Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

College of Natural and Social Science

Department of Social Science

Inclusiveness

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Unit 1: Understanding disabilities and
vulnerabilities

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1.1. Definitions of basic terms

Impairment is any loss or abnormality of

psychological, physiological, or anatomical
structure or function.
(e.g., a missing limb)
 Impairments are problems in body function or
structure as a significant deviation or loss.
 Body functions are the physiological functions of body
systems (including psychological functions)

 Impairments represent a deviation from certain

generally accepted population standards.
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The presence of impairments do not necessarily
indicate that a disease is present or that the individual
should be regarded as sick.

Impairments can be temporary or permanent;

progressive, regressive or static; intermittent or
continuous.

Disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an

impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the
manner or within the range considered normal for a
human being.

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Disability is a condition caused by an accident,
trauma, genetics or disease that may limit a person’s
mobility, hearing, vision, speech or cognitive
function.

Itis incapacity recognized by law as limiting or preventing,

for example, mobility.

A disability exists when an impairment limits a person’s

ability to perform certain tasks (e.g., walk, see, etc)

It can be also be defined as a functional limitation

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Handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from
impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a
role that is normal for that individual (in relation to age, sex, social
and cultural factors)

A person with a disability is not handicapped, unless the disability

leads to educational, personal, social, vocational, or other problems.

 it is a disadvantage that a person with a disability or impairment

encounters when interacting with the environment.

 It is a physical or attitudinal constraint imposed upon a person,

regardless of whether that person has a disability or not.

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It is defined as “the loss or limitation of opportunities to
take part in the normal life of the community on an equal
level with others due to physical or social barriers”.
NOTE:
a disability may pose a handicap in one environment but
not in another.
People with disabilities may experience handicap
regardless of their disability because of other people’s
negative attitude
Although the terms impairment , disability , and handicap
are sometimes used interchangeably, they are not
synonymous.

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 1.2. Theoretical Approaches to Disability
A basic
 understanding of the main theories of disability can
help to shed light on different approaches.

The
 ‘traditional model’
Traditionally, in many cultures around the world,

people with physical, sensory or mental
impairments were thought of as under the spell of
witchcraft, possessed by demons, or as penitent
sinners, being punished by God for wrong-doing
by themselves or their parents.

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 The Social Model

The social model of disability, on the other hand, sees

disability as a socially-created problem and not at all an
attribute of an individual.
On the social model, disability demands a political
response, since the problem is created by an
unaccommodating physical environment brought about by
attitudes and other features of the social environment.

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 The Medical model
The medical model views disability as a feature of the
person, directly caused by the disease, trauma or other
health condition, which requires medical care provided
in the form of individual treatment by professionals.
Disability, on this model, calls for medical or other
treatment or intervention, to ‘correct’ the problem with
the individual.

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11
The Biopsychosocial Model

On their own the medical and social models are

partially valid but not adequate so a synthesis of both
models is the most useful approach. The latest
International Classification and Functioning from the
World Health Organisation is based on the
biopsychosocial model which is an integration of the
medical and social models and provides a coherent
view of different perspectives of health: biological,
individual and social.

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International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health
The International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health is more commonly known as
the ICF and it provides a standard language and
framework for the description of health and health-
related states. The first version was published in 1980
and was updated in 2002.

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International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health

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The diagram identifies three levels of human functioning
classified by ICF: functioning at the level of body or body
part, the whole person, and the whole person in a social
context.

 Disability therefore involves dysfunctioning at one or

more of these same levels; impairments, activity
limitations and participation restrictions.

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The
 latest version puts the notion of health and disability
in a new light by acknowledging that every human being
can experience a decrement in health and thereby
experience some disability. This is not something that
happens only to a minority of humanity.

In
 the ICF, the term functioning refers to all body
functions, activities and participation, while
disability is similarly an umbrella term for impairments,
activity limitations and participation
restrictions.
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In ICF disability and functioning are viewed as
outcomes of interactions between health conditions
(diseases, disorders and injuries) and contextual factors.
Among contextual factors are external environmental
factors (for example, social attitudes, architectural
characteristics, legal and social structures, as well as
climate, terrain and so forth); and internal personal
factors, which include gender, age, coping styles, social
background, education, profession, part and current
experience, overall behaviour pattern, character and
other factors that influence how disability is experienced
by the individual. 17
 1.3. Causes of disability
Genetic Causes
◦ Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause down
syndrome,
Environmental causes
◦ Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can result in
deformation issues in the unborn child.
◦ The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic
chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and
syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual disability.
◦ Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken
pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage
to the brain of the child.
◦ Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain
too. Unfortunate life events such as drowning, automobile accidents,
falls and so on can cause disability. 18
Unknown Causes
Humans have still not found all the answers to all the defects in
the human body.
Inaccessible environments
 When society develops infrastructure such as houses, roads,
parks and other public places without consideration to people
with impairment, the basically make it impossible for them to
take care of themselves.
◦ For example, if a school is built with a ramp, it makes it easy
for people with wheelchairs to move about freely.
 This way, their impairment is not made worse. Lack of
education, support services, health and opportunities for people
with impairment can cause additional disability to people with
disabilities and even people with no disability.
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1.4. Types of disabilities

Some nine major disabilities are listed and briefly

1. Visual Impairment designates two sub- classifications.

i) Blindness, total or partial inability to see.

 is not correctable with eyeglasses or contact lenses.
 may not mean a total absence of sight, they may perceive
slowly moving lights or colors.
ii) The term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision.
 It affects
- only central vision—the area directly in front of the eyes
- peripheral vision—the area to either side of and slightly
behind the eyes.
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II. Hearing Impairment
includes the sub-classifications of the hard of hearing and deaf.

i) Hard of Hearing: can also be used to describe persons with

enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary modality of
acquisition of language and in communication with others.

ii) Deaf: those who have difficulty understanding speech,

even with hearing aids but can successfully communicate in
sign language.

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III. Specific learning disability
Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or
more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations.

The term does not include learning problems that are primarily
the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual
disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental,
cultural, or economic disadvantage.

With appropriate support and intervention, people with learning

disabilities can achieve success in school, at work, in
relationships, and in the community. 22
IV. Speech and Language Impairments
can be divided into two groups:
i) Speech Impairments
There are three basic types of speech impairments: Articulation disorders
are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to
anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or
neuromuscular support for speech production. These include: Omissions:
(bo for boat), Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit), and Distortions: (shlip
for sip)
Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech
characterized by hesitations, stuttering (repetitions), or prolongations of
sounds, syllables, words, or phrases, and cluttering: h
Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences
of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.
ii) Language Impairments
There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological
disorders, morphological disorders, semantic disorders, syntactical deficits,
and pragmatic difficulties. 23
V. Autism

 Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by

impairments in social and communication development,
accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behavior and interest
(Landa, 2007).

 It is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack

of normal sociability, impaired communication and repetitive
obsessive behavior such as politeness, turn-taking (Young &
Nettlebeck , 2005).

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 VI. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA), the term Emotional and Behavioral Disorders means a
condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics
over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely
affects educational performance
1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual,
sensory, or health factors;
2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships with peers and teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances;
4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated
with personal or school problems.
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They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
 Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior.
They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in
gibberish.
 Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor
listen to others nor keep their attention focused. Kauffman (1993)
conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two broad
classifications:
1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder,
include such problems disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting,
tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking
etc…
2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders,
include such problems anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social
withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority), guilt, depression and
worries a great deal 27
Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders
Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these
includes the following.
1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and
malnutrition, allergies, temperament and damage to the central
nervous system.
2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence,
child abuse, neglect, and poor disciplinary practices at home.
3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural
negative practices, for example watching violence and sexually
oriented movies and TV programs.
4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in
impoverished areas, and schooling practices that are
unresponsive to individual needs.
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 VII) Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and
practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.
An individual is considered to have an intellectual disability based on the following two
criteria:
◦ 1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such as
learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual
functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75
indicates a limitation in intellectual functioning.
◦ 2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the collection of
conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their
everyday lives.
 Conceptual skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and
self-direction.
 Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility,
innocence (i.e., suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey
laws and to avoid being victimized.
 Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills,
healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the
telephone. 29
VII. Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health
impairment
Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s ability to use
his or her body. Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments.
The term orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of muscular or
skeletal system and sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous
system).
Health impairment is a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It
includes asthma, heart defects, cancer, diabetes, hemophilia. HIV/AIDS, etc.
Classification and Characteristics
It is divided into three. These are:-
A. Mild physical disability:- these individuals are able to walk without aids
and may make normal developmental progress.
B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and
crutches and may have difficulty with fine-motor skills
C. Severe physical disability:-these are individuals who are wheel-chair
dependent and may need special help to achieve regular development.

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 1.5 Vulnerability

Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can

be harmed, so being vulnerable is part of being human. In
principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event or
circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than others.
◦ For instance, people with disabilities are more likely as a group
to experience greater vulnerability. They are also often more
severely affected by the vulnerability they experience.

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People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by
commitments) are still vulnerable people, which includes the
following extracted from various researches.
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those
who are living in rural areas are vulnerable for many backward
traditional practices. These women are oppressed by the culture
and do not get access to education and employment
B. Children: significant number of children are vulnerable and at
risk for development
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority
background. Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority),
religious minority. These people are political and socially
discriminated ,
D. Poverty: people are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena
due to poverty.
E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for
many kind of risks. 32
F. Age: old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils
G. Illiteracy and less education: people with high rates of illiteracy and
lack quality
H. Sickness: uncured health problems for example people living with
HIV/AIDS are much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and
health
I. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for
socioemotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they
may feel isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and
given instruction in separate settings and due to myths and expectations of
themselves and the public .

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 Causes of Vulnerability
Vulnerability may be caused by rapid population growth,
poverty and hunger, poor health, low levels of education,
gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of
access to resources and services, including knowledge and
technological means, disintegration of social patterns (social
vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to
information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited
access to political power and representation (political
vulnerability), (Aysan,1993).

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Chapter Summary
Persons with disabilities, health impairments and vulnerable
people are people who should be productive and able to live
independent life. Their impairment is not something that has
disabled them; rather, the social system is the major disabling
factor. Disabilities do not only affect an impaired persons; it
affect the whole nation, when this people are neglected from
education and employment and when they are not actively
participate in the social, political and economic activities. These
situations make them to lead dependent lives which in turn
affect the life of the nation. Hence, inclusiveness is an outlet for
creating a society of productivity who leads independent life.

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Unit 2: Concept of Inclusion

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 2.1. Definitions of Inclusion
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and
responding to the diversity of needs of all persons
through increasing participation in learning,
employment, services, cultures and communities, and
reducing exclusion at all social contexts.
 It involves changes and modifications in content,
approaches, structures and strategies, with a common
vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the
responsibility of the social system to educate all children
(UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services.

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Inclusion is the process of bringing together all
children with or without disabilities regardless of the
nature and severity in natural environment where
children learn and play.

 It also gives emphasis on groups of learners at risk of

marginalization, exclusion or underachievement

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cont…

Acknowledges that all children can learn and all need

some kind of support in learning

aims to identify and remove barriers that hinder

learning

Itis about changing attitudes, teaching methods,

curriculum to meet the needs of all children

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 2.2. Who are the targets of Inclusion?
 Inclusive education extends beyond special needs arising
from disabilities, and includes consideration of other
sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such as
gender, poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic
isolation. The complex inter-relationships that exist
Those children traditionally excluded from general
education for reasons of
◦ Gender,
◦ Geographic remoteness,
◦ Ethnicity,
◦ Poverty, and
◦ Disability
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More specifically…..

race, xenophobia and racism

sexual orientation
particular castes, tribes
Language
Orphans
place of residence
rural (including rural exodus)

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displaced children
children living and/or working in the
streets
children involved in juvenile justice system
children affected by armed conflict
working children
children subjected to violence
child beggars
children affected by HIV/AIDS

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children of parents with HIV/AIDS
nomadic children
Non nationals, including immigrant children and
illegal immigrants
children of migrant workers
refugees/asylum seekers including unaccompanied
refugees
children affected by economic problems /changes
parental property

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2.3. Principles of Inclusion
UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion principles
that support inclusive practice. These include:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find
better ways of responding to diversity.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers
that hinders the development of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all
persons.
=Presence‘ is concerned with where persons are provided and how
reliably and punctually they attend;
= participation‘ relates to the quality of their experiences and must
incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and
= achievement‘ is about the outcomes of learning across the
curriculum, not just test and exam results.
4. Inclusion involves a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk
of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. 44
2.4. Assumption of Inclusive Education
All persons have equal value regardless of their
differences.
All students “belong” and should be made to feel
“belongingness” in all curricular activities and those extra-
curricular activities.
Good teaching practice respects each student, not as a
member of a group that is defined by someone else, but as
an individual.
Segregated ways of teaching student is meaningless and
limits the cognitive, mental, emotional, personal, social
developments and their academic performance.

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2.5. Theoretical Overview of Inclusion

Solutions to human problems require that we look at all

aspects of the problems. That is,
the individual,
the environment and
the interaction between them.

The following approaches reflect the roots of the

different perspectives regarding the education of
children with disabilities (Kochhar et al., 2000).
 

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Individual-Based Paradigm

 
In this paradigm the unit of analysis is the person.
Individuals do not progress satisfactorily because of
inadequate cognitive, behavioral sensory, motor, medical
and physical characteristics (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 1988).

Intervention strategies under the individual-deficit

orientation involve assessing individual attributes and
include such strategies as correcting conduct disorders and
remediating sensory deficits.

It is unfortunate that this paradigm remains linear and

mechanistic and does not account for the complex
experiences of individuals in social settings.
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 Environment-Based Paradigm

o In this paradigm, the unit of analysis is primarily the

environment.
o Since behavior is learned individuals fail to progress because of
inappropriate or inadequate environmental circumstances in
which they develop or learn.
o Within the environment-deficit orientation, typical intervention
strategies include
 evaluating the learning environment,
 matching characteristics of teachers and related service
providers to individual student characteristics,
 evaluating student teacher-ratios, and facilitating family
involvement (Kochhar, West & Tymans, 2000).

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 System–Based Paradigm
 

System
 theories share the view that all facets of the individual and the
environment are important and that development is a complex process in
which outcomes are determined through the active interaction of these facets.

It
 is the grasp of these theoretical framework which leads to the
understanding that learning and behavior deficits are not the result of the
individual factors or the environmental factors but the interplay of the two
factors.

 The
 family, the school, the community and the society at large share the
responsibility to provide the conditions to help the individual maximize his
or her potential.

That
 is, creating an inclusive and receptive setting which can enable the
individual to mobilize his or her potential to the maximum possible may lead
to a better quality and an independent life.

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 2.6. Rationales of Inclusion
Rationales for Inclusion and Their Respective Descriptions
Educational Foundations
 Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in
inclusive settings.
 A more efficient use of education resources.
 Decreases dropouts and repetitions
 Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction
Social Foundation
 Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds
prejudice.
 All individuals need an education that will help them develop
relationships and prepare them for life in the wider community.
 Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build
friendship, respect and understanding.
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Legal Foundations
 All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
 Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being
excluded or sent away because of their disability.
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education
Economic Foundation
 Inclusive has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
 Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special
schools across the country.
 Children with disabilities go to local schools
 Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
 CWD live with their family use community infrastructure
 Better employment and job creation opportunities for Pwd.
Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
 Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
 Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
 Promotion of sustainable development 51
2.7. Factors that Influenced Development of
Inclusion
Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas.
 Inclusive education is a basic human right;
 Quality education results from inclusion of students
with diverse needs and ability differences, and
 There is no clear demarcation between the
characteristics of students with and without disabilities
and vulnerabilities.

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Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing factors.
1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to
education and community-based programs movement that favor
inclusion of their community members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary
stakeholders.
3. The quality education and school improvement movement:
the understanding and practice of inclusive education as being
the responsibility of education systems.
4. Special educational needs movement: as demonstrated in the
Salamanca Statement – has been a positive influence on
inclusive education, enabling schools and systems to really
respond to a wide range of diversity

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5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a
major influence on the development of inclusive
education policy and practice
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and
campaigns: a wide range of civil society initiatives
7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical
experiences in education. The current world situation
presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS,
political instability, trends in resource distribution,
diversity of population, and social inclusion. This
necessitates implementation of inclusion to solve the
problems.

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2.8. Features of Inclusive Environment
An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes individuals
with disabilities and vulnerabilities at all levels — from first time
participants to board members. It has the following major
characteristics:
 it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with
disabilities
 it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent
possible to all people with special needs
 provides accommodations willingly and proactively

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Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:
 It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and quality
provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and diversities
 It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring quality
provisions for all through appropriate accommodations, organizational arrangements,
resource use and partnerships with their community.
 It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is also
deeply committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be productive.
 It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.
 It promoting pro-social activities
 It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people
 It involves mobilizing resources within the community
 It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in theirlearning
and working environment.
 It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local schools,
work place, disability services providers and relevant support agencies within the wider
community.
 It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the classroom
responsive to the diversity of individuals‘ academic, social and personal learning needs.
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 2.9 Benefits of Inclusion
A. Benefits of Inclusion for Students With Disabilities
1.Friendships, belongingness intimacy etc..
2. provided with a quality education that suits their needs and
abilities
3.increased acceptance in their classes, communities, and
households
4.The skills children learn in the classroom can be used in every
day life
5.Increased achievement of  IEP goals
6.Greater access to general curriculum
7.Enhanced skill acquisition, discrimination and generalization
8.Higher expectations (preparing a child for work or a higher
education degree).
9.It is a means of social comparison for them
10. It will help them to realize and assured their abilities
B. Benefits of Inclusion for Students Without Disabilities

1. Meaningful friendships.
2. Increasing appreciations and acceptances of individual
differences in the school and community.
3. Increasing in accommodating of differences
4. Respect for all individuals
5. Prepares all students for adult life in an inclusive society
6. Opportunities to master activities by practicing and
teaching others
7. Greater academic outcomes by increasing participation
8. All students needs are better met, greater resources for
everyone
9. It helps to realized the problems of students and others.
10. It helps in developing empathetic outlooks to students with
disabilities.
C. Benefits of inclusion for families of children with
disability
 Lessens the burden on families
 General education schools are cheaper and located near
the child’s home.
It makes families with disabilities to be a part of the
community since in many cultures, especially in poor and
rural areas, they may either voluntarily remove themselves
from this network because of embarrassment and shame, or
be involuntarily excluded by the community.
In this way, families of children with disabilities are able
to meet each other and other families, and benefit from the
support of their neighbors.

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D. Benefits of inclusion for communities

1.Communities benefit from inclusion by gaining a

knowledge and understanding of disability. Even the
introduction of one child with a disability into the daily
life of the community breaks down barriers and
prejudices.
2. Communities with inclusive education programs
become more open minded, creating a more favorable
environment for people with disabilities in the future.
3. People within a community also benefit personally from
the addition of disabled children into their lives through
personal interaction and friendship.

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E. Benefits of inclusion for schools

1. Inclusive education introduces concepts of

individualized education and diversified methods
of teaching, such as games, songs, drawing, and
participatory activities, as opposed to lecture and
rote memorization
2. Teachers participating in inclusive education
programs often receive additional training,
including exposure overseas. All children benefit
from better educated teachers.

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 Attain a
Overcome
broad
attitudinal
national
barriers
coverage

Minimize the
cost of Rationale to Brings
building shift to interactions
special schools inclusive
Education in
ETH Empower and
Serve children engage
with hidden
undetected
families and
disabilities the
Enhance the Curb the community
quality of the alarming
educational early school
system drop-out rate
62
 2.10. Barriers/Top Challenges in Inclusive Classrooms Education

What are the top challenges teachers faces in a special needs inclusive classroom?
Let’s take a closer look:
Lack of experience in an inclusion setting.
Some teachers have not been exposed to special needs classrooms and this
can be a disadvantage. Educators need to coordinate efforts and understand the
needs of the classroom in terms of developing skills and lesson plans.
Lack of experience in dealing with severe and profound disabilities.
require more adaptation and medical attention than the average student.
Teachers must be skilled in handling severe disabilities and create lesson plans
based on individual abilities and adhere to dietary needs of the child.
Lack of experience can lead to the child not progressing with skills or cause of
adverse medical incidents.
Including all students in all activities.
Special needs inclusion classrooms must be able to involve its students in all
classroom activities. Teachers need to address how the classroom will
communicate with each other and encourage participation.
If there is a lack of adaptive equipment or adaptive communication and
language tools, it makes it difficult for teachers to function as a united
classroom.
 Top Challenges in Inclusive Classrooms Education
Shortage of teacher aids/ teaching aids
Due to the nature of the classroom and size, it is imperative that there be an
appropriate number of teacher aides to assist the teachers with day to day
activities.
Teaching compassion to students.
Not all students have been exposed to persons with special needs and this becomes
a challenge to teachers. (some students may not be voluntary to integrate with
disable sts)
Teachers must not tolerate insensitiveness and cruelness and teach that all
students are to be treated with respect, regardless of their abilities.
Dealing with parents of “typically developing” students.
As some students are not use to dealing with persons with special needs, parent
are no exception. Teachers need to convey to parents how the classroom is
conducted and that all educational needs will be met.
Individualized lesson plans. Because there are varying abilities in the classroom,
teachers can be challenged to address individual academic needs based on ability
Coordinating therapies.
A special needs inclusion classroom needs to be well organized and allow for
students to attend therapy sessions. However, this becomes a challenge in
planning day to day activities and keeping all students engaged and learning
Too much Cost in its implementation and practice.
Unit 3:Identification & assessment

65
 Identification

◦ Detecting the existence of certain impairment or disorder

that adversely affect learning.

 In the process of identification, sometimes problems are

obvious right from the start, in this case, parents play a
crucial role. Sometimes they don’t appear until a child is
in school. Some children have trouble learning to read or
write. Others have a hard time remembering new
information. So, school is the ideal place to deal with.

66
 Conti

Why identification?
The outcome of learning is more than appropriate
curriculum, teachers subject matter knowledge
rather it is depending on the interaction of many
factors.

67
Cont…

So, teachers should be aware of such factors that

influence learning and ask the following question
related to students achievement, ability or skill in
different area
 Academic area(reading, writing, speaking)
 Overall achievement
 General Intelligence (ability to learn understand)
 Socio-emotional Status (interaction with teachers,
peers).
 Existence of disability

68
Cont…

Techniques of Identification
Observation -of two type
non-systemic (informal) observation
Simply watching children and note the behavior,
characteristics and personal interaction
Systemic Observation
Teachers focus on certain precisely defined behavior and
measure it’s frequency ,duration and magnitude.

69
The Process of Identification: 10steps
Step 1. Child is identified as possibly needing special
education and related services.
Child find: When a child is identified by Child Find as
possibly having a disability and as needing special
education, parents may be asked for permission to evaluate
their child.
Referral or request for evaluation: A school professional
may ask that a child be evaluated to see if he or she has a
disability.

70
Step 2: child is evaluated

Evaluation is an essential early step in the special

education process for a child. It’s intended to answer
these questions:
 Does the child have a disability that requires the provision of
special education and related services?
 What are the child’s specific educational needs?
 What special education services and related services, then,
are appropriate for addressing those needs?
The results will be used to decide the child’s
eligibility for special education and related services
and to make decisions about an appropriate
educational program for the child.

71
Step 3. Eligibility is decided

◦ A group of qualified professionals and the parents look at

the child’s evaluation results. Together, they decide if the
child is a “child with a disability,” as defined by IDEA.

72
Step 4: Child is found eligible for services

◦ If the child is found to be a child with a disability, as

defined by IDEA, he or she eligible for special
education and related services.

73
 Step 5: IEP meeting is scheduled

The school system schedules and conducts the IEP meeting.

School staff must:
◦ contact the participants, including the parents;
◦ notify parents early enough to make sure they have an
opportunity to attend;
◦ schedule the meeting at a time and place agreeable to
parents and the school;
◦ tell the parents the purpose, time, and location of the
meeting;
◦ tell the parents who will be attending; and
◦ tell the parents that they may invite people to the meeting
who have knowledge or special expertise about the child.
74
Step 6: IEP meeting is held and the IEP is written

The IEP team gathers to talk about the child’s

needs and write the student’s IEP. If the
child’s placement (meaning, where the child
will receive his or her special education and
related services) is decided by a different
group, the parents must be part of that group as
well.

75
Step 7: After the IEP is written, services are provided.

◦ Each of the child’s teachers and service providers has

access to the IEP and knows his or her specific
responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This includes the 
accommodations, modifications, and supports that must be
provided to the child, in keeping with the IEP.

76
Step 8. Progress is measured and reported to parents

◦The child’s progress toward the annual goals

is measured, as stated in the IEP. His or her
parents are regularly informed of their child’s
progress and whether that progress is enough
for the child to achieve the goals by the end
of the year.

77
Step 9. IEP is reviewed
◦ If necessary, the IEP is revised. Parents, as
team members, must be invited to participate in
these meetings. Parents can make suggestions
for changes, can agree or disagree with the IEP,
and agree or disagree with the placement

78
Step 10. Child is reevaluated

◦ At least every three years the child must be reevaluated.

This evaluation is sometimes called a “triennial.” Its
purpose is to find out if the child continues to be a child
with a disability, as defined by IDEA, and what the
child’s educational needs are. However, the child must be
reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the
child’s parent or teacher asks for a new evaluation

79
 Assessment

It is more detailed investigation than identification.

It refers to the gathering of information about children’s

learning levels, style and skills in order to make
instructional decisions about meeting their needs
(McLoughlin & Lewis 2001).

Testing is but one element of educational assessment

and involves eliciting children’s responses to questions
under structured conditions (McLoughlin & Lewis 2001).

80
Two remaining terms include:
◦ diagnosis, which refers to the effort to establish the
cause of a condition and to outline appropriate
treatment implied by that condition; and

◦ evaluation, which examines the effectiveness of a

program, as distinct from focusing on individual
children (Cook et al. 2000).

81
 Cont…
Assessment is the process of determining whether the
child
 exhibits a developmental problem,
what the problem is,
 its causes,
its developmental consequences, and
 the best approaches to intervention.

82
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

 Why we are assessing individual children will

have implications for how we proceed with that
assessment (McCormick & Schiefelbusch 1984)?

83
Screening
Screening occurs before concern has been raised
about individual children’s developmental pattern. It
takes a broad, naturalistic look at children’s
development, aiming to identify individuals who
might need additional assessment.

84
Description of current skills
 Description of current skills determines whether
children’s development is atypical and reveals the
nature of children’s developmental patterns
(McLoughlin & Lewis 2001), which will involve
identification of their strengths and relatively weak
skill areas.

85
Curriculum Planning
 Having established the nature of children’s
additional needs, assessment must be able to guide
decisions about what supplementary services
individual children require and how to deliver these.

86
Decisions about placement
Placement decisions will involve making a
choice about which settings will most benefit
children with atypical development and which
age group of peers will best support their
learning and social and emotional growth.

87
Classification
This is a common reason for the assessment of
children who are suspected of having developmental
delays or advances. Classification is a controversial
function of assessment, although by definition
giftedness and disability are relative to normal
development and so issues of classification are
inevitable

88
 Monitoring children’s progress
A final purpose of assessment is to monitor how children
are responding to an educational program. Monitoring
serves three purposes (Wolery 1996b):
to check that the conclusions and priorities generated by
earlier assessments are still relevant;
to build a record of children’s progress over time so that
educators’ accountability is promoted and to celebrate
children’s achievements; and
to determine whether and how programs should be
modified in response to children’s accomplishment or
non-attainment of earlier goals.

89
Principle of Assessment
• A key principle of assessment is that it must be:
• Multidimensional_ that is, it must employ multiple
measures, from multiple sources, over multiple
developmental domains and fulfill multiple purposes
(as just listed) (Neisworth & Bagnato 1988).

90
• A second fundamental principle is that assessment
must examine:
• not only the qualities and needs of individual
children
• but also the environmental factors that contribute to
their present developmental status (Neisworth &
Bagnato 1988).

91
Third, specialist assessors must share information so
that they can develop a multidimensional picture of the
whole child, not just isolated skills.

The following additional principles should guide the

assessment process for children who are suspected of
having additional educational need

92
Advocacy

The principle of advocacy contends that assessment

should uphold the interests of all children and aim to
improve services for individuals (NAEYC 1988).

93
 Defensibility
This criterion refers to how we assess individual
children (Miller 1978, in McCormick & Schiefelbusch
1984). Any tests that are part of the assessment process
must be used only for the purpose for which they were
designed and must be valid and reliable—that is,
technically sound in their construction and suitable for
the ages and ability levels of the children being tested
(Hooper & Edmondson 1998; NAEYC 1988).

94
 Programming relevance(utility)
Assessment must measure skills that are relevant either
to an intended program or in the child’s life (Hansen &
Linden 1990). That is, the information gained must be
educationally useful. To achieve this, tests that yield
only a single global score will be less useful than those
which provide scores for varying domains of
development, for example

95
 Equity

Assessment methods must be culturally fair—which is

to say that they should not disadvantage any groups
within the community (Hooper & Edmondson 1998).
This is a particular issue for children whose primary
language is not English or who are bilingual, and for
those whose mode of communication is not spoken
language. It is imperative that children’s lack of facility
with English is not mistaken for a developmental delay or
disability (Gonzalez 1974; Marion 1980).To minimize
error with these children, examiners could provide the
test in the children’s first language (McLoughlin & Lewis
2001).
96
Comprehensiveness
Assessment procedures must minimize what is termed
false negatives—that is, when children with additional
needs are overlooked. To avoid false negatives, assessment
must sample a wide range of behaviours across various
developmental domains, in a range of settings, gathering
information from many sources (Hansen & Linden 1990).
Comprehensiveness is particularly important when
classification or placement decisions rest on the findings
(NAEYC 1988).

97
 Skilled Administration
Personnel who are skilled at and familiar with assessing
young children should be the ones to administer tests to this
age group (NAEYC 1988).

 Second, testers must know how to communicate their

findings appropriately to both lay and professional readers
of their assessment reports (Hansen & Linden 1990).

98
Pragmatism

Assessment should be efficient in terms of the

administration time and cost and should not
unduly burden children with prolonged testing
(Fallen 1985).

99
ASSESSMENT METHODS
 The instruments used for assessment must be more than
impressionistic and must have the power accurately to
identify additional educational needs. Thus, performance-
based assessments such as portfolios are not described
here, as their purpose is generally to document children’s
products for purposes other than monitoring children’s
development (see Helm et al. 1998).

100
Parental reports
You can gain parents’ and other primary caregivers’
knowledge of their child’s development by asking
them about his or her milestones, needs and interests.
They have detailed knowledge of their children’s
development, motivation and personalities which
allows them to be accurate reporters of their
children’s abilities.

101
The information ,you receive from parents,
will be invaluable:
 in program planning,
to inform your intervention with immediate
difficulties, and
 for opening the communication channels
that will permit longer-term problem solving.

102
Observation
 A successful approach to observing children’s development
is to nominate a small group of children to observe for a
week, rotating your focus children week by week until you
have detailed observations of all the children in your group.
You might park yourself near to, say, the puzzle table for
some minutes on consecutive days and observe whether the
supplied activities are actually proving too difficult for the
majority of children to access, are too easy for the children,
or are unattractive in some way.
Recognizing this will allow you to substitute more suitable
activities.

103
Compared with more formal assessment means,
observation has the advantage that:
◦ tasks can be varied to suit individual children,
◦ giving them the best opportunity to display their skills
(Fallen 1985).
However, without reference to checklists that detail the
usual timing of developmental milestones, simply
observing children’s activities would be like ‘solving
riddles without clues’ (Tannenbaum 1983: 60).
Unguided observations are likely to under identify the
needs of many children.
.

104
Developmental checklists
Recording on a checklist individual children’s current
development and update the record each time they achieve
what is for them the next developmental milestone. This
process can sensitize parents and educators to atypical
development and avoid some local bias.

The problem is that they can detail when children attain

particular skills but are less useful guides to how the
children should be approaching tasks.

105
This can be overcome partly by judgment-based
assessment, in which children’s attention skills,
comprehension, memory and concept development can
be observed and an intuitive judgment formed about
their present skills and needs.

106
Second, checklists can indicate that children’s skills are
delayed or advanced, but not by how much. Without
understanding the extent, some children will be
burdened unnecessarily with special programs, while
others will wallow without receiving needed assistance.
This introduces the need for normed tests.

107
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT IN THE CLASSROOM

A portfolio:
◦ a collection of student work with a common theme
or purpose.
The focus here is on the use of portfolios for
assessment, but portfolios can be utilized to achieve
other goals.

108
Portfolios may, for example:
◦ document varied experiences of the learner in a
course or class,
◦ provide points for discussion between learner and
teacher or among learners,
◦ and represent change in student’s technique or skill
over time.

109
 The Portfolio as an Assessment tool

Portfolios are often described as a more authentic means of

assessment than the traditional classroom test.
Rather than showing that the learner knows what has been
taught,
the portfolio demonstrates that the student can do what
has been taught.
• For example, we may identify the component parts of a short
story on an objective test. But the inclusion of a short story
in a portfolio documents our ability to write a short story.
 Portfolio assessment is most appropriate when learning
can be best demonstrated through a product.
110
The portfolio assessment process

The use of the portfolio as an assessment tool is a

process with multiple steps. The process takes time,
and all of the component parts must be in place before
the assessment can be utilized effectively.

111
Decide on a purpose or theme
 Portfolios are most useful for addressing the
student’s ability to apply what has been
learned. Therefore, a useful question to
consider is, What skills or techniques do I want
the students to learn to apply?

112
Consider what samples.
Consider what samples of student work might best
illustrate the application of the standard or
educational goal in question. Written work samples,
of course, come to mind.
However, videotapes, pictures of products or
activities, and testimonials are only a few of the many
different ways to document achievement.

113
Determine how samples will be selected

A range of procedures can be utilized here.

Students, maybe in conjunction with parents
and teachers, might select work to be included,
or a specific type of sample might be required
by the teacher, the school, or the school system

114
Decide whether to assess the process and the product or the product only.

Assessing the process would require some

documentation regarding how the learner developed
the product. For example, did the student use the
process for planning a short story or utilizing the
experimental method that was taught in class? Was it
used correctly? Evaluation of the process will require
a procedure for accurately documenting the process
used.

115
 Develop an appropriate scoring system.

Usually this is best done through the use of a rubric, a

point scale with descriptors that explain how the work
will be evaluated. There should be a separate scale for
each standard being evaluated. For example, if one
standard being assessed is the use of grammatically
correct sentence structure, five points might be allotted
if all sentences are grammatically correct. Then, a
specific number of errors would be identified for all
other points with zero points given if there are more
than a certain number of errors

116
Share the scoring system with the students

Qualitative descriptors of how the student will

be evaluated, known in advance, can guide
learning and performance.

117
Engage the learner in a discussion of the product

◦ Through the process of discussion the teacher and the

learner can explore the material in more depth,
exchange feelings and attitudes with regard to the
product and the learning process, and reap the greatest
advantage of effective portfolio implementation

118
An Example of Portfolio Assessment
Teaching on descriptive writing, which includes goals
related to vocabulary use, sentence structure and
grammar
 Attainment will be assessed, in part, by the writing of
a descriptive paragraph.
paragraph writing is a test of their application of the
skills taught, not just their knowledge.
How can you assess students’ work?

119
Point will be awarded for each main component of the
product. For example, “grammatically correct
sentence.”: One possible description might be, “no errors
in tense, punctuation, or sentence structure.”
Variety in use of vocabulary could be described as the
inclusion of at least a certain number of different
descriptive words to receive all points.
Variety in sentence structure could be assessed by the
number of different sentence forms in the paragraph.

120
 Multiple Uses of the Portfolio

Students with special needs.

◦Many goals on Individual Education Programs
(IEP) of students with significant disabilities
cannot be assessed by traditional objective or
standardized tests. If a student is to learn to tie
shoes, remove and hang up a coat, or wash
hands independently, the video component of a
portfolio could document these
accomplishments.

121
Communication between home and school and or school and
home

Portfolios can enhance communication between school

and home if they are used appropriately. For example, a
work done by an eighth-grade class to address a local
environmental problem can do more to show the
community what students are learning in science than a
set of test results.

122
Documentation of teacher effectiveness.
Portfolios can assist the teacher in demonstrating that
students have met standards or IEP goals, that
technology and other varied teaching techniques are
being used in the classroom, and that students are
actively engaged in learning

123
Development of students’ cognitive skills
Designing a product with specific goals in mind can
improve planning skills and contribute to realistic
self-appraisal. Specific descriptors mitigate vague
self-assessments, unrealistic positive or negative self-
evaluation, generalized “all or nothing thinking” (my
work is always bad or always good), and
perfectionism.

124
 Advantages of Portfolio Assessment
• Assesses what students can do and not just what they
know.
• Engages students actively.
• Fosters student-teacher communication and depth of
exploration.
• Enhances understanding of the educational process
among parents and in the community
Provides goals for student learning.
• Offers an alternative to traditional tests for students
with special needs.

125
Challenges
• Reliability:
It can be quite difficult to establish scoring
systems that are reliable over raters or time.
Reliability across raters is especially important if
major decisions are to be based on the assessment
outcome.

• Time: The use of portfolios for assessment is time

consuming in terms of hours needed to produce the
product, time to develop a workable scoring system,
and training for the evaluator(s).

126
Depth, not breadth: Portfolio assessment offers the
opportunity for depth but not breadth with regard to
academic material covered. A written test can include
questions from an entire unit with a sample of items from
all areas taught. Because of the time it takes to produce
products, it is not possible to have a portfolio that
represents every aspect of a unit. However, products in the
portfolio, if chosen properly, illustrate depth of mastery in
the area assessed.

127
Fairness: It may be difficult for the evaluator to control
outside influences on the product such as parental
assistance and access to resources like computers. If the
assessment contributes to high stakes decision making,
lack of equity in resources can be a significant problem.

128
Interpretation of results: Since the portfolio system is
rarely standardized, stakeholders may wonder what it
really says about the student. How does the learner
compare to others at his age or grade level? Would the
portfolio assessment result be meaningful to those
outside the school system such as college admission
officers or those selecting scholarship recipients?
Those individuals will not know the nature of the
assignment, the help that was given, or the quality of
the products of other students in the group.

129
Contributions to learning: The use of the portfolio for
assessment purposes could detract from its most important
contributions to the learning process, such as
◦ honest teacher-student communication,
◦ forthright self-assessment, and
◦ working toward one’s personal best.
 When the portfolio must be scored, or assigned a grade, students
may tend to defend their work rather than engage in true self
assessment. Teachers may focus more on the scoring process and
less on effective communication about the work.

130
Unit 4:Differentiation Instruction
& IEP Program

131
 What is Differentiated Instruction?
To differentiate instruction is to RECOGNIZE students varying
background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in
learning, interests, and to react responsively.
It is a PROCESS to approach teaching and learning for students
of differing abilities in the same class.
The intent of differentiating instruction is to MAXIMIZE each
student’s growth and individual success by meeting each
student where he or she is, and assisting in the learning
process.

132
 Differentiation Instruction (DI)

“NOT” “IS”

Individualized Instruction Student Centered

◦ Different Reading Assignments ◦ Multiple Intelligences
◦ Taught Skill Practice ◦ Learning Styles
Tailoring the Same Suit of Blend of Whole-Class, Group and
Clothes Individual Instruction
Flexible and Responsive
One-Size-Fits-All Instruction
Learners of Multiple Abilities CAN
Does NOT Reach All Learners BE Educated Together
PROACTIVE

133
 Traditional Classroom vs. Differentiated Classroom

TRADITIONAL DIFFERENTIATED
Differences are studied as a basis
Differences are acted upon when
for planning.
problematic.
Assessment is on-going and
Assessment is most common at
diagnostic to make instruction more
the end of learning to see “who
responsive to learner needs
got it”
Focus on multiple forms of
A relatively narrow sense of
intelligences is evident
intelligence prevails
Student readiness, interest, and
Coverage of curriculum guides
learning profile shape instruction
drives instruction
Many instructional arrangements are
Whole class instruction dominates
A single text prevails used
134
Principles of a Differentiated
Classroom
All students participate in respectful work.
Teacher and students work together to ensure
continual engagement & challenge for each
learner.
The teacher coordinates use of time, space, and
activities.
Flexible grouping, which includes whole class
learning, pairs, student-selected groups, teacher-
selected groups, and random groups.

135
Principles of a Differentiated
Classroom
Time use is flexible in response to student needs.
A variety of management strategies, such as learning
centers, interest centers, learning buddies, etc. is used to
help target instruction to student needs.
Clearly established individual and group criteria
provide guidance toward success.
Students are assessed in a variety of ways to
demonstrate their own thought and growth.

136
Ways to differentiate

137
According to Students’

138
 Universal Design to DI
Based on Student Readiness, Interest & Learning Profile

1. Content
2. Process
3. Products
4. Learning Environment

139
Learning Cycle & Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated
Instruction

140
 Content
How can he/she access the information?
How do we Plan?

How to? Examples:

 Determine the Ability Level of Your Students
◦ Survey Past Records, Look at Their Cums Use Reading Materials at
 Align Tasks and Objectives to Learning Goals Varying Readability Levels
 Survey Student Interests
Put Text Materials on Tape
◦ Interest Inventories, Interview/Conference,
Respond to Open-Ended Questionnaire with Use Spelling/Vocab. Tests at
Questions Readiness Levels of Students
 What are Your Students Multiple Intelligences &
Use Reading Buddies
Learning Styles?
 What are Your Student’s Preferences and Motivators? Meet with Small Groups to Re-
 Instruction is Concept-Focused and Principle-Driven Teach an Idea or Skill for
 Brain-Based Research
Struggling Learners, or Extend
 Know YOUR Students
the Learning
141
 How Do We Plan?

Determine a Focus Area: Based on Research:

Four T’s AllGOOD Instruction Must
◦ Teaching Objective Have:
◦ Target ◦ Active Engagement
◦ Reading & Writing Strategies
◦ Bloom’s Taxonomy
◦ Address the Auditory, Kinesthetic,
◦ Text/Materials Visual & Tactile Learners
Instructional Strategies ◦ Address Multiple Intelligences
Learner Engagement ◦ Be Developmentally Appropriate
◦ Effective Presentations
Learning Environment
142
 Planning Pyramid
Framework for Planning for Diverse Student Needs
& a Tool for Planning for DI

The Five Points, or axes, of the After You Reflected About the
Pyramid, Represent the Factors Points of Entry:
Teachers Consider When Teachers Determine What Will Be
Planning Any Lesson: Taught? How?
1. Topic 1. At the Base of the Pyramid:
2. Students What all students will learn?
3. Classroom Context
- Indentify Instructional
4. Teacher
Practices & Adaptations
5. Appropriate Instructional
2. Middle of the Pyramid:
Practices
What Most, But Not All, Students
Will Learn?
See Handout, or Online at
Teachervision.fen.com 3. Top of Pyramid:
What Some Students Will Learn?
143
Learning Cycle & Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated
Instruction

144
 Process
How to process information, organize, store
retrieve & apply information?

How to? Examples:

Flexible Grouping is Consistently Used  Use Tiered Activities

Groupings are Not Fixed, and Should Be  Provide Interest Centers

Dynamic in Process  Develop Personal Agendas for Completion of Work
Teach Whole Class Introductory  Manipulatives (or) Hands on Supports
Discussions ,then Follow with Small Group  Varying the Length of Time
(or) Pair Work.  Memorization
Direct Instruction  KWL

Inquiry-Based Learning  Reciprocal teaching

 Graphic organizing
Cooperative Learning
 Scaffolding
Classroom Management Benefits  Webbing
Students and Teachers  Self Talk
Organization & Routines  WebQuests
 Guided Notes
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Learning Cycle & Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated
Instruction

146
 Products
Culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse,
apply, and extend what he/she has learned in a unit

How to? Examples:

Initial & On-Going Assessment of Give Students Options of How to Express
Student Readiness & Growth are Required Learning
Essential Create a Puppet Show, Write a Letter, Develop
Mural with Labels
Authentic Assessment
Use Rubrics that Match Student’s Varied
Students are Active & Responsible
Skill Level
Explorers RubiStar.com
Vary Expectations & Requirements Allow Students to Work Alone (or) in
for Student Responses Small Groups
Consider each Student’s Multiple Performance -Based Assessment
Intelligences & Learning Styles Student Portfolios
Based on Outcomes Knowledge Mapping

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Learning Cycle & Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing
Differentiated Instruction

148
 Learning Environments
The way the classroom works and feels

How to? Examples:

How the Classroom is Places in Room Free of Distractions,

Organized? and Places that Invite Student
Collaboration
Classroom Behavior
Materials that Reflect a Variety of
Management System is in Cultures & Home Settings
Place Clear Guidelines for Independent
◦ Procedures Work
◦ Consequences Develop Routines
◦ Positive Interventions Students Understand Differences of
Learners

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What is an IEP?

150
What is an IEP?

IEP stands for Individualized Education Program

(IEP). The IEP is a written LEGAL document that
describes the education plan for a student with a disability.

Among other things, your IEP talks about:

your disability
what skills you need to learn
what you'll do in school this year
what services your school will provide
where your learning will take place.

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What is the Purpose of an IEP?
The purpose of the IEP is to make sure that everyone
you, your family, and school staff knows what your
educational program will be this year.

152
Who Comes to the IEP Meeting
Lots of people will help write your IEP. Some are required by
law to come to the meeting (in bold letters). Others, such as you
and your parents, must be invited to take part in the meeting.
The people are listed below:
You
Your parents
At least one of your regular education teachers
At least one of your special education teachers
Other people who know you your strengths and needs very
well and who can help you plan your educational program
Maybe OT, PT, ELL, or SL teachers

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Why IEP is needed?
IEP is needed;
For learners to assure their right to education;
 For teachers and specialists to deliver effective
programmes to SWSN;
To overcome barriers to learning which cannot be
overcome by regular classroom strategies;
 To prevent repetition and dropout;

154
Cont…
IEP Formulation
The organization of an IEP may go through some steps
that help its implementation and monitoring. The steps
include;
Step 1: Identification of the learner with learning
difficulties
Identification of the competences and needs of the learner
should be based on information gathered by teachers,
SNE teacher (if there is), principals and
parents/guardians.

155
Detailed steps of IEP process

1. Referral
2. Assessment
3. Identification
4. Analysis of services
5. Placement
6. Instructional decision making: actual plan
7. Program evaluation

156
Cont…
Step 2: Team Formulation
IEP is a team work
Many professionals are likely to be involved in
providing service and support to the learner.
The learner, parents/guardians, the teacher and principal
form the core of an IEP team which then can be
completed by other members.
The regular school teacher and/or SNE teacher initiates
the organizing and forming the team
The composition of the team depends on the needs of the
learner and on the availability of additional professionals
(therapists, assistants, counselors etc)
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Cont…
Step 3: Setting goals and working towards them
The IEP team sets the goals and defines the practical
solutions that will be carried out in the classroom and
other possible environments.

158
IEP Process

The IEP process is consultative and brings together the

contribution of the learner, families, school personnel,
and other relevant people.
The IEP may also take the following cyclic format:
1. Diagnose the area(s) of difficulty.
2. Plan accordingly.
3. Implement the plan.
4. Evaluate the plan.
5. Make necessary adaptations / modifications to pave way
for further diagnosis.

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ASSESSI
NG
Competence
s and
weaknesses
of the child
PLANNING
Setting the
goals
What kind
of support is
given
What
activities are
carried out
How
meeting is 160
Designing the IEP

When designing the IEP you have to focus on the

following areas:
Date of initiation and formulation of the IEP
Some historical background
Competencies
Description of learners situation in school and
difficulties in learning:
Goals
 Long term goals
 Short term goals

161
Cont…
Methods
Materials provided
 Arrangements and learning environment:
 Support
 Assessment
 Evaluation of the IEP procedure

162
Sections of the IEP
By law, your IEP must include certain
information about you. This information is
usually organized into the sections listed
below. Your new IEP will also have these
sections or information.

163
1. Present levels of educational performance: This section
includes precise information about how you are doing in
school and sometimes in other aspects of your life
2. Goals for the year, broken down into short-term objectives
or benchmarks
◦ Annual goals
◦ Short term objectives
3. An explanation of how much of your school day (if any)
you will spend not participating with children without
disabilities in the regular class and other school activities

164
4. The modifications you will need when state or
district-wide tests are given, or an explanation of why
taking these tests is not appropriate for you; if you
won't be taking these tests, then your IEP must say
how you will be tested instead

5. When and where the school will start providing

services to you, how often the services will be
provided, and how long the services are expected to
last

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6. What special education and related services the
school will provide to you

7. The transition services you need to get ready for life

after finishing high school
◦ Portfolios
◦ About Me Surveys

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 Unit 5: Behavior management modifications

ICR demand modifying or change in way of managing

misbehavior from punishment(negative management) to
positive (discipline).

What is punishment and its effect

Punishment is an action (penalty) that is imposed on a person
for breaking a rule or showing improper conduct.
 Punishment aims to control behavior through negative means.

167
Cont…
Two types of punishment are typically used with
children:
Verbal punishment involving negative verbal warning
disapproval, insulting
Corporal punishment involving severe physical or emotional
pain

Both types leave the following consequences

The child learns that the adult is superior, and the use of
force – be it verbal, physical, or emotional – over
younger, weaker persons.
168
Cont…
This lesson leads to incidents of bullying and violence in
school, where older children dominate younger ones and
force them into giving the bullies money, food,
homework, or other valuable items.
 Punishment makes the child angry, resentful, and
fearful. It also causes shame, guilt, anxiety, increased
aggression, a lack of independence, and a lack of caring
for others,
 can seriously harm a child’s development and result in
educational as well as social, interpersonal, and
psychological adjustment problems.

169
Cont…
What is Discipline and how to promote in ICR
Discipline is the practice of teaching or training a person to obey
rules or a code of behavior in both the short and long terms.
While punishment is meant to control a child’s behavior,
discipline is meant to develop a child’s behavior, especially in
matters of conduct.
It is meant to teach a child self-control and confidence by
focusing on what it is we want the child to learn and what the
child is capable of learning.

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Cont…
Children need to be taught so that they understand and follow
social rules.
The ultimate goal of discipline is for children to understand
their own behavior, take initiative, be responsible for their
choices, and respect themselves and others.
In ICR teachers expected to use positive discipline
techniques
1. Understanding reasons-students may misbehave due to:-
 Personal
 Poor teaching
 External factors
 Need for attention

171
Cont…
2. Modeling- showing through example
3. Encouraging positive behaviors-it is a type of reward that
stimulates the child to work, learn, achieve, and builds self-
esteem
4. not giving encouragement for misbehavior – such as ignoring
attention-getting behaviors
5. Reinforcing correct behavior- eye contact, a nod, a smile, extra
credit points, social recognition. When rewards are used, they
should always be immediate and small, yet gratifying.

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Cont…
Seven Principles for Positive Child Discipline
1. Respect the child’s dignity
2. Develop pro-social behavior, self-discipline, and
character
3. Maximize the child’s active participation
4. Respect the child’s developmental needs and quality of
life
5. Respect the child’s motivation and life views
6. Assure fairness (equity and non-discrimination) and
justice
7. Promote solidarity

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The following may help teachers in controlling the
behavior in the classroom:
 Develop the rules of the classroom; the main rule being
to respect one another.
 Avoid confrontations and power struggles.
Provide an appropriate peer role model.
 Develop a system or code that will let the learner know
when behavior is not appropriate.
ignore attention seeking behaviors that are disruptive to
the classroom.

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Cont…
Develop a code of conduct for the classroom and visually
display it in an appropriate place where all learners can see it,
review it frequently.
 Provide immediate reinforcement and feedback.
 Create an interesting curriculum with materials that are
meaningful to children: it helps learners to be interested and
become involved.
Develop observation and recording skills to determine what
causes a particular behavioral problem.

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Unit6: Resources for the Inclusive
Classroom

176
 Adapting and Modifying Teaching Materials

involve making changes to the equipment and / or supplies to

which a learner with SEN has access to learning during the
lesson.
These can include flash-cards to help with reading; wall charts
and pictures.
Adjust the readability level of written materials by e.g.
providing large print texts,
 Provide spoken or tactile equivalents of written or visual
material (e.g. spoken description of visuals, Braille, three
dimension objects, tactile graphics).
In teaching or testing procedures use enlarged print, provide
oral versions of tests, use calculators.
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Cont…
Assistive Aids
Special aids and equipment to maximize the
function of individuals with particular
impairments
obvious examples are
glasses to help children see better;
crutches and wheelchairs to help them move around
school more easily and
hearing aids help children to hear better
Orthosis (device that enhance partial functioning of a body
part)
 Prosthesis (artificial replacement of missing body part
arm, leg)
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Unit 7: Collaborative Partnerships with stakeholders
and family

Partnerships
To make inclusive education happen schools should
work together with
 Concerned stakeholders with in the school
 Other schools with in the district
 The community including community workers,
people with disability organizations

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Schools with Stakeholders
Creating inclusive school or ICR requires partnership
between teachers, parents and others in the school.
1. Teachers work together sharing knowledge, skills,
experience and decision making
2. Work together with families
The primary stakeholders in inclusive schools are parents.

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cont…
Working together with families in order to
 support for children learning at home
 Share knowledge about the child – Families have
knowledge like child’s functioning at home,
community, his/her development, views, ability, inters
and so on.
working together with other schools
Inclusive education requires the active cooperation and
participation of all the schools within a district – special
school, pre-school, primary and secondary.

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Cont…
 schools work tougher with others schools through
sharing
knowledge, skills, experience, special training in
special needs education and decision making
Resources including-
Human resources like special needs teachers, sign
language interpreter etc.
 Adapted teaching materials
 Assistive aids

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Cont …
Working with community workers, people with
disability organizations
Working together with health Personnel's
Schools need to foster close links with health personnel.
Every country has a network of community health
workers.
In your community there may also be doctors and nurses
you can contact or a mobile health clinic.
There could also be specialists such as therapists.

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Cont…
 working together with community workers like NGOs,
GOs, Voluntary organizations Often they raise funds,
make donations to individuals and provide services for
students with special needs
Working together with Disability organizations
Offer training and support for their members

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Thank you

185