A critical Appraisal of

Islam in the
Subcontinent
 Evolution of Muslim society was a unique episode in the history of subcontinent. Islam and
its interaction with Hindu-Vedic Civilization gave birth to a new civilization synthesis which
is known as Indo-Muslim Civilization.
 The most conspicuous feature of this civilization was that Islam remained the dominant
trait. Another aspect regarding this evolution of Muslim society which needs to be stressed
was that this evolution was not accidental rather Muslim society evolved gradually spanning
over period of hundreds of years and it assumed a specific character.

Main phases --significant phases of evolution of Muslim society:

 Aziz Ahmed in his book Islamic Culture in Indian Environment has divided the process of
Muslim arrival in three distinct phases. He contends (maintains that Muslims arrived in
three distinct moves.
 As traders and merchants and settled along southern coasts of India. Muslims arrived amid
expanding wave of Umayyad conquests which culminated into Arab conquest of Sindh and
carried them to Rhone, Syrdarya and Indus During the third phase Muslims arrived in a
more organized manner Le.
 Through conquest cum immigration movement of Central Asian Turks, Afghans and
Mughals In between 11 to 16th Century.
1st Phase (7th to 8th Century):
 
 Their trading The trading contacts between Arabs and India date back the period before the
advent of Islam and Arab vessels used to cross India southern coasts and carried merchandise to
Ceylon and Far East. They estabhlished Islam; therefore posts along the southern coasts of India.
So profuse theplocess of Arab arrival that this region came to be known as 'Maabar' meaning
crossing' which was later corrupted into Malabar. In 7th Century, Arabs emb these settlements
also were transformed into the centres of dissemination of Islam. Thus the Arab traders were the
pionee Muslim society in the subcontinent and therefore, the seeds of island were transplanted
by the Arabs

 These Arabs established a very elaborate network of dissemination of Islam which is highlighted
by L.H. Qureshi in his book 'Muslim Community in the Subcontinent he says: "The smaller
settlement had Imam Masiid (Praver leader), medium settlements had Khatibs (Jumma Praver
leader) and larger settlements had Mintis Hegal adviser in the light of Islamic Jurisprudence.
Fazał Zeeshan
2nd phase (8th to 12th century)
 During the 2nd Phase, Arabs arrived amid expanding wave of Umayyad conquests during the period
if Caliph Waleed bin Abdul Malik.
 With the Arab conquest of Sindh in 8th Century, Muslim society expanded between Sindh and tan
i.e. valleys of upper and lower Sindh.
 The conquest of Muhammad Bin Qasim gave great impetus to the Muslim society in South Asia.
There established a direct link between Sindh and the Muslim world.
 Sindh became part of Arab Empire and remained its part for next 150 years.
 Even after the decline of Arab Empire when this link was severed, Sindh maintained its Islamic
entity and it became the hub of the proselytizing (try to convert) activities of the Sufis and Saints and
Sindh came to be known as 'Bab-ul-Islam' (gateway to Islam).
 Later thus region was known as Sindh and Multan became the hub if Sufis hospices like Chistiya and
Suharwardiya.
 Islam immensely impacted the cultural ethos of Sindh3rd Phase (12th to 16th Century):
3rd Phase (12th to 16th Century):

 Muslim society expanded in a more organized manner and this process began with the Ghaznavid conquest of
Punjab in 1020-1021 A.D. and Punjab became part of Muslim Empire and Lahore emerged as the most
important cultural centre.
 After the battle of Train in 1192 AD, Muhammad Ghauri established his rule in this region. Beside Muslim
conquerors there arrived Sufi and Saints.
 Thus, Islam had permanent footing in this soil. Historically, this period can be divided into Sultanate and
Mughal. Both had their distinct characteristic features. For instance, polity in the Sultanate period was
dominated by Turk-Afghan elements. Sultanáte rulers tried to preserve the exclusiveness if Muslim society by
following the policies of racial and religious exclusivism.
 They didn't intermingle with the people. On the other hand, Mughals polity was dominated by Persian-
Khurasanian elements.
 Mughals followed relatively liberal and secular policies towards the non-Muslims.
 Therefore, there took place a greater interaction between Muslim and no Muslim societies which gave birth to a
new civilization known as Indo Civilization.
 But, the dominant trait of this civilization was Islam influences permeated all the aspects of culture. Muslim
society expanded the Muslim rule to North-West, East-South india.
Paths of Arrival of Islam in India
Islam entered India by three ways: first, the sea path in the coasts
of Malabar in southwest of India beside Arab Sea that was the
path of traffic of Arab merchants and passengers since the distant
past.
Second, land path in the regions of Sindh in northwest of India by
which the Muslim conquerors entered India.
Third, the land path in the borders of northwest of India adjacent
with Iran and India by which the Ajam Muslim conquerors
entered India for the first time with the commanders Thomas
Arnold writes about the acceptance of Islam by the Indians
 Islam came to India from different
ways
 Before the Ghaznavid dynasty, the presence and residence of
Muslim merchants and immigrants had a great role in the spread
of Islam in India.
 The first phase of the arrival of Islam in India was done by the
Muslim merchants and passengers who came to that region; the
Muslims who resided in many of Indian regions forever.
 Therefore, the Indian Muslims are divided into two groups: first,
the non-Indian Muslims who brought Islam to India and
 Second, the followers of different Indian religions who became
Muslim with different motivation
Features of Evolution/Characteristics of
Muslim period
 Most conspicuous feature-Islam remained the dominant trait Most conspicuous feature
was its Islamic identity, where these were food, cuisines, culture, fine arts, architecture,
reseptiquettes.
 Moreover, Muslim society maintained its Islamic entity despite of the fact that Muslims
constituted 1/4th of the population. Despite the differences between nature of polity and
modes of governance between Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rulers.
 Muslim rulers tried to preserve the ethos of Islam In spite of nature of difference between
the nature of polity and modes of governance, this reality can't be denied that Muslim
rulers whether they belonged to Sultanate era or Mughal period, they tried to preserve the
ethos of Islam by countering all the threats against the society whether these came from
Rajputs, Manhattas and Sikhs. These rulers established psychological dominance of
Muslims over non-Muslim subjects.
 During the Sultanate period, Muslim Society witnessed consolidation and expansion
whereas Mughals not stabilized the tottering edifice but also expanded it to the Southern
and tern India.
Social egalitarianism:
 The most crucial factor responsible for the evolution society was Islam.
 It proved to be the defining feature of Muslim collective life. Islam was the only religion in the
subcontinent which successfully countered the assimilative thrust of Hinduism.
 Hinduism in the past was known for its tremendous 'assimilative (absorptive) capacities.e.g. it has
absorbed all the ale cults and creeds which had entered in India in and Buddhists etc. like Sakas, Huns,
Greeks,
 Therefore Islam brought a vertical division of Hindu society whereas the other regions brought a
horizontal impact.
 Islam succeeded in what other religions failed and divided Hindu society into Muslims and Hindus and of
population embraced Islam
 Muslims established socially equal society in the subcontinent and this social equality was liberal outlook
of the rulers as well as pluralistic teachings and accomodationistic (compromising) vision of Sufis and
saints.
 It provided conducive atmosphere for the growth of Muslim society and attracted a large segment of
population towards Islam. Moreover, it provided ample opportunities for non-Muslims for social and
occupational mobility both vertical and horizontal sense.
Factors responsible for evolution:
Dynamism of Islam/Role of Islam:

 Why Islam was able to do so?

 Islam succeeded in dividing Hindu society because of its diametrically opposed nature of its
teachings.
 Islam was an iconoclastic faith, an idol smashing religion whereas Hinduism was based idol
worship.
 Stanley Welpert in his book 'India' wrote;
 "Hindu polythelm presented most striking contrast to Islamic monotheism than any other
Muslim society maintained effective cultural linkages with the other centers of Muslim
civilization such as Central Asia Arabia, Persia due to Islamic bonds which facilitated the
fresh inflow of ideas thus prevented the society from stagnation.
 This crucial role of Islam in the preservation of Muslims was also acknowledged by Iqbal in
his Allahabad address: "One lesson I have learned from the history of Muslims, in the crucial
moments, it was Islam that saved the Muslims".
Role of Sufis and Missionaries:
 Sufis proved to be the most effective agency for the dissemination of
Islam in the Subcontinent.
 Sufi influence and teachings provided a distinct character to South Asia's
Islam vis-a-vis other Muslim societies.
 Sufis reached those nooks and corners of India which even remained
unconquered by the invading armies of the rulers. They carried the torch
of Islam to these regions.
 And the success of Sufis is attributed to their love for humanity, their
accommodationist and tolerant vision, their adaptability, emphasis on
social justice, equality and role of their Khankahi Silsila with their
Institution of Khanka and Langar.
Society resisted all those challenges
threatening to disturb its Islamic character:
 Another peculiar feature was that society itself resisted all thos challenges threatening to
disturb its Islamic character.
 It successfully thwarted all the attempts that might have lead to its submergence with the
Hindu society and two such attempts may specifically be mentioned.
 These included Akbar's Deen-i-Illahi and Bhagti Movement.
 The former may be described as state sponsored initiative aimed at removing Hindu-Muslim
differences and the latter may be termed as a popular response emerging from below.
 Muslim adherence to monotheistic beliefs and cults: Most significant aspect of the evolution
was its adherence to monotheistic cult which prevented its submergence into Hindu society.
 It provided it with a distinct character which was instrumental in maintaining particularism.
And It proved to be a visible identity maker.
Chistiya:
This sect was founded by Khawal Abu Ishaque Shami L, In India, was founded by Khawal Gharib Nawaz
Sheikh Moin-ud-Din Chisti in Ajmer Sharif-Rajasthan
 Prominent saints:
 1) Khawai Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiar Oaki-Delhi.
 2) Sheikh Farid-ud-Din Shakr Ganjo-Pakpattan
 3) Syed Makhdoom Chistya Alau-ud-Din All Ahmed Sabir (12974)-Kaliyar Sharif he propagated Islam in
Kaliyar and founded Chistiya Sabiffasect
 4) Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Auliya A he was contemporary of 10 malers, he propagated Islam in Delhi and
founded Chistiya Nizamiya his prominent disciples were Amir Hassan Delhvi (R.A.) and Amir Khuston
A and Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din Chiragh Delhvi
 The saints of this sect were accommodations in libberals, believed Wahadatal Wajood (ontological
monism - All is God there is no difference between Creator and Creation), they were instrumental in
proselytizing Islam. They emphasized Qawwali. These saints lived and playe ditation (Tariqat), allowed
heir role during the Sultanate period.
 Suharwardiya:
 This sect was founded by Sheikh Shahab-ud-Din. In the subcontinent was founded by Sheikh Bah -
Din Zakariya (1182-1266) Prominent saints: 
 Prominent saints:
 1) Syed Muhammad Ghous
 2) Syed Ali Lahori
 3) Sheikh Ahmed Qadri R A
 4) Makhdoom Muhammad Ghous RA
 5) Musa Pak Multani RA
 6) Sheikh Muhammad Tahir Lahori RA. (1630d)
 7) Shah Abdul Muali RA.
 8) Mian Mir Qadri RA (1631-1686)
 9) Shah Inayat Qadri RA 10) Baba Bulle Shah RA
 The region of influence of these saints in the subcontinent was Multan, Lahore, Kashmir, Uch. They
were liberals and were dominant during the Mughal period
Naqshbandiya:
 This sect was founded by Khawaja Baqi Billa A
  
 Prominent saints:
 1) Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi A
 2) Mujadid Alf Sani RA
 3) Shah Wali Ullah RA
  
 This sect started to emerge from Akbar period. This was mixed ar liberals and conservative Ulemas. They
represented puritanical thought. They presented a diâmetrically opposed thought by propounding
Wahadatush Shaood (Phenomenological monism everything is not God but from God).
 They have impact of reformist Sufism in the 9th Century.

Saints who didn't belonged to these hospices

 Sheikh Ismail Lahori A-Lahore 2
 Hazrat Data Ganj Baksh AA- Lahore
 Bibi Pak Daman (Lahore) RA-Labane 4)
 Baba Rattan RA - spread Islam in thore. – Lahore
 Syed Gasudaraz
 Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
 Sheikh Sarwar R Sewan Sharif India
 
Reasons of success of Muslim Sufis and Saint in the subcontinent
Teachings of love of humanity:
 Their teachings were imbued in love for humanity as exemplified from the syncretic traditions
expressed in the Sufi poetry. They stood for all other high and lofty ideals of humanity, sympathy, love,
affection, compassion respect, tolerance and forgiveness.
Their accommodationist vision:
 They demonstrated spirit of accommodation and ambition. They tolerated the dissent and brandish
non-Muslims as heretics and kafirs rather they tried to win their hearts through their love and
tolerance. Their accommodationist vision was mainly outcome of their belief in the philosophy or
doctrine of Wahadatul Wajood and Sufi doctrine of Sulah-e-Kul (peace towards all) which crossed all
religious barriers and developed fellow feelings between Muslims and Hindus. These made them
popular amongst Hindus.
Adoptability:
 They adopted themselves to the local environment. They adopted the rituals which were totally
unknown to their counterparts in other Muslim countries. Some saints like Hindu ascetics sufis shaved
the heads of their new entrants. Baba Farid , did Chilo-i-Maqoos and other rituals. Nizaam-ud-Din
Auliya A used to participate in Hindu festivals. Amir Khusro RA appreciated the customs of local
people and used their language for poetic expression. Chistiya sufis allowed Samaa and Qawwall.
Emphasis on social justice and equality:
 They laid stress on social justice and equality. Their teachings had great
appeal for those segments groaning under the yoke of a tyrant cast
system.
 They became a model for life. Through their inspirational role, they
inspired lower sections of society towards Islam. Khankahi Nizam with
its institutions like Langar (free Ruchen) and Dargah played crucial role.
 These provided a specific aura to the natitution of Sufism and this was
due to this reason that South Asian Sufism demonstrated altogether
different characteristics as compared to the other brands of Islam. They
provided solace and relief to poor, downtrodden and distressed suffering
humanity.
Their noble and virtuous character:
 They set very high examples by dint of their noble and virtuous
 Role of Muslim rulers:
 Rulers also played role in the evolution of Muslim society.
 Through their conquests and victories they established the psycho superiority and smashed the might of
Hindu.
 They provided conducive environment for the propagation of Islam in subcontinent by patronizing
Muslim education system; Muslim scholars, saints and Khankhai Nizam and provided grants.
 They countered all the threats mounting against Muslim society like Rajputs, By emphasizing the role
of rulers, we do not mean to suggest that Islam was spread through sword.
 Had this been the case, the heartland of India, Delhi and Agra which remained the seat of Muslim rule
for 700 years would have transformed into a Muslim majority belt.
 But, it is a historical fact that in those. areas, Muslims population never exceeded between 10-25% yet
the element for state patronage for the propagation of any religion can't be denied.
 Only those religions thrived in the world when they were patronized by the state e.g. Buddhism in
India, Confucianism in China and Zoroastrianism in Iran.
 
The main question is: How did Islam arrive in
India? With military attack or peaceful ways?
 Some historians talked about the letter of Prophet (peace be
upon him) to the king of Malabar in 628.
 Mobarakbouri writes in the book “India and Arab in Prophetic
Mission era”: “it has been quoted in a handwritten set that God
Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a letter with his five friends
to Sindh. When reaching that land, they dismounted in a castle
named Niroun.
 Two of them returned and three of them stayed there and the
people of Sindh believed in Islam.
 That three men propagandized Islam until the time they died
there and their graves exist there now”.
India in the era of the Umayyads and the
Abbasid dynasty
 When Moaviye was successor, Mahlab Ibn- Abi Sofre campaigned to India in 664. He
conquered the frontier cities of Sindh and entered Bane and Lahour. Abdollah Ibn- Savar
Abdi was appointed in the border of India in 665.
 Although he achieved victory at the beginning, he was killed in Keygen in 667.
 as though it was Senan Ibn- Salme Hazali that for the first time could conquer Makran at the
time of government of Ziyad in Iraq and create a military base in the west of Panjab and
bring this region into the territory of Islam.
 At the time of government of Ziyad, the other several men were appointed for conquering
Saghar in India and the Muslims conquered Sanaroud, Boughan, Keygen to Ghasdar and the
citizens of these cities believed in Islam.
 Balazeri and Hamavi wrote: today (third Hijri century), the people of Boughan are Muslim
and Omran Ibn- Mousa Barmalki built there a city named Beyza, when Mo’tasam Abbasi was
successor.
 Discovering the ground ways to get to India at the time of first caliphs and also
collecting information caused that Muhammad Ibn- Ghasem could conquer Sindh
at the end decades of first Hijri century; although the continue of commerce by the
way of sea and living
 some Muslims in the cities of south coasts of India and Silane had paved the way
for the presence of Islam. in 710, Hajjaj, governor of Iraq, sent Muhammad Ibn-
Ghasem Saghafi to India, because the Indians had impounded one of ships of
Muslims and Hajjaj sent some forces there to request remedy; but all of them were
killed on the order of king of that region.
 So, Hajjaj, this time, sent one of his superior general named Muhammad Ibn-
QASIm to Daher, king of Debil, and Daher was defeated. Muhammad conquered
many cities and broke the idols and built the first mosque in Debil city.
 After conquering Debil, most of cities surrendered and made peace with the
Muslimsnear to Shatt Mehran, Daher with big army fight with Muhammad; but
finally the Muslims were conquered and Daher was killedafter conquering all the
territory of Sindh, the messenger of Hajjaj reached Keshmir and fixed the
boundary signs at there.
Commercial Interaction of Arab and
 The commercial interaction of Arab and India is related to the periods before Islam.
 Both India and Jazire Al- Arab have been encompassed by three sides of seas and this matter
caused the commercial activity in this region.
 From distant pasts, the Arabian ships transferred the products of west India to Bahrain, Hazarmoot,
Oman, Yemen and Masghat and from there to Hijaz and Sham by the camels and to Egypt by Red Sea
and then it had been taken to Europe.
 so, it is natural that the Arabians played important role in the commerce between the east and the
west.
 By the advent of Islam, this interaction get stronger and regular and the commercial interaction
between India and Islamic territories entered a golden period at first Hijri century.
 By keeping this commercial interaction, some Indians settled in the Arabian territories and the traffic
increased in the west coasts of India. these interactions paved the way for the invitation to Islam.
 The Muslim merchants held the line of sea trade of Iran and the number of Arabian trade ships
increased in Indian Ocean.
 The interactions and rampant exchanges between the Indians and the Muslims caused that the
Indians be familiar with Islam
 The Muslims also came to India andRowlandson writes: the Muslim Arabs settled in the coasts of
Malabar at the end of seventh century.
 Most of researchers believe that the Arabian and Iranian merchants settled in the west cities and
bandars of India since the seventh century and married with the local women.
 These migrants in Malabar were more than the other places, because, from the past, the merchants
were more respected in that region.
 the commercial interaction between two territories caused a group of Indians be settled in Arabian
regions and populations of Arabs be settled in Indian regions and these groups have played an
important role in the establishment of Islam in India.
 Some researchers have regarded three factors of social life of Islamic population, commercial markets
for Indian products in coasts of Muslim cities and the sea paths and land paths between two
territories as the reason of improvement of this interaction.
Factors for Advancement and Persistence of Islam in India
 The factors which caused the development of Islam in India are as following: first, Islam considered the
virtue as the only factor of superiority of the humans, whereas the existence of class hierarchy was one of the
blind spots of Hindu religion.
 Some have written with emphasize on the factor of social equality in Islam: “the prejudices applied on the
lower Hindu classes by their own coreligionists and the barriers which prevented the improvement of
conditions of these classes, show the considerable difference disagreement between Hindu and Islam.
 For instance, the cloth and cotton stuffs knitters that their coreligionists look at them superciliously believe
in Islam so that they can release themselves from the lower social classes”. (Arnold: 209) second, the
spirituality and its spiritual status was not restricted to a special class
The Impact of Islam on India
 With the presence of the Muslims in India, the important changes happened in the social and
cultural life of north of India.
 The old, generative, political and religious features were entirely changed; destroyed
the feudalist entities, councils, congresses and tribe governments; the old governing
hypothesis was changed and replaced with a kind of power balance.
 The old cultural centers and the commercial and active regions of life were changed and generally
the presence of the Muslims in India had a considerable effect on the cultural evolutions of that
territory and everything changed. India; because had the most effect on the Indian society. During
its adventurous history, India tolerated the foreign effects on its culture; but in fact, Islam was
effective in the Indian culture. This is interesting that Islam did not impose itself on the society of
India and did not amalgamate different societies that lived together and with their own religious and
cultural framework
 Islam could use the Indian culture in the regard of its own purposes, without losing its principles
and this itself was the biggest miracle. After entrance to this subcontinent, the intellectual principles
and creative values of Islam reflected the cultural and continental necessities of the region in self
and combined with the intellectual and philosophical heritages of India and by this way was
suggested to a new creativity and development.
 India; because had the most effect on the Indian society. During its adventurous history,
India tolerated the foreign effects on its culture; but in fact, Islam was effective in the
Indian culture.
 This is interesting that Islam did not impose itself on the society of India and did not
amalgamate different societies that lived together and with their own religious and
cultural framework
 Islam could use the Indian culture in the regard of its own purposes, without losing its
principles and this itself was the biggest miracle.
 After entrance to this subcontinent, the intellectual principles and creative values of
Islam reflected the cultural and continental necessities of the region in self and combined
with the intellectual and philosophical heritages of India and by this way was suggested to
a new creativity and development.