“You reap what you sow.

” The
things you do are like planted
seeds, and those seeds produce a
crop which is the result of your
actions.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
 A cause is an action, and the effect is
the resulting reaction.
 In the cause and effect relationship, one
or more things happen as a result of
something else.
 A cause is a catalyst, a motive, or an
action that brings about a reaction—or
reactions. A cause instigates an effect.
 An effect is a condition, occurrence, or
result generated by one or more causes.
Effects are outcomes.
 What Does Cause and Effect Mean?

 Cause and effect mean that things

happen because something prompted
them to happen.
 A cause is why something happens. An
effect is what happened.
You have a picnic planned for Sunday
afternoon. However, the weather
becomes stormy and you have to
cancel your outdoor plans.
In this situation, the cause is the stormy weather
and the effect of that stormy weather is the picnic
cancellation.
  Cause and effect are intertwined. American poet Ralph
Waldo Emerson said, “Cause and effect are two sides of
one fact.”
 You can’t have an effect without a cause, nor can you have
a cause without an effect.

 In cause and effect relationships, there may be multiple

causes and multiple effects. The relationship may cycle on
with a cause leading to effects that become a cause for
more effects!
 Cause and effect sentences show a clear, direct relationship
between events. They show how one event or action
triggers an outcome. They may also show how an effect
has more than one cause, or a cause has more than one
effect.

 Cause and effect sentences can present the cause first and
follow it with the effect, or present the effect first and
follow it with the cause.
These sentences have the same cause and effect presented in
a different order. These sentences share the same meaning
and show the same relationship.
 He lied to me, so I ended our relationship.
 Since I was up all night with my sick child, I’m
exhausted this morning
 She never gave up on her writing, and now she’s
published a book!
 They could finish the race because they had
trained for it so diligently.
 They gave the restaurant a critical review
because their food was burnt to a crisp.
Cause and Effect Relationship Examples
 Cause and effect relationships exist in just about every
subject area.

History
Science
 HISTORY

We can see the causes of local, national,

or global events, and the effects of those
events. We can ask, “What were the
causes of World War II?” and then
“What were the effects of World War
II?”
 We can examine what caused an
economic recession or depression and
the effects of that crisis on society.
 In these cases, as with many others,
there are multiple causes and multiple
effects.
 SCIENCE

In 2020, the world was hit by a global

pandemic. Scientists saw the effects of the
disease on people’s health and lives and
began searching for the cause of the virus.
As the story goes, Sir Isaac Newton
observed an effect, an apple falling from a
tree. This prompted him to seek the cause
of that fall—why did the apple fall down,
not sideways or up? His observation of
that effect led him to discover the cause:
gravity.
When conducting experiments, scientists
perform an action (cause) to see what will
happen as a result (effect).
Most of us probably had to do an experiment
with plants in school. We examined what
happened to our two plants (effects)
depending on whether we gave or withheld
from them proper light and water (cause).
 THE NATURE WORLD
 Nature is full of examples of cause and effect.

Plants grow as a result of the sun’s heat and light.

Bears hibernate so they can conserve energy and
won’t require food during the winter months
when food is scarce.
The moon’s gravitational pull causes the ocean’s
tides.
 STORY
 Narrative stories, both fiction and non-fiction,
are often driven by cause and effect.

In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Gatsby

bases all of his actions on pleasing Daisy because
he is obsessed with winning her love.
 DAILY LIFE
 Our everyday lives are full of cause-and-effect
experiences.

As a result of studying hard, you aced your test!

You called in sick because you woke up with a
fever.
You meet friends for drinks because it’s your
birthday.
 Cause and Effect Words
 There are words that signal a cause and effect
relationship. These words can help readers
recognize the cause and effect structure of a
passage, making it easier to comprehend
content.
 Words that signal a cause include:
Source Root Origin
Seed Bring about Starting Point

 Words that signal effect include:

Result Consequence Upshot
Outcome Ramification Reaction
 Signal Words in Cause and Effect
Sentences
Signal word

 As a result of COVID, many high school

students couldn’t experience graduation
ceremonies.
There was a multi-car accident on the
highway, so traffic was at a standstill.
Signal word

There was a multi-car accident on the

highway, so traffic was at a standstill

Signal word
 Signal word

Thanks to my caring friends, I recovered

from a difficult situation.
Signal word

Since the weather was perfect, we spent

the entire day outdoors.
 My partner got his dream job 200 miles away
from where we currently live. As a result, we
have to sell the home and move. Signal word
His financial hardships are due to his careless spending.
Signal word

She campaigned the hardest, therefore she won the vote.

Signal word
The doctor’s optimism is the reason for our positive
outlook. Signal word

Signal word

Your sister is several years older than you. Accordingly,

she has more responsibility and independence.
 Observe the sentences that start with cause signal
words (As a result, Thanks to, Since). There are two
clauses in those sentences and they are connected by
a comma.
 The first clause is dependent meaning that it must be
attached to an independent clause to make sense.
When left alone, dependent clauses can become 
sentence fragments that are grammatically incorrect.
 A Final Word on Cause and Effect
A cause-and-effect relationship is one in which an event
generates an outcome. We see these relationships
everywhere: from history to science to nature to
literature to daily life!
When you’re reading or writing about cause and effect,
look for or use signal words that make the relationship
between the event (cause) and the outcome (effect) clear.
PROBLEM AND
SOLUTIONS
 PROBLEM AND SOLUTIONS
using a problem-solution format is a method for analyzing and writing about a topic by identifying a
problem and proposing one or more solutions. 

A problem-solution essay is a type of argument. "This sort of essay involves argumentation in that the
writer seeks to convince the reader to take a particular course of action. In explaining the problem, it may
also need to persuade the reader concerning specific causes" (Dave Kemper et al., "Fusion: Integrated
Reading and Writing," 2016).
HOW TO ORGANIZE A PROBLEM-SOLUTION PAPER
Though to some extent [your organization of the paper] depends on
your topic, do make sure that you include the following information:

Introduction: Identify the problem in a nutshell. Explain why this is a

problem, and mention who should be concerned about it.

Problem Paragraph(s): Explain the problem clearly and specifically.

Demonstrate that this is not just a personal complaint, but a genuine
problem that affects many people.
"Solution Paragraph(s): Offer a concrete solution to the problem, and
explain why this is the best one available. You may want to point out
why other possible solutions are inferior to yours. If your solution calls
for a series of steps or actions to be followed, present these steps in a
logical order.

"Conclusion: Reemphasize the importance of the problem and the value of

your solution. Choose a problem that you have experienced and thought
about—one that you have solved or are in the process of solving. Then, in
the essay itself, you may use your own experience to illustrate the problem.
However, don't focus all the attention on yourself and on your troubles.
Instead, direct the essay at others who are experiencing a similar problem. In
other words, don't write an I essay ('How I Cure the Blues'); write
a you essay ('How You Can Cure the Blues')."
Problem-solution essays are actually a sub-type of
another type of essay, which has the following four
components:
 Situation
 Problem
 Solution
 Evaluation

The 'situation' may be included in the essay prompt, in

which case it will not be needed in the main body.
There are two main ways to structure a problem-solution essay.
These are similar to the ways to structure 
cause and effect essays, namely using a block or
a chain structure.
the BLOCK structure, all of the problems are listed first, and
all of the solutions are listed afterwards.

the CHAIN structure, each problem is followed immediately

by the solution to that problem.
Both types of structure have their merits. The former is generally clearer,
especially for shorter essays, while the latter ensures that any solutions
you present relate directly to the problems you have given.
The two types of structure, block and chain, are shown in the diagram
below. This is for a short essay, which includes the 'situation' in the
introduction and 'evaluation' in the conclusion. 
 They could also choose to walk up stairs instead of taking the lift.
OBESITY AND POOR FITNESS These simple changes could lead to a significant improvement in
fitness levels.
Consumption of processed and convenience foods and our
dependence on the car have led to an increase in obesity and
reduction in the fitness level of the adult population. In some Governments could also implement initiatives to improve their
countries, especially industrialized ones, the number of obese people citizens' eating and exercise habits. This could be done through
can amount to one third of the population. This is significant education, for example by adding classes to the curriculum about
as obesity and poor fitness lead to a decrease in life expectancy, and healthy diet and lifestyles. Governments could also do more to
it is therefore important for individuals and governments to work encourage their citizens to walk or cycle instead of taking the car,
together to tackle this issue and improve their citizens' diet and for instance by building more cycle lanes or increasing vehicle
fitness. taxes. While some might argue that increased taxes are a negative
Obesity and poor fitness decrease life expectancy. Overweight way to solve the problem, it is no different from the high taxes
people are more likely to have serious illnesses such as diabetes and imposed on cigarettes to reduce cigarette consumption.
heart disease, which can result in premature death. It is well known
that regular exercise can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke, In short, obesity and poor fitness are a significant problem in
which means that those with poor fitness levels are at an increased modern life, leading to lower life
risk of suffering from those problems. expectancy. Individuals and governments can work together
Changes by individuals to their diet and their physical activity can to tackle this problem and so improve diet and fitness. Of the
increase life expectancy. There is a reliance today on the consumption of solutions suggested, those made by individuals themselves are
processed foods, which have a high fat and sugar content. By preparing likely to have more impact, though it is clear that a concerted
their own foods, and consuming more fruit and vegetables, people could effort with the government is essential for success. With obesity
ensure that their diets are healthier and more balanced, which could levels in industrialized and industrializing countries continuing
lead to a reduction in obesity levels. In order to improve fitness levels, to rise, it is essential that we take action now to deal with this
people could choose to walk or cycle to work or to the shops rather than problem.
taking the car.
 SITUATION SOLUTION 1
Consumption of processed and convenience foods and our dependence
on the car have led to an increase in obesity and reduction in the fitness
level of the adult population. In some countries, especially Changes by individuals to their diet and their physical activity
industrialized ones, the number of obese people can amount to one third can increase life expectancy. There is a reliance today on the
of the population. consumption of processed foods, which have a high fat and sugar
content. By preparing their own foods, and consuming more fruit
PROBLEM and vegetables, people could ensure that their diets are healthier
and more balanced, which could lead to a reduction in obesity
obesity and poor fitness lead to a decrease in life expectancy, levels. In order to improve fitness levels, people could choose to
Obesity and poor fitness decrease life expectancy. Overweight people walk or cycle to work or to the shops rather than taking the car.
are more likely to have serious illnesses such as diabetes and heart They could also choose to walk up stairs instead of taking the lift.
disease, which can result in premature death. It is well known that These simple changes could lead to a significant improvement in
regular exercise can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke, which fitness levels.
means that those with poor fitness levels are at an increased risk of
suffering from those problems. SOLUTION 2
 
 individuals and governments to work together to tackle this
EVALUATION issue and improve their citizens' diet and fitness.

Of the solutions suggested, those made by individuals themselves are

likely to have more impact, though it is clear that a concerted effort with
the government is essential for success.
COMPARE AND
CONSTRACT
 COMPARE AND CONTRAST
 Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar,
while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different.

 A compare-and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by

comparing them, contrasting them, or both.

 The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or

more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. 
 The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state
the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected
similarities.
 Comparing and contrasting is also an evaluative tool. In order to make
accurate evaluations about a given topic, you must first know the
critical points of similarity and difference. 

 Comparing and contrasting is a primary tool for many workplace

assessments. You have likely compared and contrasted yourself to
other colleagues. Employee advancements, pay raises, hiring, and
firing are typically conducted using comparison and contrast.
Comparison and contrast could be used to evaluate companies,
departments, or individuals.
You may organize compare-and-contrast
essays in one of the following two ways:
1.According to the subjects themselves, discussing
one then the other
2.According to individual points, discussing each
subject in relation to each point
Comparison and Contrast Diagram
 Phrases of Comparison and Contrast
ARGUMENT
 ARGUMENT
  In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea,
often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up
with evidence that supports the idea.
 the act or process of arguing, reasoning, or discussing : 
ARGUMENTATION
 a coherent series of reasons, statements, or facts intended to support
or establish a point of view
 Parts of arguments
 Claim
 Reasons
 Evidence
 Warrants
 Acknowledgement and
response
 Claims
Your claim serves as the main point of your report or paper and
should have the sole purpose of influencing how the reader acts
or thinks. Your audience should understand why the claim is
necessary and develop their own opinion about it, regardless of
whether they agree with it. 
Reasons
Your reasons explain why you are making your claim and they
can be experiential, ethical or logical. Though reasoning itself is
important, it should be founded on evidence.
 Evidence
In order to convince readers to adopt your point of view, you
have to provide evidence that supports your claim. Evidence can
come in the form of data or facts that enable you to interpret or
analyze your reasons. It's important that you supply evidence
that is appropriate for your specific audience and has a higher
likelihood of convincing them of the validity of your claim. To
accomplish this, you should familiarize yourself with your
audience's general priorities and values.
 Warrants
Warrants are the assumptions, shared beliefs and justifying
principles that connect your evidence to your reasoning.
Though warrants are based on logic, whether spoken or
unspoken, you still must provide sufficient evidence to
connect your claim with the warrant. For example, you could
make an argument like: "I need a new coat because it's getting
cold and mine is too big on me." In this case, your warrant, or
shared belief, is that when clothes no longer fit appropriately,
they should be replaced.
 Acknowledgment and response
An effective argument acknowledges opposing
positions and responds to them. This can benefit
your argument because it:
•Allows you to find commonalities.
•Encourages you to qualify or moderate your
claim.
•Provides additional context for your argument.
•Fosters a trusting relationship between you and
your audience.
HOW TO CRAFT AN EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT
 Research the topic
 Introduce your claim
 Give your argument context
 Establish your Credibility
 Make it Compelling
 Connect your audience with the issue.
 Supply evidence.
 Outline the opposing position.
 Craft a conclusion.
 Cite your sources.
 Two major Types of arguments
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument is based on a strong premise for
the conclusion. It’s a top-down approach in which you
reach a conclusion based on a premise that is assumed
to be true. Police generally solve cases with this
approach: They have a suspect in mind based on
previous information not directly connected to the
case and then use it to build their hypothesis to prove
the guilt of that suspect.
 Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is the opposite of a
deductive argument. It is a bottom-up approach
that allows you to arrive at conclusions based on
his observations. Of the two types of
arguments, inductive arguments go from the
specific to the general. They use data and
observations to draw a pattern.
 Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning
The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. The
second lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. Therefore,
all the lipsticks in my bag are red.

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. All

lipsticks in my bag are red. Therefore, the second
lipstick I pull from my bag will be red, too.
 Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning

My mother is Irish. Everyone from Ireland has blond

hair. Therefore, my mother has blond hair.

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

My mother is Irish. She has blond hair. Therefore,

everyone from Ireland has blond hair.
 Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning
Maximilian is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter
dogs are happy.

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

Maximillian is a shelter dog. All shelter dogs are

happy. Therefore, he is happy.
 Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning

All of our snowstorms come from the north. It's

starting to snow. Therefore, the storm is coming from
the north.
INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It's

starting to snow. This snowstorm must be coming
from the north
 Type of arguments
 Causal argument
 Rebuttal argument
 Evaluation argument
 Narrative argument
 Toulmin argument
 Rogerian argument
 Propose argument
 Classical Western argument
Thank You and
Good Day