systemic perspective
   2.3 Utilising multiple perspectives
• The assumptions of meta-psychology, postmodernism and
constructivism – emphasise how knowledge and meaning can
be used, interpreted and changed in new and different ways.

• Meta-psychology: psychology has become interdisciplinary.

• Use theories flexibly and in combination.
• Present psychological phenomena in as integrated, holistic
way as possible, e.g. Gestalt and systems theory.
• All influencing factors should be considered.
• Positive psychology is an example where concepts from
other approaches are utilised to explain different
psychological phenomena.
• The Big-Five Personality Model asserts that it has integrated
psychological knowledge from many areas in order to
explain personality in a holistic way.
  2.3 Utilising multiple perspectives
• Postmodernism – broad cultural approach in which other
disciplines and methods are also used to interpret psychological
phenomena or to find new meanings in existing knowledge.

• Constructivism – people cognitively, socially and

emotionally create /change their own personal constructs.
• Deconstructivism – existing meaning (in art, written word)
can be changed by reinterpreting it.
• Social constructivism – knowledge and meaning is derived
from culture, social interaction and relationships between
people and in groups.
• Narrative analysis – when cultural groups meet in cross-
cultural discussions, existing meanings may be changed to
find shared meanings among groups and individuals.
• Ideas of postmodernism illustrate the power that
knowledge can have.
 2.4 Approaches unique to I-O
psychology
• Paradigm and schools of thought discussed in this chapter are
views of the human psyche, which all have implications for
thinking and practice in work contexts.

• There are other ways of work-related thinking and practice with

regard to work, employees, management and organisational
processes:
• May be related to paradigms discussed or
• Result of specific theorising, research and practice in I-O
psychology

• In I-O psychology no integrated text exists on thinking

frameworks for work psychology e.g. nature of employees.

• Paradigms usually provided in literature on specific themes e.g.

leadership.
 2.4 Approaches unique to I-O
psychology
• I-O psychologists and HR practitioners should be informed of
specific models of thinking and practice in I-O psychology –
provide them with a broader view.

• These frameworks also influence the science and practice of I-O

psychology.

• Thinking frameworks related to the nature of work and

employees:
• 1700s to 1900s – work values and work design primarily
focussed on profit / workers seen as means of production.
• Latter part of 1900s to present day – core values emphasise
profit, but consider social or humane aspects of work.
• Contemporary times humanistic paradigm followed –
provides more synergy between individual and
organisational need satisfaction.
 2.4 Approaches unique to I-O
psychology
• Thinking frameworks related to employee and
organisational management.

• How employees and organisations were previously

managed:
• Emphasised technical and structural aspects of
work.
• Management prescriptive and mechanical.
• Control processes and regulations were designed
to render work processes and procedures efficient
and predictable.
 2.4 Approaches unique to I-O
psychology
• Contemporary management:
• Organisations seen in the context of complex
living socio-technical systems in which all
elements and behaviours are related and
influential.
• Social, emotional and cognitive needs of
employees important.
• Employees considered human capital.
• Employees and organisations must be able to
adapt quickly and use modern technology
effectively in order to function and remain
relevant in the modern world of work.
   2.5 Summary and reflection
• I-O psychology has developed its own theories and methods –
but it:
• shares a common history with psychology.
• still utilises knowledge and practices from psychological
paradigms, theories and applied psychology.

• I-O psychologists therefore require insight into these paradigms.

• Each paradigm has distinct central ideas influenced by the socio-

economic, political and scientific developments of the period in
which the theorists lived.

• Thinking frameworks in I-O psychology and HR practices are

influenced by the psychological perspectives, but developed
their own paradigms on how to study and manage employees
and organisations.
   2.5 Summary and reflection
• Three central themes stand out:
• Scientific management which emphasises structural and
production processes.
• Management which emphasises structural and social factors
related to employees and organisations.
• Recent approaches which emphasise employee and organisational
management based on:
• Information and communications technology
• The importance of human resources
• Knowledge or intelligence management

• Objective to optimise employee fit in organisations and manage

employee and organisational processes to optimise performance.
• There are enduring themes e.g. agree on the roles of genetic and
environmental influences.
• I-O psychologists and HR practitioners should reflect on their thinking
and practices to ensure the relevance of their science and practices in
the modern world.
  2.6 Assessment tasks
• Review questions, page 85
• Multiple choice questions, page 85
• Case study, page 86