An Introduction To Management
An Introduction To Management
An Introduction To Management
An Introduction to Management
911
Kinds of Managers
Organizing
Leading
Controlling
Planning and Decision Making
Planning and Decision Making
On Levels
Top managers
Middle managers
First-line mangers
Kinds of Managers
Kinds of Managers
On area
Marketing
Financial
Operation
HR
Administrative
Other: Public relation, R&D, Internal consultant,
international
Top managers
Top managers
Largest group
Category
Interpersonal
Informational
Decisional
Role
Figurehead
Leader
Liaison
Monitor
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource allocator
Negotiator
Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Figurehead
Leader
Liaison
Attending ribon-cutting
ceremony of new plant
Encouraging employees
to improve productivity
Coordinating activities
of two project group.
Microsoft and HP
Informational
Informational
Monitor
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Scanning industry
report to say abreast of
development.
Sending memos
outlining new
organizational
initiatives.
Making a speech to
discuss growth plans
Decisional Role
Decisional Role
Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource allocator
Negotiator
Communication skill:
Southwest airlines
Why Theory?
Why History?
Precursors to Management Theory
Precursors to Management Theory
Management in Antiquity
Charles Babbage
The Classical Management
The Classical Management
Perspective
Perspective
Scientific Management
Administrative Management
Scientific Management
Scientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor
Frank Gilbreth
Lillian Gilbreth
Henry Gantt
Harington Emerson
Administrative Management
Administrative Management
Organization-Environment Relationship
Economic Dimension
Technological Dimension
Socio-cultural Dimension
Political-legal Dimension
International Dimension
Economic Dimension
Economic Dimension
Low unemployment
Low inflation
Technological Dimension
Technological Dimension
Competitors
Customers
Suppliers
Strategic Partners
Regulators
McDonalds Task Environment
McDonalds Task Environment
Competitors
Burger King
Wendys
Subways
Dairy Queen
McDonalds Task Environment
McDonalds Task Environment
Customers
Individual Customers
Institutional Customers
Suppliers
Coca-Cola
Packaging Manufacturers
McDonalds Task Environment
McDonalds Task Environment
Strategic Partners
Wal-Mart
Disney
Foreign partners
Regulator
Owners
Board of Directors
Employees
Strategic Response
Information Management
Direct Influence
The Environment and Organizational
The Environment and Organizational
Effectiveness:
Effectiveness:
Effectiveness involves doing the right things.
Effectiveness involves doing the right things.
Given the interaction between Organization and
Given the interaction between Organization and
environment, Effectiveness is related to how well
environment, Effectiveness is related to how well
an organization understand, reacts to and influence
an organization understand, reacts to and influence
its environment.
its environment.
Dell
General Electric
Starbucks
Wall-Mart Stores
Southwest Airlines
Managerial Ethics
Leadership
Culture
Training
Codes
Guidelines
Emerging Ethical Issues in Organization
Emerging Ethical Issues in Organization
Social Responsibility:
For:
Against
Obstructive Stance
Defensive Stance
Accommodative Stance
Proactive Stance
Government influence the organization
Government influence the organization
1. Direct Regulation
2. Indirect Regulation
Organization Influence Government
Organization Influence Government
Lobbying
Formally
1. legal compliances
2. Ethical compliances
3. Philanthropic giving
Informally
2. Whistle blowing
The Global Environment
The Global Environment
Environmental Challenges of
International Business
Meaning
Trends
Domestic business
International Business
Multinational Business
Global Business
Trends of International business
Trends of International business
Managing the process of Globalization
Managing the process of Globalization
Licensing
Strategic Alliance
Joint Venture
Direct Investment
Advantages & disadvantages of
Advantages & disadvantages of
Importing & Exporting
Importing & Exporting
Advantages
Little Risk
No adaptation
necessary
Disadvantages
High transportation
costs
Government restriction
Licensing
Licensing
Advantages
Increased profitability
Extended Profitability
Disadvantages
Inflexibility
Competition
Strategic Alliances/ Joint venture
Strategic Alliances/ Joint venture
Advantages
Disadvantages
Shared Ownership
Direct Investment
Direct Investment
Advantages
Enhanced Control
Existing infrastructure
Disadvantages
Complexity
Greater Uncertainty
The Structure of Global Economy
The Structure of Global Economy
Other Economies
Environmental Challenges of International Management Environmental Challenges of International Management
1. Economic System
2. Natural Resources
3. Infrastucture
1. Stability of Govt.
2. Incentives
3. Control
4. Economic Communities
Cultural environment
Multinational Corporation
Small organization
Managing Challenge in Global
Managing Challenge in Global
Economy
Economy
Organizing
Leading
Controlling
The Multicultural Environment
The Multicultural Environment
Reasons:
Age distribution
Gender
Ethnicity
Other
Effects of diversity and
Effects of diversity and
Multiculturalism in Organization
Multiculturalism in Organization
Source of Conflict
Source of Competitive Advantage
Source of Competitive Advantage
Cost Argument
Marketing argument
Creativity argument
Misunderstood, misinterpreted, or
inappropriate interaction
Cultural difference
Individual Strategy
Understanding
Empathy
Tolerance
Willingness to Communicate
Organizational Approaches
Organizational Policies
Organizational practices
Diversity and Multicultural Training
Organizational Culture
Toward the Multicultural Organization
Toward the Multicultural Organization
Pluralism
Organizational Goals
Organizational Planning
Tactical Planning
Operational Planning
Fig 7-1
Organizational Goals
Organizational Goals
Purposes of Goals
Kinds of Goals
To facilitate planning
Mission
Strategic
Tactical
Operational
Operation
Marketing
Finance
Long term
Intermediate term
Short term
Fig 7-2
Strategic Plan: general plan
outlining decisions of resource
allocation, priorities and action
steps necessary to reach
strategic goals.
Tactical plan: achieving tactical
goals and developed to
implement parts of a strategic
plan
Operational plan : to carry out
tactical plans to achieve
operational goals
Types of Planning
Types of Planning
Responsibilities for setting goals
Responsibilities for setting goals
General:
Strategic
Tactical
Operational
Time frame for planning
Time frame for planning
Intermediate Plans
Planning staff
Board of directors
Executive committee
Line Management
Contingency Plan and Crisis
Contingency Plan and Crisis
Management
Management
Coca-Cola
Executing tactical plan
Executing tactical plan
Inappropriate goals
Resistance to change
Constraints
Overcoming the barriers
Overcoming the barriers
MBO
Clouds-1
st
-accusation of exploitation third world workwrs-
boycott-2
nd
- Footlocker-$100-sell through other outlet-share
price reduced
The Nature of Strategic Management
The Nature of Strategic Management
neutralize threats
Avoid weakness
Porters generic Strategies
Porters generic Strategies
Michel porter has proposed three generic strategies. Each of these Michel porter has proposed three generic strategies. Each of these
strategies are presumed to be widely applicable to different strategies are presumed to be widely applicable to different
competitive situations. competitive situations.
Strategy Type Definition Example
Differentiation Distinguish product and services
Rolex
Mercedes- Benz
Nikon
Overall cost
Leadership
Reduce manufacturing
And other cost
Timex
Hyundai
Kodak
Focus
Concentrate on specific
regional market, product market
or group of buyer
Tag Heuer
Fiat, Alfa Romeo
Polaroid
The Miles and Snow Typology
The Miles and Snow Typology
Four strategic types of organization. Three of these- the prospector, Four strategic types of organization. Three of these- the prospector,
the defender, and the Analyzer- can be effective in certain the defender, and the Analyzer- can be effective in certain
circumstances. The fourth type the reactor- an ineffective approach to circumstances. The fourth type the reactor- an ineffective approach to
strategy strategy
Strategy Type Definition Example
Prospector
Innovative And growth oriented,
searches for new market and
new growth opportunities,
Encourages risk taking
Amazon.com
3M
Rubbermaid
Defender
Protects current market,
maintain stable growth, serves
Current customers
BIC
eBay
Mrs. Fields
Analyzer
Maintain current markets and
Current customer satisfaction
With moderate emphasize on
innovation
Dupont
IBM
Yahoo
Reactor
No clear strategy, reacts to
Changes in the environment,
Drifts with events
International Harvester
Kmarts
Montgomery Ward
Implementing Business Level
Implementing Business Level
Strategies
Strategies
Single-product strategy
Related Diversification
Unrelated Diversification
Bases of relatedness in implementing
Bases of relatedness in implementing
related diversification
related diversification
Managing Diversification
Becoming a diversified firm
Becoming a diversified firm
Three ways:
Competitive position
1. Market share
2. Technological Know-
how
3. Product Quality
4. Service Network
5. price
Competitiveness
6. operating Costs
Industry Attractiveness
1. Market growth
2. Market size
3. Capital requirement
4. Competitive intensity
International and Global Strategies
International and Global Strategies
4. Transnational strategies
Emergence of E-commerce
Neglect
Insufficient capital
Structure for entrepreneurial
Structure for entrepreneurial
Organization
Organization
Managerial competence
Luck
4. The organizing Process
4. The organizing Process
Designing Job
Distributing Authority
Coordinating Activities
Alternatives:
Job Rotation
Job Enlargement
Job enrichment
Work team
Job Specialization
Job Specialization
The degree to which the
The degree to which the
overall task of the organization is broken down and
overall task of the organization is broken down and
divided into smaller component parts
divided into smaller component parts
Benefits:
Negative Consequences:
Rationale: Size
Bases of Departmentalization
Bases of Departmentalization
Common Bases of departmentalization:
Function
Product
Customer
Location
Other: large organizations employ multiple bases
of departmentalization at different levels.Time
Computer Software
Finance Marketing
President
Manufactuing
Marketing
Finance Design
Dallas Phonix
Consumers Industrial
Northeast US
Central US
Southwest US Northwest US
St. Louis Chikago
Establishing Reporting
Establishing Reporting
Relationships
Relationships
Chain of Command
Narrow Versus Wide Span
Tall Versus Flat organization
Factors influencing Span of Management:
1. Competence of supervisors and subordinates
2. Physical dispersion
3. Extent of no supervisory work
4. Degree of required interaction
5. Extent of standardized procedures
6. Similarity of task being supervised
7. Frequency of new problems
8. Preference of supervisors and subordinated
Distributing Authority
Distributing Authority
Power that has
Power that has
been legitimized by the organization
been legitimized by the organization
- the process by which the manager assign a portion of his total workload to others
- Centralization involves keeping power and authority at the top of the organization
-- Organizational environment
Nature of Organization
1. A managerial hierarchy
3. Electronic Coordination
Differentiating between positions
Differentiating between positions
1. Core technology
3. Organizational Size
Hybrid design
Emerging Issues in Organizational
Emerging Issues in Organizational
Design
Design
Organizational Innovation
The nature of Organizational change
The nature of Organizational change
Uncertainty
Different perception
Feelings of loss
1. Participation
2. Education
3. Communication
4. Facilitation
5. Force-field analysis
Major areas of Organizational Change
Major areas of Organizational Change
Technology
People
Development
Application
Launch
Growth
Maturity
Decline
Basic Categories of Innovation
Basic Categories of Innovation
Radical
Incremental
Technical
Managerial
Product and
Process
Causes of Failure in innovation
Causes of Failure in innovation
Commitments
Tools to overcome:
Reward system
Organizational culture
Intrapreneurship
Managing Human Resources in
Managing Human Resources in
Organizations
Organizations
Attracting HR
Developing HR
Maintaining HR
Fair Compensation
Career Planning
Managing labor relation
Managing labor relation
Creativity in Organization
Charismatic Model of Leadership
Charismatic Model of Leadership
Organizational
culture
Leader
behavior
Effects on
followers and
work groups
Outcomes
CD17-7a
Figure 17-7a
Adaptive
Leader
establishes a
vision
Leader
establishes high
performance
expectations and
displays
confidence in
him/herself and
the collective
ability to
realize the vision
Increased
intrinsic
motivation,
achievement
orientation, and
goal pursuit
Increased
identification
with the leader
and the
collective
interests of
organizational
members
Personal
commitment
to leader
and vision
Self-
sacrificial
behavior
Organiza-
tional
commitment
Task
meaningful-
ness and
satisfaction
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Emerging Approaches to Leadership
Emerging Approaches to Leadership
Strategic Leadership
Cross-Cultural Leadership
Ethical Leadership
Political behavior in Organization
Political behavior in Organization
Interpersonal Dynamics
A definition of Communication
The Grapevine
Individual barriers
Conflicting or inconsistent
signals
Reluctance to communicate
Organizational barriers
Semantics
Different perceptions
Noise
Overload
Language differences
Improving Communication
Improving Communication
Effectiveness
Effectiveness
Individual skills
Maintain credibility
Be sensitive to receivers
perspective
Be sensitive to senders
perspective
Organizational skill
Follow up
Pay attention
Ask questions
Assimilates information
Is easily distracted
Ask no question
Has preconception
Disregard information
Managing work Group and Team
Managing work Group and Team
Stimulating Conflict
Controlling Conflict
Operations Control
Financial Control
Structural Control
Strategic Control
Types of Control
Minimizing costs
Types of Control
Types of Control
Areas of control
Levels of control
Responsibilities of control
Steps in control Process
Steps in control Process
Steps:
Step 2
Measuring
Performance
Step 1
Establishing
Standards
Step 4
Considering
Corrective
action
Step 3
Comparing
Performance
against standards.
Maintain the
Status quo
Correct the
deviation
Change
Standards
Operations Control:
Operations Control: transform resources into transform resources into
product product
Budgetary Control
Financial Statements
Ratio Analysis
Financial Audits
Budgetary Control
Budgetary Control
Types of Budget
Financial Budget
Cash-flow or cash budget
Capital expenditures budget
Balance Sheet Budget
Operating Budget
Sales or revenue budget
Expense Budget
Profit Budget
Nonmonetery Budget
Labor Budget
Space Budget
Production Budget
What Budget shows
Structural Control:
Structural Control: Addresses how well an Addresses how well an
organizations structural elements serve their intended structure organizations structural elements serve their intended structure
Organization select between the extreme of two forms. Organization select between the extreme of two forms.
Bureaucratic Control (formal or
mechanistic arrangement)
Employee compliance
Strict rules, formal controls, rigid
hierarchy
Directed toward minimum levels
of acceptable performance
Tall structure, top-down influence
Directed at individual
performance
United and formal
Decentralized Control (informal or
organic arrangement)
Employee commitment
Group norms, culture, self control
Directed toward enhanced
performance above and beyond
the minimum
Flat structure, shared influence
Directed at group performance
Extended and
formal01711429221
Strategic Control:
Strategic Control: Focuses on how effectively the Focuses on how effectively the
organizations strategies are succeeding in helping the organizations strategies are succeeding in helping the
organization meet its goals organization meet its goals
Resistance to control
Flexibility
Accuracy
Timeliness
Objectivity
Resistance to control
Resistance to control
Overcontrol
Inappropriate Focus
Organizational Technologies
Managing Productivity
The nature of operations management
The nature of operations management: :
Set of managerial activities that organizations use in creating their product Set of managerial activities that organizations use in creating their product
and services. and services.
Service Operations
Capacity Decisions
Facility Decisions
A. Location
B. Layout
Organizational Technologies
Organizational Technologies
Manufacturing technology
Automation
Robotics
Service Technology
Implementing operational system through supply chain
Implementing operational system through supply chain
Management: Supply chain Management is a
Management: Supply chain Management is a
comprehensive view of managing all of these activities
comprehensive view of managing all of these activities
in a more efficient manner
in a more efficient manner
Purchasing Management
Inventory management
Managing Total Quality
Managing Total Quality
A. Competition
B. Productivity
C. Costs
Levels of productivity
Forms of productivity
Productivity trends
Improving productivity
The Internet
Major systems by levels
Major systems by levels
Intranets
Extranets
Managing Information Systems
Managing Information Systems
Leaner organization
Increased Collaboration
Types of Decisions
Nonprogrammed decisions
Personal
values/ethics
Attitudes
Assumptions
Expectations
Societal
culture
Customs
Language
Economic/
technological
setting
Political/
legal setting
Ethnic
background
Religion
Source: Adapted in part from BJ Punnett and S Withane, Hofstedes Value Survey Module: To Embrace or Abandon?
in Advances in International Comparative Management, vol 5, ed SB Prasad (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp 69-89.
A Contingency Model for Cross-Cultural Leadership
A Contingency Model for Cross-Cultural Leadership
CD4-5
Table 4-3
Australia
Brazil
Canada
France
Germany*
Country Directive Supportive Participative Achievement
Great Britain
Hong Kong*
Japan
Sweden
United States
Most Culturally Appropriate Leadership Behaviors
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*Former West Germany **Reunited with China
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Foreign Assignment Cycle
Foreign Assignment Cycle
CD4-7
Figure 4-4
1. Selection and
training
Unrealistic expectations
2. Arrival and
adjustment
Culture shock
3. Settling in and
acculturating
Lack of support
4. Returning
home and
adjusting
Reentry shock
Home Country Experiences Foreign Country Experiences
Reassignment
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Personality
traits
A Conceptual Model for the Study of
A Conceptual Model for the Study of
Individual Differences in OB
Individual Differences in OB
CD5-2
Figure 5-1
Self Concept
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Self-monitoring
The Unique Individual Forms of Self-
Expression
Attitudes
Abilities
Emotions
Determinants and Consequences of
Determinants and Consequences of
Organization-Based Self-Esteem
Organization-Based Self-Esteem
CD5-3
Figure 5-2
Managerial respect
Organizational
structure
Job complexity
Global self-esteem
Job performance
Intrinsic motivation
General satisfaction
Citizenship behavior
Organizational
commitment and
satisfaction
OBSE
Determinants of
OBSE
Factors Influenced
by OBSE
Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
A Model of Self-Efficacy
Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs:
- Prior experience
- Behavior models
- Persuasion from others
- Assessment of physical/emotional
state
Self-efficacy: A persons belief about his or her
chances of successfully accomplishing a specific
task.
CD5-4
Figure 5-3
A Model of Behavioral Intention
A Model of Behavioral Intention
CD5-5
Figure 5-4
The persons beliefs
that the behavior leads
to certain outcomes
and his evaluations
of these outcomes
The persons beliefs
that specific
individuals or groups
think he should or
should not perform the
behavior and his
motivation to comply
with the specific referents
Behavior Intention
Attitude toward
the behavior
Relative
importance of
attitudinal and
normative
consideration
Subjective
norm
Performance Depends on the Right
Performance Depends on the Right
Combination of Effort, Ability, and Skill
Combination of Effort, Ability, and Skill
CD5-6
Figure 5-5
Performance
Ability
Effort
Skill
A Model of Ethical Behavior in the
A Model of Ethical Behavior in the
Workplace
Workplace
CD 3-6
Figure 3-7
Cultural Influences
- Family
- Education
-Religion
- Media/entertainment
Organizational Influences
- Ethical codes
- Organizational culture
- Role models
- Perceived pressure for results
- Rewards/punishment system
Individual
- Personality
- Values
- Moral
principles
- History of
reinforcement
- Gender
Political/legal/
economic
influences
Ethical
behavior
R
o
l
e
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Social Perception: A Social
Social Perception: A Social
Information Processing Model
Information Processing Model
CD 6-2a
Figure 6-1a
Competing
environmental
stimuli:
* People
* Events
* Objects
Interpretation
and
categorization
Stage 1
Selective Attention/
Comprehension
Stage 2
Encoding
and Simplification
A
C
F
A
B
C
D
E
F
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Social Perception: A Social
Social Perception: A Social
Information Processing Model (continued)
Information Processing Model (continued)
CD 6-2b
Figure 6-1b
Stage 3
Storage and
Retention
Stage 4
Retrieval
and Response
Memory
Judgments and
decisions
C
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Model of the Self-Fulfilling
Model of the Self-Fulfilling
Prophecy
Prophecy
CD 6-3
Figure 6-2
Supervisor
expectancy
6
3
Motivation
4
Performance
5 1
Leadership
Subordinate
self-
expectancy
2
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Consensus
Consensus
CD 6-4a
Figure 6-3a
People
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
A B C D E
People
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
A B C D E
Low High
Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness
CD 6-4b
Figure 6-3b
Tasks
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
A B C D E
Tasks
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
A B C D E
Low High
Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
Consistency
Consistency
CD 6-4c
Figure 6-3c
Time
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
Time
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
Low High
Source: KA Brown, Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis, Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
Weiners Attribution Model
Weiners Attribution Model
CD 6-5a
Figure 6-4a
Someone
performs
a task
Judgment
of
success
Internal
Factors
External
Factors
expectancy of
future
success (+)
pride (+)
shame (+)
depression (+)
Higher
Future
Performance
expectancy of
future
success (+or+)
pride (+or+)
shame (+or+)
depression (+or+)
Lower to
Higher
Future
Performance
Source: Based in part on B Weiner, An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion, Psychological Review, October
1985, pp 548-573; and TS Bateman, GR Ferris, and S Strasser, The Why Behind Individual Work Performance, Management Review,
October 1984, p 71.
Weiners Attribution Model (cont.)
Weiners Attribution Model (cont.)
CD 6-5b
Figure 6-4b
Someone
performs
a task
Judgment
of
failure
Internal
Factors
External
Factors
expectancy of
future
success (+)
pride (+)
shame (+)
depression (+)
Higher
Future
Performance
expectancy of
future
success (+or+)
pride (+or+)
shame (+or+)
depression (+or+)
Lower to
Higher
Future
Performance
Source: Based in part on B Weiner, An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion, Psychological Review, October
1985, pp 548-573; and TS Bateman, GR Ferris, and S Strasser, The Why Behind Individual Work Performance, Management Review,
October 1984, p 71.
A Job Performance Model of Motivation
A Job Performance Model of Motivation
CD 7-2a
Figure 7-1a
Ability, Job knowledge
Dispositions & Traits
Emotions, Moods, &Affect
Beliefs & Values
Individual Inputs
Physical Environment
Task Design
Rewards & Reinforcement
Supervisory Support &
Coaching
Social Norms
Organizational Culture
Job Context
Arousal Attention Intensity
& &
Direction Persistence
Motivational Processes
Motivated
Behaviors
Skills
Enable, Limit
A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.)
A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.)
CD 7-2a
Figure 7-1b
Individual
Inputs
Job
Context
Motivational
Processes
Focus: Direction, What we do
Intensity: Effort, how hard
we try
Quality: Task strategies, the
way we do it
Duration: Persistence, how
long we stick to it
Skills
Enable, Limit
Performance
Motivated Behaviors
Motivation Theories and
Motivation Theories and
Workplace Outcomes
Workplace Outcomes
CD 7-3a
Figure 7-2a
Choice to pursue
a course of action
Need Reinforcement Equity
Outcome of
Interest
Effort
Performance
Satisfaction
Absenteeism
Turnover
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Motivation Theories and
Motivation Theories and
Workplace Outcomes (continued)
Workplace Outcomes (continued)
CD 7-3b
Figure 7-2b
Choice to pursue
a course of action
Expectancy Goal Setting
Job
Characteristics
Outcome of
Interest
Effort
Performance
Satisfaction
Absenteeism
Turnover
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Maslows Need Hierarchy
Maslows Need Hierarchy
CD 7-4
Figure 7-3
Physiological
Most basic
need.
Safety
Consists of
the need to be
safe.
Love
The desire to
love and be
loved.
Esteem
Need for
reputation,
prestige, and
recognition
from others.
Self-
Actualization
Desire for
self-
fulfillment.
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene
Model
Model
CD 7-5a
Figure 7-4a
Motivators
No Satisfaction Satisfaction
Jobs that do not Jobs offering
offer achievement achievement,
recognition, recognition,
stimulating work, stimulating work,
responsibility, responsibility,
and advancement. and advancement.
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene
Model (continued)
Model (continued)
CD 7-5b
Figure 7-4b
Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction
Jobs with poor Jobs with good
company policies, company policies,
and administration, and administration,
technical supervision technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal salary, interpersonal
relationships with relationships with
supervisors, and supervisors, and
working conditions. working conditions.
The Job Characteristics Model
The Job Characteristics Model
CD 7-6
Outcomes
*High internal
work
motivation
*High growth
satisfaction
*High general
job satisfaction
*High work
effectiveness
Critical
psychological
states
*Experienced
meaningfulness of the
work
*Experienced
responsibility for
outcomes of the work
*Knowledge of the actual
results of the work
activities
Core job
characteristics
*Skill variety
*Task identity
*Task
significance
*Autonomy
*Feedback from
job
Moderators
1. Knowledge and skill
2. Growth need strength
3. Context satisfactions
Factors Considered When
Factors Considered When
Making Equity Comparisons
Making Equity Comparisons
CD 8-2
Table 8-1
Inputs Outcomes
Time
Education/training
Skills
Creativity
Seniority
Loyalty to organization
Age
Personality traits
Effort expended
Personal appearance
Pay/bonuses
Fringe benefits
Challenging assignments
Job security
Career advancement/promotions
Status symbols
Pleasant/safe working environment
Opportunity for personal growth/
development
Recognition
Participation in important decisions
A General Model of Vrooms
A General Model of Vrooms
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
CD 8-3
High Effort
Decision to
Exert Effort
Low Effort
Performance
Goal
Performance
Goal
Expectancy
What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I work hard?
Expectancy
What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I slack off?
Instrumentality
What are my chances
of getting various
outcomes if I achieve
my performance goal?
Valence
How much do I value
these outcomes?
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
Porter and Lawlers Expectancy
Porter and Lawlers Expectancy
Model
Model
CD 8-4
Figure 8-2
1
Value of
Reward
2
Perceived
effort - reward
probability
3
Effort
4
Abilities
and traits
5
Role
perceptions
6
Performance
(accomplishment)
8
Perceived
equitable
rewards
9
Satisfaction
7A
Intrinsic
rewards
7B
Extrinsic
rewards
Goals
Goals
CD 8-5
Figure 8-3
Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish.
Encouraging the
development of goal-
attainment strategies
or action plans
Increasing
ones persistence
Regulating
ones effort
Directing
ones attention
Goals
motivate the
individual
by...
Task
performance
Guidelines for Writing SMART
Guidelines for Writing SMART
Goals
Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
CD 8-6
Feedback and Rewards Are Important
Feedback and Rewards Are Important
Links In the Job Performance Cycle
Links In the Job Performance Cycle
CD9-2
Figure 9-1
Results
Learning
Personal development
Stable, strong job performance
Properly
administered
rewards
Timely and
instructive
feedback
Effort Ability
A Cognitive-Processing Model of Feedback
A Cognitive-Processing Model of Feedback
CD9-3
Figure 9-2
Characteristics
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Needs and goals
Desire for performance
feedback
Perception
Feedback accuracy
Source credibility
System fairness
Expectations
Behavioral standards
Recipient
Sources
Others
Task
Self
Behavioral
Outcomes
Direction
Effort
Persistence
Resistance
Six Common Trouble Signs
Six Common Trouble Signs
for Organizational Feedback
for Organizational Feedback
Systems
Systems
O
Feedback is used to punish, embarrass, or put down employees
O
Those receiving the feedback see it as irrelevant to their work
O
Feedback information is provided too late to do any good
O
People receiving feedback believe it relates to matters beyond
their control
O
Employees complain about wasting too much time collecting and
recording feedback data
O
Feedback recipients complain about feedback being too
complex or difficult to understand
CD9-4
Table 9-1
Sources and Types of Feedback in
Sources and Types of Feedback in
the 360-Degree Approach
the 360-Degree Approach
CD9-5
Figure 9-3
Direct
supervisor
Peers/team
members
Direct
subordinates
Relevant others such
as customers
and suppliers
Manager/Focus Person
Self-evaluation of:
Planning/administrative/
financial skills
Technical/business skills
Interpersonal skills
Problem-solving skills
Team-building skills
Other relevant skills
General Model of Organizational
General Model of Organizational
Reward Systems
Reward Systems
CD9-6
Figure 9-4
Organizations Reward
Norms
Profit maximization
Equity
Equality
Need
Distribution Criteria
Results
Behavior
Other factors
Types of Rewards
Financial/material
(extrinsic)
Social (extrinsic)
Psychic (intrinsic)
Desired Outcomes
Attract
Motivate
Develop
Satisfy
Retain
Step 2
Perform an
A B C
functional
analysis
Modifying On-the-Job Behavior
Modifying On-the-Job Behavior
CD10-5
Figure 10-3
Step 1
Identify
target
behavior
Step 4
Evaluate
results
Step 3
Arrange Provide
antecedents by supportive and
1. Removing appropriately
obstacles. scheduled
2. Providing consequences.
opportunities.
A Contingency Model for
A Contingency Model for
Selecting a Solution
Selecting a Solution
CD11-2
Figure 11-2
Strategies to
select a solution
* Aided analytic
* Unaided-analytic
* Nonanalytic
Generating
alternatives
Characteristics of Decision Task:
The decision problem
* Unfamiliarity
* Ambiguity
* Complexity
*Instability
The decision environment
*Irreversibility
* Significance
*Accountability
* Time and/or money constraints
Characteristics of Decision Maker
* Knowledge
* Ability
* Motivation
* Decision Making Style
Decision Making Styles
Decision Making Styles
CD11-3
Figure 11-3
Analytical Conceptual
Directive Behavioral
Tasks and Technical
Concerns
People and Social
Concerns
Value Orientation
Low
High
T
o
l
e
r
a
n
c
e
f
o
r
A
m
b
i
g
u
i
t
y
Escalation of Commitment
Escalation of Commitment
CD11-4
Figure 11-4
Psychological and Social
Determinants
* Ego defense
* Individual motivators
* Peer pressure
* Saving face
Organizational Determinants
* Breakdown in communication
* Politics
* Organizational inertia
Project Characteristics
* A delayed return on the investment
* Setbacks attributed to temporary
causes
Contextual Determinants
* External political pressure
Escalation
of
commitment
Poor results
or
outcomes
A Model of Participative Management
A Model of Participative Management
CD11-6
Participation in
Goal Setting
Participation in
Decision Making
Participation in
Problem Solving
Participation in
Change
Contingency
Factors
* Design of work
* Trust
* Readiness to Participate
Autonomy
Increased
control over work
behavior
Completion of
Meaningful
Tasks
Acceptance
and Commitment
Security
Challenge
Satisfaction
Performance
and Innovation
Vroom and Jagos Decision-
Vroom and Jagos Decision-
Making Model
Making Model
CD11-7
Figure 11-4
QR
State the
Problem
CR
CP
Low Low
High
CR
LI
LI
No
Yes
ST
ST
CP
CP
CP
H
i
g
h
H
i
g
h
Y
e
s
No
No
Yes
No
GC
GC
GC
GC
Y
e
s
CO
Y
e
s
N
o
No
CO
Yes
SI
SI
AI
GII
CII
GII
CII
AII
CI
CII
AI
GII
Yes
No
Yes
N
o
N
o
Yes
Y
e
s
N
o
No
No
Yes
N
o
Yes
L
o
w
N
o
N
o
Yes
QR
CR
LI
ST
CP
GC
CO
SI
Quality Requirement
Commitment Requirement
Leaders Information
Problem Structure
Commitment Probability
Goal Congruence
Subordinate Conflict
Subordinate
Information
A Model of Organizational Creativity
A Model of Organizational Creativity
and Innovation
and Innovation
CD11-8
Figure 11-7
Individual Characteristics
Intellectual abilities
Tacit (implied) and explicit knowledge
Styles of thinking
Personality traits
Intrinsic task motivation
Group Characteristics
- Norms - Diversity
- Cohesiveness - Roles
- Size - Problem-solving approaches
Organizational Characteristics
- Culture - Strategy
- Resources - Structure
- Rewards - Technology
Individual creative
behavior/performance
Group creative
behavior/performance
Organizational
creativity and
innovation
Groups
Groups
CD12-2
Figure 12-1
1
Two or more
freely
interfacing
individuals
Common
identity
4
3
Collective
goals
Collective
norms
2
Functions of Formal Groups
Functions of Formal Groups
CD12-3
Table 12-1
Organizational Functions Individual Functions
1. Accomplish complex, interdependent
tasks that are beyond the capabilities
of individuals.
2. Generate new or creative ideas and
solutions.
3. Coordinate interdepartmental efforts.
4. Provide a problem-solving mechanism
for complex problems requiring
varied information and assessments.
5. Implement complex decisions.
6. Socialize and train newcomers.
1. Satisfy the individuals need for
affiliation.
2. Develop, enhance, and confirm the
individuals self-esteem and sense of
identity.
3. Give individuals an opportunity to
test and share their perceptions of
social reality.
4. Reduce the individuals anxieties and
feelings of insecurity and powerless-
ness.
5. Provide a problem-solving mechanism
for personal and interpersonal problems.
Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
of Group Development
of Group Development
CD12-4a
Figure 12-2a
Performing
Adjourning
Norming
Storming
Forming
Return to
Independence
Dependence/
Interdependence
Independence
Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
Tuckmans Five-Stage Theory
of Group Development (continued)
of Group Development (continued)
CD12-4b
Figure 12-2b
Individual
Issues
Forming Storming Norming Performing
How do I fit
in?
Whats my
role here?
What do the
others expect
me to do?
How can I best
perform my
role?
Group
Issues
Why are we
here?
Why are we
fighting over
whos in
charge and who
does what?
Can we agree
on roles and
work as a
team?
Can we do the
job properly?
A Role Episode
A Role Episode
Role Sender
Perceived organizational/
group requirements
Comparative evaluation of
- Role expectations for
focal person
- Focal persons behavior
Focal Person
Constructive/destructive
responses
Role
Modeling
Communication
of approval
or need for
change
Feedback
CD12-5
Figure 12-3
Ability of Israeli Tank-Crew Members and
Ability of Israeli Tank-Crew Members and
Improvements in Effectiveness
Improvements in Effectiveness
CD12-6
Figure 12-4
High-high-high
ability tank crews
Higher than expected
effectiveness
High-high-low or
high-low-low ability
tank crews
Low-low-low
ability tank crews
Lower than expected
effectiveness
Large increase in
effectiveness
Small increase in
effectiveness
A Contingency Model for
A Contingency Model for
Staffing Work Groups
Staffing Work Groups
CD12-7
Figure 12-5
Improve performance
of all work groups
Maximize performance
of best group(s)
Staffing
decision
Concentrate
talent
Spread talent
around
Objective(s)
Interpersonal Trust Involves a
Interpersonal Trust Involves a
Cognitive Leap
Cognitive Leap
CD13-4
Figure 13-3
Firsthand knowledge
of other persons
reliability and
integrity
Distrust Trust
Cognitive leap
Faith in the other persons
good intentions
Assumption that other person
will behave as desired
Basic Distinctions Among
Basic Distinctions Among
Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and
Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and
Self-Managed Teams
Self-Managed Teams
CD13-5a
Table 13-5a
Quality Circles Virtual Teams
Self-Managed
Teams
Type of team
(see Table 13-2)
Type of
empowerment
(see Table 16-2)
Members
Advice
Advice or project
(usually project)
Production,
project, or action
Consultation
Consultation,
participation,
or delegation
Delegation
Production/service
personnel
Managers are
technical
specialists
Production/service,
technical
specialists
Basic Distinctions Among
Basic Distinctions Among
Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and
Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and
Self-Managed Teams (continued)
Self-Managed Teams (continued)
CD13-5b
Table 13-5b
Quality Circles Virtual Teams
Self-Managed
Teams
Basis of
membership
Relationship to
organization
Amount of face-
to-face
communication
Voluntary
Assigned
(some voluntary)
Assigned
Parallel
Parallel or
integrated
Integrated
Strictly face-
to-face
Periodic to
none
Varies, depending
on use of
information
technology
Survey Evidence: What Self-
Survey Evidence: What Self-
Managing Teams Manage
Managing Teams Manage
CD13-6
Table 13-6
Percentage of Companies Saying Their Self-Managing Teams
Perform These Traditional Management Functions by Themselves.
Schedule work assignments 67%
Work with outside customers 67
Conduct training 59
Set production goals/quotas 56
Work with suppliers/vendors 44
Purchase equipment/services 43
Develop budgets 39
Do performance appraisals 36
Hire co-workers 33
Fire co-workers 14
The Evolution of Self-Managed
The Evolution of Self-Managed
Work Teams
Work Teams
CD13-7
Figure 13-4
Managerial control of groups
structure, staffing, and task
procedures
Group control of its own
structure, staffing, and
task procedures
Traditional
Work Groups
Semiautonomous
Work Groups
Self-Managed
Teams
An Updated Contact Model for
An Updated Contact Model for
Minimizing Intergroup Conflict
Minimizing Intergroup Conflict
CD14-3
Figure 14-2
Influential third-party
gossip about other group
is negative
Company
philosophy
on openness
Company policy
and procedures
Organizational
climate
Geographic
location of
organization
Communication
Abilities/Traits
Cross-cultural
awareness
Assertiveness
Aggressiveness
Defensiveness
Active listening
Individuals
Involved
A friend
Someone you do
not trust
A superior
A subordinate
Communication
competence
Upward
mobility
Communication Differences
Communication Differences
between Women and Men
between Women and Men
CD15-6a
Table 15-3a
Linguistic
Characteristic
Men Women
Taking
Credit
Greater use of I statements
(e.g., I did this and I did
that); more likely to boast
about their achievements
Greater use of We
statements (e.g., We did
this and We did that);
less likely to boast about
their achievements
Displaying
Confidence
Less likely to indicate that
they are uncertain about an
issue
More likely to indicate a lack
of uncertainty about an
issue
Communication Differences
Communication Differences
between Women and Men (continued)
between Women and Men (continued)
CD15-6b
Table 15-3b
Linguistic
Characteristic
Men Women
Asking
questions
Less likely to ask questions
(e.g., asking for directions)
More likely to ask questions
Conversation
Rituals
Avoid making apologies
because it puts them in a
one-down position
More frequently say Im
sorry
Communication Differences
Communication Differences
between Women and Men (continued)
between Women and Men (continued)
CD15-6c
Table 15-3c
Linguistic
Characteristic
Men Women
Giving
feedback
More direct and blunt
More tactful; tend to
temper criticism with praise
Giving
compliments
Stingy with praise
Pay more compliments
than men
Indirectness
Indirect when it comes to
admitting fault or when they
dont know something
Indirect when telling others
what to do
Four Leadership Styles Derived
Four Leadership Styles Derived
from the Ohio State Studies
from the Ohio State Studies
CD17-2
Figure 17-2
High structure,
high consideration
The leader provides a lot of guidance
about how tasks can be completed
while being highly considerate of
employee needs and wants.
Low structure,
high consideration
Less emphasis is placed on
structuring employee tasks while the
leader concentrates on satisfying
employee needs and wants.
High structure,
low consideration
Primary emphasis is placed on
structuring employee tasks while
the leader demonstrates little
consideration for employee needs
and wants.
Low structure,
low consideration
The leader fails to provide necessary
structure and demonstrates little
consideration for employee needs
and wants.
Low High
Initiating Structure
Low
High
C
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
The Leadership Grid
The Leadership Grid
CD17-3
Figure 17-3
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 High
High
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Low
C
o
n
c
e
r
n
f
o
r
P
e
o
p
l
e
1,1
Impoverished
management
1, 9
Country club
management
5,5
Middle-of-the
road management
9,9
Team
management
9,1
Authority-
compliance
Source: From Leadership Dilemmas - Grid Solutions, p 29 by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse.
Copyright 1991 by Robert R Blake and the estate of Jane S Mouton. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Concern for Production
CD17-4
Figure 17-4
Representation of Fiedlers
Representation of Fiedlers
Contingency Model
Contingency Model
Situational
Control
High Control
Situations
Moderate
Control Situations
Low Control
Situations
Leader-member
relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Good Good Good
High High High
Strong Weak Strong
Good Poor Poor
Low High High
Weak Strong Strong
Poor Poor
Low Low
Strong Weak
Situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Optimal
Leadership
Style
Task Motivated
Leadership
Relationship
Motivated Leadership
Task Motivated
Leadership
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Houses Path-Goal Theory
Houses Path-Goal Theory
CD17-5
Figure 17-5
Employee Characteristics
- Locus of control
- Task ability
- Need for achievement
- Experience
- Need for clarity
Environmental Factors
- Employees task
- Authority system
- Work group
Leadership Styles
- Directive
- Supportive
- Participative
- Achievement oriented
Employee Attitudes
and Behavior
- Job satisfaction
- Acceptance of leader
- Motivation
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Selling
S2
Explain decisions and
provide opportunity for
clarification
Hersey and Blanchards
Hersey and Blanchards
Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership Theory
Participating
S3
Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making
CD17-6
Figure 17-6
Follower-Directed Leader-Directed
Low
Low
High
High
Leader Behavior
Task Behavior
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
R
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
(
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
v
e
b
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
)
Delegating
S4
Turn over
responsibility for
decisions and
implementation
Telling
S1
Provide specific
instructions and closely
supervise performance
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
Charismatic Model of Leadership
Charismatic Model of Leadership
Organizational
culture
Leader
behavior
Effects on
followers and
work groups
Outcomes
CD17-7a
Figure 17-7a
Adaptive
Leader
establishes a
vision
Leader
establishes high
performance
expectations and
displays
confidence in
him/herself and
the collective
ability to
realize the vision
Increased
intrinsic
motivation,
achievement
orientation, and
goal pursuit
Increased
identification
with the leader
and the
collective
interests of
organizational
members
Personal
commitment
to leader
and vision
Self-
sacrificial
behavior
Organiza-
tional
commitment
Task
meaningful-
ness and
satisfaction
Irwin/McGraw-Hill Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001 All Rights Reserved
A Model of Occupational Stress
A Model of Occupational Stress
CD18-2
Figure 18-1
Individual Level
Group Level
Organizational
Level
Extraorganizational
Behavioral
Cognitive
Physiological
Stressors Outcomes
Stress
Individual
Differences
Burnout
Burnout
CD18-3a
Figure 18-2
Burnout: a condition of emotional exhaustion and negative attitude.
Personal Stressors
Job and Organizational
Stressors
Emotional Exhaustion
Depersonalization
Feeling a Lack Of
Personal Accomplishment
Attitudinal and
Behavioral
Symptoms
A Model of Burnout
A Model of Social Support
A Model of Social Support
CD18-4
Figure 18-3
Social Support: the amount of helpfulness derived from social
relationships.
Potential stressful event
Perceived availability of
support resources
Purpose of support
Engage support
Effect of social support on
reducing stress and stress outcomes
Support
not perceived
Support
perceived
but not
used
and used
A Model of the Coping Process
A Model of the Coping Process
CD18-5
Figure 18-4
Coping: the process of managing stress.
Situational Situational
factors
Personal
factors
Cognitive
appraisal of
stressor
Harmful?
Threatening?
Challenging?
Coping
strategies
Control
Escape
Symptom
Management
Four Characteristics Common To All
Four Characteristics Common To All
Organizations
Organizations
CD19-2
Figure 19-1
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2000
Hierarchy of
authority
Coordination
of effort
Division
of labor
Common
goal
Sample Organization Chart
Sample Organization Chart
for a Hospital
for a Hospital
CD19-3a
Figure 19-2a
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2000
Board of Directors
Chief Executive
Officer
Strategic
Planning
Advisor
Legal
Counsel
President
Cost-
Containment
Staff
Executive
Administrative
Staff
Executive
Medical
Director
Sample Organization Chart
Sample Organization Chart
for a Hospital (continued)
for a Hospital (continued)
CD19-3b
Figure 19-2b
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2000
Executive
Administrative
Staff
Executive
Medical
Director
Dir.
Of
Human
Resources
Dir.
Of
Admissions
Dir.
Of
Accounting
Dir.
Of
Nutrition
& Food
Services
Dir.
Of
Patient
& Public
Relations
Dir.
X-Ray &
Lab
Services
Dir.
Of
Surgery
Dir.
Of
Pharmacy
Chief
Physician
Dir.
Of
Out-
Patient
Serices
The External and Internal Forces
The External and Internal Forces
for Change
for Change
CD20-2
Figure 20-1
Demographic Characteristics
*Age *Education
* Skill level *Gender
* Immigration
Technological Advancements
* Manufacturing automation
* Office automation
Market Changes
* Mergers and acquisitions
* Domestic and international competition
* Recession
Social and Political Pressures
*War *Values
* Leadership
External Forces
Human Resource Problems/Prospects
*Unmet needs *Job dissatisfaction
*Productivity *Participation/
*Absenteeism and suggestions
turnover
Managerial Behavior/Decisions
* Conflict * Leadership
* Reward systems * Structural
reorganization
Internal Forces
The need for change
A Generic Typology of
A Generic Typology of
Organizational Change
Organizational Change
CD20-3
Figure 20-2
Adaptive
change
Innovative
change
Radically
innovative
change
Reintroducing a
familiar practice
Introducing a
practice new to the
organization
Introducing a
practice new to
the industry
Low High