PETROLOGY

Famitangco, John Carl

Huerto, Kristhel
Javines, Kevin
Lara, Ricel
Madamba, Jian Emmanuel
Magpantay, Sheryl Mae
Manlangit, Manasseh
Moldez, Charles Kenshin

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 Petrology
• Refers to the scientific study of rocks and the conditions
which influence their formation. Petrology is a branch of
geology that focuses on the chemical analysis in various
fields such as petrography and mineralogy.

• By incorporating various principles of geophysics and

geochemistry, modern petrologists can establish the
origins of rocks and their chemical characteristics. There
are three main branches of petrology resultant from the
main rock types: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.

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 Importance of Petrology

• Petrological research is crucial in helping us

understand the nature of the earth's crust and mantle.

• Modern petrologists rely on knowledge in

mineralogy to help in mapping and sampling of
rocks.

• Petrology also helps us to understand the best raw

materials to be used in industries for the
manufacture of goods.

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 What are Rocks?
• A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and
certain non-mineral materials such as fossils and glass.

• Just as minerals are the building blocks of rocks, rocks in turn

are the natural building blocks of the Earth's LITHOSPHERE
(crust and mantle down to a depth of about 100 km),
ASTHENOSPHERE (although this layer, in the depth range
from about 100 to 250 km, is partially molten),
MESOSPHERE (mantle in the depth range from about 250 to
2900 km), and even part of the CORE (while the outer core is
molten, the inner core is solid).

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 The 3 Branches of Rocks

Sedimentary Metamorphic
Igneous Rocks
Rocks Rocks

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 Igneous Rocks

• Igneous rocks are one of three main types of rocks (along with
sedimentary and metamorphic), and they include both intrusive
and extrusive rocks.

• Igneous rocks form when magma cools and crystallizes. They

can have many different compositions, depending on the
magma they cool from.

• For example, two rocks from identical magma can become

rhyolite or granite depending on whether they cool quickly or
slowly.

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 The Two Main Categories of Igneous Rock

• Extrusive Rocks - are formed on the surface of

the Earth from lava, which is magma that has
emerged from underground.

• Intrusive Rocks - are formed from magma that

cools and solidifies within the crust of the planet.

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 Examples of Extrusive Rocks

Obsidian Basalt
a natural glass formed by the rapid formed from the rapid cooling of
cooling of viscous lava from low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium
volcanoes. and iron

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 Examples of Intrusive Rocks
Diabase Granite
the same mineral composition as basalt. forms by slow cooling and
It cools under basaltic volcanoes, like crystallization of large crystals in the
those at mid-ocean ridges. deep Earth's crust above a subduction
zone.

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 Sedimentary Rocks

• Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of pre-

existing rocks or pieces of once-living organism that
accumulate on the Earth's surface. If sediment is buried
deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming
sedimentary rock.

• These rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding

and create many of the picturesque views of the desert
southwest. Sedimentary rocks are classified into three
groups: Clastic, Biologic, and Chemical.

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 What is Sedimentation?

• Sedimentation is the combined name for all the processes

that cause organic and mineral particles to settle. The
particle that helps in forming the sedimentary rock is
called sediment.

• This sediment is formed with the help of erosion and

weathering from the source area and is then transported to
the deposition place by the wind, water, ice and glaciers,
which are agents of denudation.

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 The 3 Branches of Rocks
Organic/Biological Sedimentary Rocks
• These sedimentary rocks form when living organisms die, pile up, and are then compressed and
cemented together. Types of biologic sedimentary rock include coal (accumulated plant material
that is carbon-rich), or limestone and coquina (rocks made of marine organisms).

Chalk Limestone Coal

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 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

• This type of rock is formed when rock layers are formed due to
the mechanical weathering of different rock types. These rocks
are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks.

• Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to

some basin or depression where sediment is trapped.

• Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size

from microscopic clay to huge boulders.

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 The 3 Branches of Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical sedimentary rocks form by chemical precipitation that begins
when water traveling through rock dissolves some of the minerals. These
minerals are carried away from their source and eventually redeposited, or
precipitated, when the water evaporates away.

Chalk Limestone Coal

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 Metamorphic Rocks
• Although they began as a different kind of rock, metamorphic
rocks have undergone significant alteration from their igneous,
sedimentary, or previous metamorphic forms. When rocks are
exposed to extreme temperatures, high pressures, hot mineral-
rich fluids, or, more frequently, some combination of these
conditions, metamorphic rocks are created.
• Metamorphic rocks are created by the physical or chemical
alteration by heat and pressure of an existing igneous or
sedimentary material into a denser form

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 Metamorphism
• The process of metamorphism changes the rocks into denser,
more compact rocks rather than melting them. Either by the
rearranging of mineral constituents or through chemical
reactions with fluids that enter the rocks, new minerals are
produced. Even rocks that have already undergone
metamorphosis might undergo changes due to pressure or
temperature. Rocks subject to metamorphism are frequently
crumpled, smeared, and compressed. Metamorphic rocks do not
grow hot enough to melt because if they did, they would turn
into igneous rocks.

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 Types of metamorphic Rocks

• Foliated Rocks - By being exposed to heat and

applied pressure, foliated metamorphic rocks
develop a layered or banded appearance

• Non-Foliated Rocks - Do not have a layered or

banded appearance

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 Example of Foliated Rocks
It forms when sedimentary usually formed from mudstone
Formed from another
rocks are buried and mildly that has been put under pressure
metamorphic rock called schist,
altered by the heat and directed and heated up during plate
which itself started out life as a
pressure of regional collisions and mountain
sedimentary rock called shale.
metamorphism. building.

Gneiss Phyllite Slate

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 Example of Foliated Rocks
created when heat and fluids from forms when sedimentary
the igneous intrusion alter the formed when quartz-rich
limestone is heated and
surrounding rock, changing its sandstone or chert has been
squeezed by natural rock-
original mineralogy to one that is exposed to high temperatures
stable under high temperatures. forming processes so that the
grains recrystallize. and pressures.

Hornfels Marble Quartzite

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 Igneous vs Sedimentary vs
Metamorphic
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

Igneous rocks are a type of rocks Sedimentary rocks are a type of Metamorphic rocks form from the
that form due to the solidification of rocks that form via accumulation or transformation of an existing rock
lava or magma deposition of sediment materials type into a new rock type

Form from sediment materials and Form from Igneous, Sedimentary or

Form from magma or lava
minerals or organic matter an existing Metamorphic rock

Solidification followed by cooling Sedimentation Metamorphism

Covers about 80% of Earth’s crust Covers about 80% of Earth’s crust Covers about 12% of Earth’s crust

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 Igneous vs Sedimentary vs
Metamorphic
Igneous
• Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) cool down, and become
solid. High temperatures inside the crust of the Earth cause rocks to melt, and this
substance is known as magma. Magma is the molten material that erupts during a
volcano. This substance cools down slowly, and causes mineralization to take place.
Gradually, the size of the minerals increase until they are large enough to be visible to
the naked eye. Igneous rocks are mostly formed beneath the Earth’s surface. The
texture of Igneous rocks can be referred to as Phaneritic, Aphaneritic, Glassy (or
vitreous), Pyroclastic or Pegmatitic. Examples of Igneous Rocks include granite,
basalt and diorite.

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 Igneous vs Sedimentary vs
Metamorphic
Sedimentary
• Sedimentary rocks are usually formed by sedimentation of the Earth’s material, and this normally occurs
inside water bodies. The Earth’s material is constantly exposed to erosion and weathering, and the
resulting accumulated loose particles eventually settle, and form Sedimentary rocks. Therefore, one can
say, that these types of rocks are formed slowly from the sediments, dust and dirt of other rocks. Erosion
takes place due to wind and water. After thousands of years, the eroded pieces of sand and rock settle,
and become compacted to form a rock of their own. Sedimentary rocks range from small clay-size rocks
to huge boulder-size rocks. The textures of Sedimentary rocks are mainly dependent on the parameters of
the clast, or the fragments of the original rock. These parameters can be of various types, such as surface
texture, round, spherical or in the form of grain. The most common type of Sedimentary rock is the
Conglomerate, which is caused by the accumulation of small pebbles and cobbles. Other types include
shale, sandstone and limestone, which is formed from clastic rocks and the deposition of fossils and
minerals

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 Igneous vs Sedimentary vs
Metamorphic
Metamorphic
• Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of other rocks. Rocks that are
subjected to intense heat and pressure change their original shape and form, and become
Metamorphic rocks. This change in shape is referred to as metamorphism. These rocks are
commonly formed by the partial melting of minerals, and re-crystallization. Gneiss is a
commonly found Metamorphic rock, and it is formed by high pressure, and the partial
melting of the minerals contained in the original rock.

• Metamorphic rocks have textures like slaty, schistose, gneissose, granoblastic or hornfelsic.
Examples of these types of rocks include slate, gneiss, marble, and quartzite, which occurs
when re-crystallization changes the shape and form of an original rock formation.

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 Occurrence, Properties, and
Distribution of following Igneous, 
Sedimentary,
and Metamorphic Rocks.

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 Granite
Occurrence
Granites occur in the circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, which are
formed by the metamorphic hornfels or aureole. Often, granite occurs as relatively small,
with less than 100 km2 stock masses (which are stocks), and in the batholiths, which are
often associated with the orogenic mountain ranges.
Properties
Granite is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar with minor amounts of mica,
amphiboles, and other minerals. This mineral composition usually gives granite a red, pink,
gray, or white color with dark mineral grains visible throughout the rock.

Distribution
Granite is also well known from its many world-famous natural exposures. These
include Stone Mountain, Georgia; Yosemite Valley, California; Mount Rushmore, South
Dakota; Pikes Peak, Colorado; and White Mountains, New Hampshire.

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 Syenite
Occurrence
This mid-Tertiary syenitic complex is in the fracture zone at the W margin of the
Cagayan basin, which occupies the central part of North Luzon.
The country rocks in the west consist of well-bedded folded tuffs of
approximately andesitic composition, while those in the east consist of massive
andesites and mudstones, the mudstones most probably belonging to the sedimentary
rocks of the Cagayan Valley.

Properties
There are various syenite rock properties such as hardness, streak, lustre,
compressive strength, specific gravity, etc. which defines this rock.
Chemically, syenites comprise a slight amount of silica, incredibly big amounts
of alkalies, and alumina.

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 Syenite
Distribution
It is not a common rock and thus some of the examples
of the regions where it is found are mentioned below:
 Two giant nepheline syenite bodies lead to the making up
of the Lovozero Massif as well as the Khibiny Mountains
in the Kola Peninsula of Russia.
 Arkansas & Montana are regions where it is found in
North America along with some parts of New England as
well as New York and many other regions.

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 Diorite
Occurrence
Diorite occurs in small bodies such as sills (tabular bodies inserted while molten
between other rocks), dikes (tabular bodies injected in fissures), stocks (bodies intruded
upward), or as more irregular masses associated with gabbro and batholiths (huge bodies)
of granodiorite and granite.

Properties
Diorite properties are essential when it comes to identification of rocks. The study of
properties of Diorite rock is done by Mineralogists to determine the identity of rock. Some
of the properties include: Hardness, Color, Fracture, Luster, Compressive Strength etc.

Distribution
        It is produced in volcanic arcs, and in mountain building where it can occur in large
volumes as batholiths in the roots of mountains.

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 Gabbro
Occurrence
Gabbro's may occur as border rocks around granitic and other plutons, or as
small individual plutons or dikes. Their most common occurrence is in the lower
parts of large, layered complexes. Most gabbro's appear to intrude the rocks
surrounding them and so are thought to be of igneous origin, although some may
also be produced by metamorphic processes. It is lower in silica and darker in
color than diorite, and chemically the equivalent of diabase.
Properties
Gabbro has several identifying properties. Gabbro is described as coarse-
grained, meaning it has large crystals (phaneritic texture). It is darker in color
due to the mafic composition. It can have higher amounts of hornblende and
olivine.

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 Gabbro

Distribution
Gabbro is an essential part of the oceanic crust and can
be found in many ophiolite complexes as parts of zones III
and IV (sheeted dyke zone to massive gabbro zone). Long
belts of gabbroic intrusions are typically formed at proto-rift
zones and around ancient rift zone margins, intruding into
the rift flanks. Mantle plume hypotheses may rely on
identifying similar massive gabbro intrusions and coeval 
basalt volcanism.

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 Pegmatite
Occurrence
Pegmatite is found in all over the world. They are most abundant old rocks. Some are found in
large intrusive igneous rocks, while others are scattered over rocks surrounding intrusive magmatic
rocks. Worldwide, notable pegmatite occurrences are within the major cratons, and within
greenschist-facies metamorphic belts.

Properties
Pegmatites contain exceptionally large crystals, and they contain rarely minerals than other
types of rocks. They have interlocking crystals usually larger than 2.5 cm in size. Generally, most
Pegmatites are found in sheets of rock that are dikes and veins Also near large masses of igneous
rocks called batholiths.

Distribution
Bodies of pegmatite are most abundant in the shield areas and younger mountain chains of
the continents. They are essentially restricted to terranes of igneous and metamorphic rocks; within
the prisms and blankets of sediments and sedimentary rocks they occur only as minor associates
of scattered igneous masses.

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 Dolerite
Occurrence
Diabase dikes and sills are typically shallow intrusive bodies and often exhibit fine grained
to aphanitic chilled margins which may contain tachylite (dark mafic glass). It also occur in
regions of crustal extension and often occur in dike swarms of hundreds of individual dikes or
sills radiating from a single volcanic center.

Properties
Approximately 40% to 70% of dolerite or diabase's mineral composition is made up
primarily of the plagioclase feldspar known as labradorite. Pyroxene minerals make up the
majority of the remaining material (usually augite). Some diabase rocks contain trace amounts of
hornblende, olivine, magnetite, and quartz.

Distribution
        Diabase is usually found in smaller relatively shallow intrusive bodies such as dikes, sills,
sheet, laccolith and plugs.

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 Basalt
Occurrence
It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in
small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill.

Properties
Basalt is mostly made up of olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase and is rich in iron and
magnesium. The majority of specimens are glassy, compact, and finely grained. They may also
contain olivine, augite, or plagioclase phenocrysts and be porphyritic. Basalt may have a texture
that is roughly porous due to holes caused by gas bubbles.

Distribution
Basalt is the dark, heavy volcanic rock that makes up most of the world's oceanic crust. Most of
the world's basalt erupts quietly in the deep sea, along the mid-ocean ridges—the spreading
zones of plate tectonics. Lesser amounts erupt on volcanic ocean islands, above subduction
zones, and in occasional large outbursts elsewhere.

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 Sandstone
Occurrence
Sandstone is a stone containing for the most part of minerals shaped from sand. The stone
acquires its development all through hundreds of years of stores framing in lakes, rivers, or on
the sea floor. These components gather with the minerals like quartz or calcite and compresses.
In time, the sandstone is framed by the tension of these minerals meeting up.

Properties 
There are three basic components of sandstones; detrital grains, mainly transported, sand-size
minerals such as quartz and feldspar, a detrital matrix of clay or mud, which is absent in “clean”
sandstones, and a cement that is chemically precipitated in crystalline form from solution and
that serves to fill up original pore spaces.

Distribution
Sandstone is one of the most common types of sedimentary rock, and it is found in sedimentary
basins throughout the world.

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 Limestone
Occurrence
Limestones occur in most parts of the world and throughout the geologic column, but they
are notably more abundant in Cambrian and younger rocks, reflecting the increased abundance of
marine shell-secreting invertebrates during and after the Cambrian Period.

Properties
Physically, Limestone are Quite impervious, Hard, Compact, fine to very fine-grained
calcareous rocks of sedimentary nature. Chemically, both limestone and marbles are siliceous
calcium carbonate rocks. Limestone, like marble and other calcareous stones, are referred to as
acid sensitive.

Distribution
Most of them are found in shallow parts of the ocean between 30 degrees north latitude and 30
degrees south latitude. Limestone is forming in the Caribbean Sea, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf,
Gulf of Mexico, around Pacific Ocean islands, and within the Indonesian archipelago.

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 Shale
Occurrence
Shale is created by compacting and combining materials with a silt and clay content.
Continued compaction causes additional moisture loss, and clay and Platy minerals are oriented
in parallel strata.

Properties
Shale can be yellowish brown, dark grey, greenish, reddish, or brown in color. Shale is
relatively smooth due to its finely grained clay particles. It readily fractures to variable degrees
along flat surfaces or thin layers. Shale is incredibly brittle and readily crumbles apart.

Distribution
Sandstone or limestone layers are frequently encountered with layers of shale. For example, the
deep ocean floor, basins of shallow seas, river floodplains, and playas are settings where muds,
silts, and other sediments were deposited by mild carrying currents and were compacted.
Although some shales form in lenticular formations, the majority of shales form in broad
sheets that are many meters thick.

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 Conglomerate
Occurrence
Conglomerate rocks are created when gravel or even boulders are moved far enough
to round out or are subjected to wave action. The voids between the pebbles are filled with
calcite, silica, or iron oxide, which binds them together. Sometimes the conglomerate's
clasts are all the same size, but more often than not, smaller pebbles fill in some of the gaps
left by the bigger clasts. 

Properties
A coarse-grained rock called conglomerate frequently develops in riverbeds. The
minerals that make up the pebbles and sand might vary, however they are often quartz-
based minerals. Conglomerate frequently resembles concrete and varies in hardness.
Typically, it can be seen in thick, sloppy layered layers.

Distribution
       Conglomerates are deposited in various sedimentary environments.

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 Breccia
Occurrence
Sedimentary breccia is a type of  clastic sedimentary rock.The rock is composed of angular to
sub-angular, randomly oriented clasts of other sedimentary rock. The rock such as sedimentary
breccias is formed by either avalanche, submarine debris flow, mudflow, or mass flow in a
liquefied medium. 

Properties
Sedimentary breccia consists of angular, poorly deposited, immature fragments of rock in finer
graze grounds which are obtained by slope movement. Thick sequences of sedimentary breccia
are usually formed next to the fault scabs in grabens.

Distribution
Landslides, fault lines, and cryptolithic explosion events can all be found close to breccia. A
nearby fault zone's breccia zone can range in size dramatically from a few inches to many yards.

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 Breccia
Occurrence
Mountains and hillsides are typical places to find quartzites. Most quartzite forms during
mountain-building events at convergent plate boundaries where sandstone was deposited on a
continental plate. There, the sandstone is metamorphosed into quartzite by the intense
pressure of a plate collision and often by deep burial. Compressional forces at the plate
boundary fold and fault the rocks and thicken the crust into a mountain range.

Properties
Quartzite contains more quartz – about 90 to 99% – giving it a hardness of 7 the Mohs Hardness
Scale. It is completely resistant to acidic. uartzite has varying levels of porosity with a few
varieties being less porous, while some being relatively more porous. Quartz can also withstand
wear and tear very well.

Distribution
Quartzite is an important rock type in folded mountain ranges throughout the world. Quartzite
forms at convergent tectonic plate boundaries, the regions where two tectonic plates collide,
often causing one plate to slide below the other (a process geologists called subduction).The
quartzite is abundant in mountain ranges of subduction zones. It can be found in US, UK, Brazil,
Africa, Europe, and Canada.

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 Marble
Occurrence
Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when limestone is subjected to high pressure or heat. In its
pure form, marble is a white stone with a crystalline and sugary appearance, consisting of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Usually, marble contains other minerals, including quartz, graphite, pyrite, and
iron oxides.

Properties
Color– pink, white, brown, gray, green, or variegated coloration
Derived– Limestone, dolomite
Grain size – medium grained; can see interlocking calcite crystals with the naked eye.
Hardness – hard, although component mineral is soft

Distribution
Marble is mined from quarries around the world in large blocks that are then cut into slabs. These slabs
are polished and distributed to stone suppliers. Stone fabricators purchase these slabs from the stone
suppliers and install them in your home or office.

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 Slate
Occurrence
On this account, slates occur chiefly among older rocks, although some occur in regions in
which comparatively recent rocks have been folded and compressed as a result of mountain-
building movements. The direction of cleavage depends upon the direction of the stresses applied
during metamorphism.

Properties
The physical properties of slate comprise hardness and abrasion, fissility, density and
porosity, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion as well as hydric and hygric properties.

Distribution
Slate is mostly made of clay, but the clay can change to mica under extreme degrees of pressure.
In areas where it is available, high-quality slate is used for tombstones and commemorative
tablets. In some cases, slate was used by the ancient Maya civilization to fashion stelae.

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 Gneiss
Occurrence
 It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations
composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Gneiss forms at higher temperatures and pressures than
schist.
Properties
Medium to coarse-grained semi schistose metamorphic rock known as gneiss. Alternating light
and dark bands with different mineral compositions are its defining feature (coarser grained than
schist). The darker bands frequently contain biotite, hornblende, garnet, or graphite, while the lighter
bands are primarily composed of quartz and feldspar. Due to schistosity, the minerals are oriented.

Distribution
Most of the rocks found in Precambrian regions are gneisses, which are formed when several igneous
or sedimentary rocks undergo metamorphism. In New England, the Piedmont, the Adirondacks, and the
Rocky Mountains, gneiss can be found. Some gneisses are utilized as building face stone.

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 Schist
Occurrence
Schist is faliated medium grade metamorphic rock. It formed by metamorphosis of mudstone
and shale or some form of igneous rock. It usually has better crystallisation of mica minerals. They are 
biotite, chlorite and muscovite so this called schistosity texture. There are many types of this rock so
they may be named for mineral comprising the rock.e.G. Mica schist, green schist , garnet schist etc.

Properties
Schist has a flat, large and sheet-like grains and It have flat and elongated minerals such as talc
or micas.It has quartz and feldspar minerals are intertwined. These lamellar (flat, planar) minerals
include micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. Banding in it is typically poorly
developed.

Distribution
Schists are mostly the precambrian ages rocks. It usually occurs the regional metamorphism of
existing rock. These are usually sedimentary or simetimes igneous rocks. It could therefore be found
where eroded mountains reveal the rock, or in areas of glacial deposition of eroded schist.

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 References
•https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-petrology.html
•http://www.appstate.edu/~abbottrn/rck-id/
• https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/rocks-and-minerals/
• https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/sedimentary.htm#:~:text=Sedimentary%20rocks%20are%20formed%20from,and%20cemented%2C
%20forming%20sedimentary%20rock.
• https://byjus.com/physics/sedimentary-rocks/
• https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/9-1-clastic-sedimentary-rocks-2/
•https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-earth/how-do-we-read-the-rocks/three-types 
• Igneous Rocks. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/igneous-rocks

• King, H. (n.d.). Photos of Igneous Rocks. Photos and Descriptions of Common Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rock Types. Retrieved from
https://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml

• N/A, N. A. (2012, March 29). What are metamorphic rocks? | U.S. Geological Survey. N/A.
What are metamorphic rocks? | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov)

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 References

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•http://imghost1.indiamart.com/data2/HB/XR/MY-764762/sandstone-properties-and-applications.pdf
•How sandstone is formed. (2016, December 1). Gosford Quarries Sandstones
https://gosfordquarries.com.au/news-media/2016/12/1/how-sandstone-is-formed#:~:text=Sandstone%20is%20a%20rock%20comprising,quartz%2
0or%20calcite%20and%20compresses
.
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Prepared by: Group 3 45
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• King, H. (n.d.). Igneous Rocks Retrieved from https://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml
• King, H. (n.d.). Sedimentary Rocks Retrieved from https://geology.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks.shtml

•Gneiss. geology. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2022, from https://geology.com/rocks/gneiss.shtml 

•https://geologyscience.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks/schist/
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•  https://geologyscience.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks/marble/

• https://www.thoughtco.com/marble-rock-geology-properties-4169367
• King H., (n.d.). Quartzite. Retrieved from 
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• King, H. (n.d.). Igneous Rocks Retrieved from https://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml
• King, H. (n.d.). Sedimentary Rocks Retrieved from https://geology.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks.shtml

Prepared by: Engr. John Mark G. Payawal, MSCE 47