Food Technology: Objectives

Food Technology
Objectives
•To Know the role of Chemical Engineers in Food
Processing, Preservation and Packaging techniques.
Outcomes
•Apply and incorporate the principles of food science in

practical, real world situations and problems.
•Identify government regulations required for the
manufacture and sale of food products.
•Gain knowledge on various food processing and
preservation techniques.
•Aware of effects of food additives on food products.
•Understand the separation techniques and packaging
technology required to produce the given food product.
Unit I – General aspects of Food Industry
 Introduction
 World food demand and Indian scenario
 Control of food quality by regulatory mechanism in
India
 Constituents of Food
 Quality and nutritive aspects
 Food additives, standards and deteriorative factors
and their control
 Preliminary processing methods
 Conversion and preservation operation
Food Science
Food Science is a discipline concerned with the technical aspects of the
food beginning with harvesting, or slaughtering the live stock and
ending with its cooking and consumption. It is considered one of the
agricultural sciences and is usually different from the field of Nutrition.
Food Science has been defined by Margaret (1968) as: ―The
application of the basic science and engineering to study the
fundamental, physical, biological and biochemical nature of foods and
the principles of processing and marketing of food. Dennis R
Helmand, the International Food Technologists (IFT) president in
October 2006 has described Food Science as an discipline in which
engineering, biological and physical science are used to study the nature
of foods, the cause of deterioration, the principles underlying food
processing and improvement of foods for consuming public.
Food Technology: Food Technology can be defined as: ―science
dealing with knowledge of doing things efficiently and effectively.
Difference between Food Science and Food Technology: Food science

and Food technology maintain a special relationship with several
basic disciplines as well as with other applied specializations.
Food science and food technology are not two separate subjects,
the relation between Food Science and technology is subtle and
complex. Food Technology deals with engineering and other scientific
as well as technical problems involved in transforming edible raw
materials and other ingredients into nutritious and appetizing food
products.
Food science is concerned with the basic scientific facts about foods
where as food technology is concerned with the processing of raw
materials into foods that meet the human needs and works.
Objectives for the study of
Food Science and Food Technology
1) Food Science helps us to understand theory of foods. E.g.: The methods
that can be used to store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent
spoilage
2)Food science and food technology demonstrates how food is stored,
preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for
development of new technique for preserving and processing food on a
commercial scale and for packaging, in such a way that it can be sold
conveniently.
3)Food science and food technology are relatively a new field. They have
begun to achieve a degree of technical maturity in its development nationally
and internationally.
4) Food Science deals with study of fact of physical, chemical and
biological science as they influence processing and preservation of food.
5) They also help to understand the nature and composition of foods

including color, texture, consistency and keeping quality depending on the
constituents present in it.
6) They study the changes that occur in foods during storage, preparation
and processing.
7)They help to learn the ideal methods of food storage, preparation
and processing to conserve the nutritive value and increase
acceptability.
8)They help to learn the selection of good quality and nutritive
foods keeping into consideration the economic standard of the family.
9)They help to improve digestibility of foods. The

digestibility of food is affected by the composition of food,
processing and method of preparation.
10) They help to maintain the safety of foods. In India, the
food standards have been set by ISI, Agmark, FPO and
BIS.
11) Studying food science and food technology helps us to
understand their importance of food in life.
Sub-disciplines of Food Science
The various sub-disciplines in Food Science are as follows:
1)Food Safety is a scientific discipline which describes
handling, preparation and storage of foods in ways that
prevent the food borne illness. In developed countries the
main issue is simply the availability of adequate and safe
water as it is a critical item.
2) Food Microbiology is the study of microbes which
inhabit, create and contaminate the food. Although some of
the micro organisms cause food spoilage, ‘good‘
bacteria such as pro-biotics are becoming increasingly
implying Food Science. Micro organisms also help in
the production of food items like cheese, yoghurt and
fermented products like bread, wine and beer.
(3) Food Preservation is the process of treating and

handling foods to stop or slow down spoilage (loss of
quality, edibility and nutritive value) caused or accelerated
by micro organisms. Some methods use benign bacteria,
yeast, fungi to add specific qualities to preserved
foods (cheese, wine). While maintaining or creating
nutritive value, texture and flavor is important in preserving
its value in foods. Common methods of applying these
processes include drying, spray drying, freeze drying,
freezing, vaccum packing, caning, preservation in syrup,
sugar crystallization, food irradiation and adding
preservatives.
(4) Food Engineering is a multi-disciplinary program which

combines science, microbiology and engineering education
to food and related industries. It includes but is not limited
to the application of agricultural engineering and chemical
engineering principles to food materials. It includes
research and development of new foods, biological and
pharmaceutical products, development and operation,
manufacturing, packing, distribution systems for drug or food
products.
(5) New Product Development (NPD) is used to describe

the complete process of bringing new products of services
to the market. It involves two parallel path ways –
one where in the ideas are generated, product designed
as well as detailed engineering and second one involves
market research and analysis.
(6) Sensory Analysis / Sensory Evaluation is a scientific

discipline that applies the principles of experimental design
and statistical analysis to use to human senses (sight, smell,
taste, touch and hearing) for the purpose of evaluating
consumer products. The discipline required panel of human
assessors by whom the products are tested and the
responses recorded. By statistically analyzing the results
possible inferences can be made.
(7) Food Chemistry is a sub-division of sensory evaluation

where in the study of chemical processes and interactions
of all biological and non-biological components of foods are
carried out. It also encompasses as to how products
change under certain food processing techniques and
the way to enhance or prevent them from happening.
Ex.: A process to prevent browning of cut apples is the
application of lime juice or salt to them.
(8) Food Packing - the packing of foods require
protection, tampering resistance and special physical,
chemical or biological needs. It also shows the product
label with nutritional information of the foods being
consumed.
(9) Molecular Gastronomy is a scientific discipline

involving the study of physical and chemical
processes that occur in cooking. It pertains to
mechanics behind the transformation of ingredients
in cooking and the social, artistic and technical
components of culinary and gastronomic phenomena.
(10) Food Technology / Food Tech is the application
of food science to selection, preservation,
processing, packaging, distribution and use of safe,
nutritious and wholesome foods.
(11)Food Physics deals with the physical aspects of foods
such as viscosity, creaminess and texture.
STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
In India first Food Processing Industry was established

in 1942. Food processing industry has a large
spectrum of industries, producing fruits and vegetables,
bakery products, confectionary, marine products and meat
products. India is rather agricultural basic and is in a
position to emerge as world leader in food processing
technology.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
The production of fruits and vegetables is confined to 43 and
101 million tons, against world production of 341 million and 441
million tons respectively. India‘s share in world production is
about 9% in fruits, 9.3% in vegetables. India is 3rd largest
producer of fruits after Brazil and USA and 2nd in vegetables
after China. It produces about 65% of world mangoes and
bananas, 12% of World‘s onions. India has a potential
production of mushrooms after China, Taiwan and Korea. The
mushrooms exported from china are not catching the world
market demand due to toxicity, associated with mushrooms.
The mushrooms produced by Taiwan and India are just
competitive due to higher value and demand.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
In India, 52% of total land is cultivated against 11% in the

world. All the 15 major climates of the world are available
with snow bound Himalayas to hot humid southern
peninsula, Thar Desert to heavy rain areas all exist in
India. There are 20 agro-climatic regions and nearly 46 out
the 60 soil types are present in the country. Sunshine hours
and day length are ideally suited round the year for
cultivation of crops.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN
INDIA AND ABROAD
India is center for biodiversity in plants, animals, insects, micro
organisms and account for 17% animal, 12% plant and 10% fish
generic resources in the world. •
In the live stock sector, India has 16% of cattle, 57% of
buffaloes, 17% of goats and 5% sheep population of the world.
• Agriculture contributes 24.2% of GDP, 15.2% of total exports
and provides employment to 58.4% of country‘s work force.
• India has a very large livestock according to 2005 data the livestock
population was 941.8 million of this 287 millions of cattle, 75 millions of
buffaloes, 70 million bullocks, 110 million goats, 5.4 million sheep, 10
million pigs and 310 million poultry birds. There is a good scope for
increasing the production of meat and poultry products.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
Food Product Order (FPO) was passed in 1955 to ensure the
consumers good quality and maintaining hygienic standards. It is
estimated that about 30 to 35% of fruits and vegetables of about Rs. 3,000
Crores are crushed due to poor harvesting facility.
• With a costal line of about 8000 km of which A.P. costal line is
932 Km, 28,000 km rivers, 3 million hectares of reservoirs (lakes), 1.4
million hectares of brackish water area, India has vast potential for
marine and inland fishing area of about 9 million metric tons.
• There has been huge cattle migration that is taking place every
year as the owners whether in M.P. Rajasthan and Gujarat lead them to
areas where they can find precious food. Estimates done by national
preservation of Agra show that there is a tremendous shortage of food
around 31%, which is, expected rise further.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
India‘s cattle population numbering more than 272 million is

quietly and steadily achieving away large areas of the percent as
grown human and animals complete for food and more and
more land is brought under cultivation. Cattle serving for food
are degrading the land all over India. In the quest for
food, cattle‘s are taking by their owners to wildlife parks and
sanctuaries, damaging the forest and passing on livestock
diseases to wild animals which have no humanity. The Indian
bison and spotted deer ended contacting the mouth disease and
died of it
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
. • India has 3600 licensed laboratories. However only

a couple is mechanized and hygienic, ―All Kabir
stores at Hyderabad costing about Rs. 78 Crores and
―Punjab meat limited costing about Rs. 48 Crores, where
started with high technology machines. The machinery
includes automatic cleaners, liners, mobile platforms and
power saws which are imported from Europe.
IN INDIA AND ABROAD
Indian meat industry is evaluating and enquiring the

potential for meat exports in order to supply hygienically
processed meat to consumers and it is estimated that they
could raise many fold from Rs. 389 Crores (1994-95). The
director of Punjab Meat Limited suggested that it is
shaking for a country with a large livestock population,
to be economically less than 1% of the Global bounded
meat trends.
• There is a considerable scope for increasing production of
meat and meat products as regards to export markets.
World Food Requirement and Indian Situation
•Food is the source of nutrients and provides the energy
required for all the activities of a human body, such as growth,
repair of the damaged tissues, reproduction and sustenance.
•Food is used to satisfy primarily hunger.
•Food is used to satisfy the appetite.
•Satiety is the feeling of having had enough of the desired food,
after eating it.
•Food is a source of power.
•The world food requirement is directly related to
population and population growth.
•Unfortunately, the availability of food in different parts
of the world is not equitable with many regions having
undernourished people who do not get sufficient
quantity of food.
•A more important aspect than the quantity of food is
the nutritional quality and wholesomeness of food.
•It is imperative to achieve the food production target
and ensure the quality standard to combat hunger and
food related diseases the world over.
•To meet the food needs in low-income countries, aid
agencies are focusing on medium- and long-term efforts to
enhance food security and agricultural productivity.
•There have been calls for increasing the priority and
allocation of resources to agricultural development in poor
countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.
•The World Bank and USAID are two aid agencies that are
promoting agricultural development and growth in low-
income countries.
•Both indicate that African agricultural development should
be a priority.
•The food processing sector, which would be one of the
main drivers of the Indian economy in the future, would
require investments to the tune of Rs1,00,000 crore to
achieve rapid growth.
•India has to reposition itself in terms of productivity,
commercialization and value addition in quite a few
promising sectors such as the food processing industry.
•The growth rate of the food processing sector in the
country is estimated to have increased from 6 percent four
year ago to 14.9 per 2010, adding that the government has
targeted a 20 per cent growth rate by 2015.
Indian Scenario: Although India is the third largest
producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still
under nourished.
World Food Summit, 1996: The World Food Summit,

1996 has set the goal to reduce the number of under
nourished and malnourished people to just half by 2015.
Indian Food Situation
The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, increasing its
contribution to world food trade every year. In India, the food
sector has emerged as a high-growth and high-profit sector due to
its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the
food processing industry.
Accounting for about 32 % of the country’s total food market,
The Government of India has been instrumental in the growth and
development of the food processing industry. The government
through the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI) is
making all efforts to encourage investments in the business. It has
approved proposals for joint ventures (JV), foreign
collaborations, industrial licenses, and 100 per cent export-
oriented units.
Government Initiatives
Some of the major initiatives taken by the Government of India to improve the
food processing sector in India are as follows:
•The Government of India aims to boost growth in the food processing sector
by leveraging reforms such as 100 per cent Foreign direct investment (FDI) in
marketing of food products and various incentives at central and state
government level along with a strong focus on supply chain infrastructure.
•In Union Budget 2017-18, the Government of India has set up a dairy
processing infra fund worth Rs 8,000 crore (US$ 1.2 billion).
•The Government of India has relaxed foreign direct investment (FDI) norms
for the sector, allowing up to 100 per cent FDI in food product e-commerce
through automatic route.
•The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) plans to invest
around Rs 482 crore (US$ 72.3 million) to strengthen the food testing
infrastructure in India, by upgrading 59 existing food testing laboratories and
setting up 62 new mobile testing labs across the country.
Government Initiatives
•The Indian Council for Fertilizer and Nutrient Research (ICFNR) will adopt
international best practices for research in fertilizer sector, which will enable
farmers to get good quality fertilizers at affordable rates and thereby achieve
food security for the common man.
•The Ministry of Food Processing Industries announced a scheme for Human
Resource Development (HRD) in the food processing sector. The HRD
scheme is being implemented through State Governments under the National
Mission on Food Processing. The scheme has the following four components:
• Creation of infrastructure facilities for degree/diploma courses in food
processing sector
• Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP)
• Food Processing Training Centres (FPTC)
• Training at recognized institutions at State/National level
Outlook Of Population
Outlook Of Population
Population of the world reached to 7.3 billion by mid-2015

and the extent of increase was approximately 1 billion
people during the period of last 12 years. The vast majority
of the global population (60%) lives in Asia (4.4 billion), the
second highest (16%) in Africa (1.2 billion), third portion
(10%) in Europe (738 million), the 4th one (9%) in Latin
America and the Caribbean (634 million), and the remaining
5% in rest of the world. China (1.4 billion) and India (1.3
billion) that belong to Asia are the two largest countries of
the world, covering 19% and 18 per cent of the world’s
population, respectively.
Projections of global food demand and
supply
The projected large world population in 2030 and 2050

discussed above has received a great deal of attention as
an influence on world food demand. Besides population
growth, income growth also becomes an important driver of
food demand. According to Bennett’s law the proportion of
the food budget spent on starchy-staple foods declines
while spending on animal-based products increases as
incomes grow in developing countries. This dietary change
puts pressure on agricultural resources since animal-based
food requires disproportionately more agricultural resources
including water in production
The projections for increases in global crop output between
2005 and 2050 range from 52 to 116%, while estimated
changes in crop prices vary from a decline of 16% to a rise
of 46%. Another study projected an increase of 95% in
consumption of animal-based food, as against an 18%
increase in demand for starchy staples, with the latter being
largely driven by population growth toward 2050
For simplicity of estimation of projected world food demand all food
items were converted to cereal equivalent food (CE) . The drivers of
cereal equivalent (CE) food demand are growth rate in per capita CE
food consumption and population growth rate. Table 2 shows that world
CE food demand increased from 2999 million tons in 1980 to 6360
million tons in 2009. Decade wise analysis of growth rate shows that
annual growth rate of CE food demand declined from 2.3% in 1980s to
1.87% during 2001–2009 while per capita food demand increased from
0.55 to 0.72% and population growth rate declined from 1.75 to 1.15%
(Table 2). World CE food demand is projected under strong
convergence scenario to be around 10,094 million tons in 2030 and
14,886 million tons in 2050. On the supply side, CE food production is
projected to be 10,120 million tons in 2030 and 15,970 million tons in
2050. The world CE food demands would change by 134% from the
base year of 2009 while CE food production would change by 151% and
thus food production would grow slightly faster than demand yielding a
positive gap of 7%.
Evolution of world food demand during 1980–
2009 and Projections in 2050.
The regional decomposition shows that developing
countries as a group dominate the increase in food demand
and that their income convergence does matter. It was that
convergence by middle-income countries, especially such
populous countries as India, China, Indonesia and Nigeria,
is particularly important for global food demand. This is
partly due to the inverted-U shaped pattern of income
elasticities for aggregate food demand, with middle-income
countries experiencing the largest income elasticities due to
their dietary upgrading toward more resource demanding
products . Table 3 shows top 20 countries contributing
around 77.5% of total world CE food demand.
India has the largest share of world food demand (24.3%) followed
by China (16.7%). Although Bangladesh is small country but densely
populated and stood 8th with a share of 2% of world food demand.
Still cereals constitute major portion of world food demand (49%)
and will remain so till 2050. The growth rate of global demand for
cereals declined continuously during 1969–2007 from 2% per annum
to 1.3% and projected to fall further to 1.2% in 2030 and to 0.9 in
2050 while world cereal demand would have a significant rise from
940 million tons from the base year 2005/2007 to 3 billion metric
tons by 2050. Almost all the increases in the consumption of cereals
will come from the developing countries. The developing countries
surpassed developed ones in total cereals consumption in the early
1980s and account now for 61% of world consumption, a share that
will increase to 67% by 2050. They also surpassed them in total
production in the early 1990s: they now account for 56% of world
production and the share will increase to 60% in 2050.
Cereals still provide a major part of the calorie intake, but their share in
total calorie supply has decreased from 92% in 1990 to 89% by 2010.
Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) projections show
that it will further decrease to 86.6% by 2030 and 85.8 by 2050 (Figure 2).
The contribution to calorie intake from potato, vegetables, and animal
products gradually increased between 1990 and 2010 and will continue to
increase between 2030 and 2050 (Figure 3). The share of rice will
decrease from 82% in 2010 to 79% in 2030 and to 78.6% in 2050 and
absolute consumption decrease by 24.5 kcal/person/day from 2010 level
(Figure 3). The share of wheat will slightly decrease from 7% in 2010 to
6.8% in 2030 and 6.7% in 2050 and absolute consumption decrease
by15.1 kcal/person/day (Figure 3). The share of calorie intake from
cereals seems to be reaching a level of saturation. However, as far as
rice consumption is concerned, there is no room for significant increases
in average consumption even with income growth; in fact, it even started
decreasing as in countries with similar consumption and economic growth
patterns in Asia.
Share of major food items in total calorie
intake per capita
World average per capita rice consumption has declined
after late 1980s, following mild declines in several countries
of East and South Asia and small increases in other
regions. These trends are projected to continue and the
average of the developing countries may fall from the
present 64 to 57 kg in 2050. It is striking to note that the per
capita wheat consumption has also declined in both the
developing and the developed countries. Food consumption
demand of coarse grains as staple food in several countries
in sub-Saharan Africa will increase in the next decades.
With the growth in income in developing countries demand
for food from livestock origin increased in the past two
decades and projected to grow further by 2030 and 2050.
The ARIMA forecasts show that the consumption of animal
origin food (meat, milk, egg and fish) and non-cereal food
(potato, vegetables and fruits) in Bangladesh will have
increasing trend during 1990–2030 (Figure 3). Beyond 2030
the consumption of animal products will further increase.
Control of food quality by regulatory
mechanism in India
In India the Food Safety and Standards Authority of

India (FSSAI) is the apex food regulator. It is empowered
by and functions under the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India. The FSSAI implements and
enforces food regulations as prescribed in the Food Safety
and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). The FSS Act is an Act
of Parliament, popularly known as the Food Act. Previous
to the FSS Act there were a number of food legislations. All
these have been consolidated into a homogenous whole in
the FSS Act. The regulations of the FSS Act became
effective in 2011 with FSSAI as its regulatory body. Though
the Act continues to evolve it needs to be further
harmonized with standards of international agencies for
global parity.
How it integrates?
Vegetable Oil Edible Oils
Products Packaging
(Control) Order, (Regulation)
1947 Order, 1998
Solvent Extracted Oil,
Meat Food
Deoilded Meal, and
Products Order,
Edible Flour (Control)
1973
Order, 1967
Milk and Milk

Fruit Products
Products Order,
Order, 1955
1992
Food Any other order

Prevention of
Food Safety and under Essential
Commodities Act,
Adulteration Act,
1954
Standards 1955 relating to
food
Act, 2006
4
7
FSS ACT 2006
➢ The Act consists of 12 chapters:
1. Preliminary: definitions 7. Enforcement of the act
2. Food Safety and Standards 8. Analysis of food:
Authority of India laboratories, sampling and
public analysts
3. General principles of food
safety 9. Offences and penalties
4. General provisions as to food: 10. Adjudication and food
prohibitions safety appellate
tribunal
5. Provisions relating to import
11. Finance, accounts , audits
6. Special responsibilities as to
and reports
food safety
12. Miscellaneous
FSSAI’s main objective is to lay science based standards for
food articles and “regulate their manufacture, storage,
distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe and
wholesome food for human consumption”.
Its main functions are:
-Framing of regulations to lay down food safety standards;
-Laying down guidelines for accreditation of laboratories for
food testing;
-Providing scientific advice and technical support to the Central
Government;
-Contributing to the development of international technical
standards in food;
-Collecting and collating data regarding food consumption,
contamination, emerging risks etc;
-Disseminating information and promoting awareness about
food safety and nutrition in India
Food Safety and Standards Act
The 2006 Food Safety and Standards Act is the overarching

regulation on Food Safety in India. Its promulgation marked a
shift from decentralized administration involving multiple
authorities towards more centralized power establishing FSSAI
as the primary authority for all matters relating to food safety. It
regulates many matters like food imports, functions of food
authorities, penalties and surveillance etc.
Food Safety and Standard Rules and Regulations
Rules are made by the Central Government and cover many
different issues, like annual report, the appointment of officials,
etc. Regulations are made by FSSAI and cover limits of
additives, contaminants, additives and pesticides, food labelling,
food recalls, etc. Food Standards fall under this category.
State Food Authorities
FSSAI's Food authority is responsible for policy intervention, direction
and coordination, but the field level work is done at the state level. For
this purpose, a Commissioner of Food Safety of the State is appointed.
Other state-level authorities include Designated Officers (chosen by
State Commissioners, issue or cancel license etc.), Adjudicating
Officers (chosen by State Government for offence matters), Food
Safety Officers (appointed by the Commissioner for miscellaneous
matters) and Food Analysts (appointed by the Commissioner for food
analysis).
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
The National Standard Body of India is responsible for the harmonious
development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality
certification of goods. Some foods (like infant and follow-up formula,
weaning food and infant milk), processing aids and food contact
materials require a mandatory certification from this bureau and the
attachment of its certification mark on the product package.
Regulatory Mechanism
Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authority
Central Advisory Committee

Close cooperation and coordination between Centre, States and
other Stakeholders in the field of food including consumer org.
Scientific Committee
Consists of heads of scientific panels & 6 scientific experts. They
will provide the scientific opinion on multi sectoral, cross- cutting
issues
Scientific Panels
Nine panels on Food Additives, Pesticide Residues, GM Food,
Biological Hazard, Labeling, Functional Food, Method of
Sampling, Contaminants and Fish & Fisheries.
Traditional foods also do not require product approval as
they are being consumed for centuries in India. The
ingredients and preparation methods are well known and
this guarantees their safety. If, however, traditional foods
use any new ingredients or food additive or new
technologies in preparation, they need product approval.
Foods Imported into India have to follow the FSS Act, Rules
& Regulations If the food articles are standardized, the
importer only needs a FSSAI license to import them. The
importer also needs to comply with FSSAI regulations for
sale and distribution of the food products. The FSS Act,
2006 does not apply to foods being exported out of India.
Exporters do not require FSSAI product approval as these
food products are not sold to Indian consumers.
New Draft Regulations have been formulated by FSSAI. Of special
interest is Section 22 of the FSS Act, which deals with
“Nutraceuticals, Functional Foods, Novel Foods and Health
Supplements.” For the first time regulations have been proposed for
this category of foods. If these products propound nutritional or
medicinal benefits they need to have sound scientific evidence. The
products must not contain either steroids or psychotropic drugs.
Ingredients like vitamins and minerals must conform to the
recommended dietary allowances for Indians, as proposed by the
Indian Council of Medical Research.
The existing process of product approval for the food articles
governed under Section 22 of the FSS Act has been discontinued
as updated on August 26, 2015 by FSSAI in response to the ruling
by Honorable Supreme Court of India. The regulations on such
food products are expected soon and the product approval may be
reintroduced through a regulation.
What are Regulations for Licensing and
Registration of Food Businesses?
According to the Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and

Registration of Food Businesses) Regulation, 2011, it is
mandatory for all food businesses operators,
manufacturers, importers, distributers, wholesalers,
retailers, hotels, restaurants, eateries, as well as petty food
businesses to have an FSSAI registration/license so they
are in compliance with the FSS Act. Food businesses with
an annual turnover up to INR 12,00,000 need a registration
certificate. Food businesses, with an annual turnover above
this amount, need a license.
What are Regulations for Licensing and
Registration of Food Businesses?
There are two types of licenses: a central license, issued by the central
government, and a state license, issued by any of the state
governments. The central license is issued on the basis of
manufacturing capacity, as well as turnover. Those operating food
businesses within an Indian state need a state license that is also based
on capacity or turnover. Those that operate businesses in two or more
states require an additional central license for head office/registered
office and separate license/registration for other locations they operate
in. Only transporters need a singular license/registration for all vehicles
an individual transporter runs. Those food business operators that deal
with non-standardized products have to first apply for the product
approval and only then they can obtain a license under the licensing and
registration regulations. All importers and exporters have to obtain a
central license from FSSAI.
Framework for National Food Control System
CHAIRPERSON, FSSAI
CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER,FSSAI
STATE FOOD AUTHORITY CENTRAL

COMMISSIONER OF FOOD SAFETY FOOD
36 STATES/UT AUTHORITY
LICENSING
REGISTRATION AUTHORITY AUTHORITY
• City Municipal DESIGNATED OFFICER

LICENSING AUTHORITY
Corporation,
• Town Panchayat,
• Gram Panchayat FOOD SAFETY OFFICER
(for Inspection and
Monitoring Food Business
operators)
Some of the other FSSAI compliance criteria for
labeling of imported food include:
Language on labels must be in English as per FSSAI Regulations, 2011.
“Vegetarian” or “Non-Vegetarian” must be declared by affixing the symbol
for “Vegetarian” or “Non-Vegetarian” on packages
Mention name and complete address of the importer in India;
Mention net weight or number or measure of volume of contents;
Mention batch number or lot number or code number, and FSSAI license
number;
Mention month and year in which the commodity is manufactured or
prepared;Declare “Best Before” date on the package;
Mention nutritional information or nutritional facts per 100 grams or 100
milliliter per serving of food product on the label;
Name and address of the manufacturer should be mentioned on the label
and FSSAI logo and license number of the importer should be available
on the label.
All prepackaged food shall carry a label containing product
information either in English or in Hindi (Devanagari
script). General Requirements of food labeling also
include the display of FSSAI License Number on the
principal panel in the following format:
IDLI
Idli is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, fats, amino acids, and
fiber. The plus point is it doesn’t contain any saturated fats and
cholesterol.As a heavy and healthy south Indian food for breakfast,
you can have 4 Idlies to get around 300–350 calories. Idli gets
digested very easily and is rich in iron content too.
As idli is healthy south Indian food each idli contains just 39 calories,
which is a minimal amount in comparison to a healthy 2,000-calorie
daily diet. Idlis contain no cholesterol, no fat, and no saturated fat.
Consuming less than 16 grams of saturated fat and 300 milligrams of
cholesterol lessens your risk of different cardiovascular disease and
stroke. From the salt, each idli does contain about 65 milligrams of
sodium which is very normal.
IDLI
Single idli contains you consume 2 grams of protein, 2 grams of

dietary fiber and 8 grams of carbohydrates. It is perfect for a light
snack, that is a notable amount of protein and fiber with minimal
carbohydrates. Healthy adults required 50 grams of protein and 225
grams of carbohydrates daily. Adequate protein facilitates muscle
repair, as well as carbohydrates, provide energy. Fiber promotes
healthy digestion daily requirement of fiber for men is between 28
and 34 grams of fiber and for women between 22 and 28 grams.
Idli is mainly served with the sambar that goes with it usually has toor
dal with some protein and some vegetables providing vitamins,
including vitamin C. The coconut chutney provides the fats which are
easily assimilated and digested, proven heart friendly.
CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS
THERE ARE THREE MAIN GROUPS OF CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS

• CARBOHYDRATES
• PROTEINS
• FATS and derivatives of these
In addition, there are inorganic and mineral components and a diverse
group of organic substances like vitamins, enzymes, emulsifiers, acids,
oxidants, antioxidants, pigments and flavors in small proportions. The
general composition of a food as well as the way in which the
components are organized give a food its individual characteristics For
example, whole milk and fresh apples have about the same water
content. But one is a liquid and the other is a solid because of the way of
components are arranged.
Carbohydrates
The chemical formula of a carbohydrate is Cx(H2O)y, which denotes some
carbons (C) with some water molecules (H2O) attached—hence the word
carbohydrate, which means “hydrated carbon.”
In foods they are available as sugars (glucose, fructose, maltose,
sucrose, and lactose) , dextrins, starches, celluloses, hemicelluloses,
pectins and certain gums
• Simple carbohydrates are called as sugars and they contain 6 carbon
atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms
• Carbohydrates play a major role in biological systems and in foods.
They are produced by photo synthesis in plants.
• Carbohydrates can be oxidized to furnish energy
• Glucose in the blood is a ready source of energy
• Fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast and other micro organisms
can yield carbon dioxide, alcohol, etc.
12 High-Carb Foods That Are Actually Super Healthy
Quinoa. Quinoa is a nutritious seed that has become
incredibly popular in the natural health community.(21.3%)
Oats. Oats may be the healthiest whole grain food on the
planet.(66%)
Buckwheat.(71.5%)
Bananas.(23%)
Sweet Potatoes.(18-21%)
Beetroots.(8-10%)
Oranges.(11.8%)
Blueberries.(14.5%)
Grape fruit (9%)
Apples(13-15%)
Chickpeas(27.4%)
Kidney beans(22.8%)
PROPERTIES OF SUGARS
• They are used for their sweetness
• They are readily soluble in water and form syrups
They form crystals when water is evaporated from their
solutions (this is the way sucrose is recovered from
sugar cane juice)
• They supply energy
• They are readily fermented by microorganisms
• They prevent the growth of microorganisms in high
concentration. So they are used as preservatives
• They darken in color or caramelize (burnt appearance) on
heating. Some combine with proteins to give dark
colors(browning reaction)
• They give body and mouth feel to solutions in addition to
Sweetness
PROPERTIES OF STARCHES
• Starches are from plant origin

• They are not sweet
• They are not readily soluble in cold water
• They provide a reserve energy source in plants and
supply energy in nutrition
• They occur in seeds as characteristic starch granules
• Starch granules may be precooked to produce a starch
that will swell in cold water
Starchy Foods
Potatoes. Potatoes are a great choice of starchy food and a
good source of energy, fibre, B vitamins and potassium. ...
Bread. Bread, especially wholemeal, granary, brown and
seeded varieties, is a healthy choice to eat as part of a
balanced diet. ...
Cereal products. ...
Rice and grains. ...
Pasta in your diet.
Cellulose
Cellulose is an insoluble dietary fiber made up of glucose polymers
that are found in all plant cell walls. Rather than just long straight
chains (like cellulose), hemicellulose may have side chains and
branches.
Cereals: whole grain wheat, barley, oats, cereal bran, cornmeal, brown
rice
Cabbage family of vegetables, for example, arugula, Brussel’s sprouts,
cabbage, cauliflower, collards, kale, kohlrabi, mustard greens,
radishes, rutabaga, Swiss chard, turnips, turnip greens and watercress
Fruits: avocado, berries, apples and pears with skins
Legumes: peas, chickpeas, beans, lentils
Nuts,Potatoes with skins
Seeds: pumpkin, sunflower and chia seeds with hulls
PROPERTIES OF CELLULOSES AND HEMICELLULOSES
• They are acting as supporting structures in plant tissues

and relatively resistant to breakdown
• They are soluble in cold and hot water and are not
digested by man. So they don't yield energy
• Long cellulose chains may be held together in bundles
forming fibers as in cotton
• The fiber in food that produces necessary dietary
roughage is largely cellulose. The hard parts of coffee
beans and nut shells contain celluloses and hemicelluloses
• They can be broken down to glucose units by certain
enzymes and microorganisms
PROPERTIES OF PECTINS AND
CARBOHYDRATE GUMS
• They are sugar derivatives usually present in plants in
lesser amounts
• Pectins are made up of chains of repeating units
• Pectins are common in fruits and vegetables and are
gumlike
• Pectins are soluble in hot water
•Pectins contribute viscosity to tomato paste and stabilize
the fine particles in orange juice from setting out
• Pectins in solution form gels when sugar and acid are
added (jelly manufacture)
• Pectins and gums are added to foods as thickeners and
Stabilizers
PROTEINS
• Proteins are made by linking individual amino acids in
long chains. Amino acids are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen and some may also have sulfur
• Proteins are essential to all life
• They are major constituents of enzymes, antibodies, many
hormones and body fluids such as blood, milk and egg
white
• Protein chains can be oriented parallel to one
another like the strands of rope as in wool, hair and
the fibrous tissue of chicken or they can be randomly
tangled like a bunch of string
• When the organized molecular configuration is of the
protein is disorganized we can say the protein is denatured
FATS AND OILS
• Fats differ from carbohydrates and proteins in that they are not
polymers of repeating molecular units
• They do not contribute structural strength to plant and animal tissues
• Fats are smooth and greasy substances that are insoluble in water
• Fat is mainly is a fuel source for animal and plant. It contains 2.25 times
the calories found in equal dry weight of protein and carbohydrate
• A typical fat molecule consists of glycerol combined with three
fatty acids Fats gradually soften on heating. They do not have sharp
melting point. Fats can be heated above the boiling point of water, they
can brown the surfaces of foods
• When heated further they begin to smoke, then they flash and
then they burn. The temperatures are called as smoke, flash and fire
points respectively. This is important in commercial frying operations
FATS AND OILS
• Fats will become rancid when they react with oxygen
OR fatty acids are liberated from glycerol by enzymes
• Fat forms emulsions with water and air. Fat globules are
suspended in a large amount of water as in milk or cream.
Water droplets may be suspended in a large amount of fat
as in butter
•Fat is a lubricant in foods. Fat has shortening power of
fibrous muscles. Fat tenderizes meat as well as baked
goods
• Fats contribute characteristic flavors to foods and in small
amounts produce a feeling of loss of hunger
ADDITIONAL FOOD CONSTITUENTS
• Carbohydrates, Proteins and fats are called as major food

constituents
• There are other groups of substances which play in important
role, out of proportion to their relatively small concentration in foods
• They are Natural Emulsifiers, Analogs, Organic Acids, Oxidants and
Antioxidants, Enzymes, Pigments and Colors, Flavors, Vitamins and
Minerals, Natural Toxicants and water
NATURAL EMULSIFIERS
Food emulsifiers make the food very appealing as without emulsifier

the water and the oil content in food will look separate, which will
give very unappealing appearance. Apart from this they impart the
freshness and quality to the food. Natural food emulsifiers also
prevent the growth of moulds in food.
Emulsifiers are used in creams and sauces, bakery, and dairy
products. They may be derived from the natural products or
chemicals. Common emulsifiers are lecithins, mono- and di-
glycerides of fatty acids esters of monoglycerides of fatty acids and
phosphated monoglycerides.
NATURAL EMULSIFIERS
• Materials that keep fat globules dispersed in water or water droplets
dispersed in fat are emulsifiers
• Lecithins are the example for natural emulsifiers
• Lecithins are structurally like fats but contain Phosphoric acid.
•Emulsifiers which are derived from animals can come either in the form of
proteins such as eggs and soy beans which both contain lecithin.
•Lecithin is found in egg yolks and acts as the emulsifier in sauces and
mayonnaise. Lecithin also can be found in soy and can be used in products
like chocolate and baked goods. Other common emulsifiers include sodium
stearoyl lactylate, mono- and di-glycerols, ammonium phosphatide, locust
bean gum, and xanthan gum.
•Egg is commonly used as an emulsifier. Some emulsifiers also act as anti-
caking agents like Magnesium Stearate, Sodium, potassium and calcium
salts of fatty acids. Few others like Sorbitan monostearate are emulsifier as
well as stabilizer.
Some basic foods having food emulsifiers are:
Biscuits
Extruded snacks
Cakes
Soft Drinks
Toffees
Frozen Desserts
Bread
Margarine
Coffee Whitener
Caramels
ANALOGS
• Analogs have the common objective of mimicking the

functional properties such as flavor, mouthfeel, texture
and appearance at the same time reducing the caloric
content of the food
• The use of fat replacers in ice cream is a good example of
analogs
• Other substitutes for sugar and fat are also developed
ORGANIC ACIDS
• Fruits contain natural acids, such as citric acid of oranges

and lemons, malic acid of apples and tartaric acid of grapes
• These acids give the fruits tartness[ sharp in taste ] and
slowdown the bacterial spoilage
• Foods are deliberately fermented with bacteria to produce
acids to improve flavor and quality
•Organic acids have a wide range of textural effects in
foods due to their reactions with proteins, starches, gums
and other food constituents
• Acids are also important inhibitors of bacterial spoilage in
Foods
OXIDANTS AND ANTIOXIDANTS
• Many food constituents are adversely affected by oxygen

in the air. Oxygen is an oxidant which causes oxidation of
these materials
• Certain metals like copper and iron are strong
promoters of oxidation. This is one of the reasons why
copper and iron have largely been replaced in food
processing equipment by stainless steel
• An antioxidant tends to prevent oxidation. Natural
antioxidants present in foods are lecithin, vitamin C and E
and certain sulfur containing amino acids. Synthetic
chemicals approved by Govt. are also effectively used as
antioxidants in foods
ENZYMES
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that promote a wide variety of

biochemical reactions
• Amylase found in saliva promotes digestion or breakdown of
starch in the mouth
• Pepsin found in gastric juice promotes digestion of protein
• Lipase found in liver promotes breakdown of fats
• Even after a plant is harvested or an animal is killed, most of
the enzymes continue to promote specific chemical reactions
• Enzymes are large protein molecules
• Enzymes function by lowering the activation energies of specific
substrates
PIGMENTS AND COLORS
• Natural Plant and Animal Pigments are giving the color to foods
• Chlorophyll imparts green color to peas
• Carotene gives the orange color to carrots and corns
• Lycopene contributes the red to tomatoes and watermelons
• Anthocyanins contribute purple to grapes Oxymyoglobin gives the
red color to meats
The natural pigments are highly susceptible chemical change – Fruit ripening,
Meat ageing
• Excess heat alters the color of foods
• The second source of color to food is sugars
• Dark colors are resultant from chemical interactions between sugars and
proteins
• In the course of reaction the enzyme is unchanged
FLAVORS
• The occurrence and food flavor changes more complex

than anything
• In coffee alone there are 800 constituents which
contribute to flavor and aroma.
• These organic chemicals are highly sensitive to air, heat
and interaction with one another
• It is important to note that the flavor has a regional and
cultural basis
VITAMINS AND MINERALS
• Vitamins are organic chemicals

• Vitamin D can be manufactured by human body
• Vitamins are divided into two main groups as fat soluble –
A, D, E & K and water soluble – C & B
• Minerals are also required by human body. The
deficiency may result in weakness in bones and tooth.
NATURAL TOXICANTS
• The plants have evolved the ability to form many

compounds which may serve to protect the plant.
Some of these are toxic
• Some species of mushrooms have poisonous properties
• The toxicants occurring naturally in foods are alkaloid
solanine in potatoes, cyanide in lima beans, safrole in
spices, prussic acid in almonds, oxalic acid in spinach etc.
• Many harmful substances are also added to food from
industrial contaminants, fertilizers, soil and water.
WATER
• Water is present in most natural foods to the extent of
70% of their weight or greater
• Fruits and vegetables may contain 90% to 95%
• Cooked meat still contains 60% of water
• Water greatly affects the texture of foods
• The form of water present in the food decide the
physical properties of food. Milk and apple have the
same amount of water but have different physical structure
• Removing food from water is called as food dehydration
• The removal water is done in foods to reduce weight and
to preserve
• Water which can‘t be removed by dehydration is called as
bound water
Food Quality
Food manufacturers usually have two stated levels of quality

for products marketed. One deals with a product's quality
established as company policy to meet consumer needs and the
other deals with product quality in terms of meeting governmental
regulations and laws. Branded products marketed by a company are
matters requiring the most careful attention by company
management. It is a general rule that company policy relating to
branded product quality is more rigid than that required to meet
governmental regulations. Company policy statements generally
include a statement demanding that all products marketed meet
the laws and regulations of all federal, state and local governments.
Role of Government in Food Quality
Responsibility for the safety, wholesomeness and

nutritional quality of food rests with the food industry, not
with the Food and Drug Administration. The task of the FDA
is to monitor the industry to determine whether it is
meeting its responsibilities. The FDA has the role of
motivating compliance, but does not act as a
company‘s quality assurance division. The FDA takes
appropriate corrective actions when industry fails to meet
its responsibilities. A number of techniques are used by the
FDA in determining the manner in which industry accepts
its responsibilities.
Role of Government in Food Quality
These include: (1) Establishment of inspection - which may vary in
comprehensiveness and intensity from that of the Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) inspection to that of a less-
comprehensive key indicator inspection.
(2) Sample Collection and Analysis of a product during processing
and of finished product in distribution channels.
(3) Surveillance intended to identify new problems as well as to
quantify the extent and significance of known problems that may
be associated with processing, the environment, and other factors.
Though these techniques are useful, the best hope for safety
and quality in food lies in the development and maintenance of
adequate in-plant quality assurance programs. Promoting quality
assurance at the plant level is thus a primary goal in FDA regulation.
Quality and nutritive aspects
Hidden Characteristics:
Nutritive value and toxicity (toxic compounds) present
in food come under hidden characteristics.
Quantitative Characteristics:
Crop yield and finished product yield are the
quantitative characteristics for determination of food
quality. The ratio of weight of raw material to the weight of
the pre-packaged finished product is known as
shrinkage ratio. Higher the ratio, greater will be the
unit cost. So, low shrinkage ratio is desirable.
Methods for Determining Quality: Broadly two methods are
used for determination of the quality in food industry as
shown below:
Subjective Method: In this method, individual is required to
give his opinion about qualitative/quantitative values. This
method is also referred as sensory method. It is by
experience of the individual. Different subjective methods are
used for estimation like: -Point Hedonic Scale, Triangular test or
Composite test.
Objective Methods: These are based on recognized standard
scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its
previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality
control (QC) because the human element has been excluded.
This method divided into three groups: (a) Physical methods
(b) Chemical methods (c) Microscopic methods
Physical method:
It is the quickest method. It is used to measure size, colour, consistency,
headspace, drained weight and vacuum as shown below:
Chemical methods -These are standard food analysis methods. These
are used for quantitative evaluation of nutritive value e.g. moisture,
specific gravity, fat, oil, protein, carbohydrates, fibre, enzyme, vitamin
and pH as shown below:
Microscopic methods: These methods are excellent in quality
control. It is used for detection of contaminants in foods. So, these
methods prevent food from adulteration and contamination.
Factors Influencing Quality of Food: There are mainly four
factors which are affecting the quality of food and these are depicted
as shown below:
SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS
It includes appearance, texture and flavour which the consumer can evaluate
with his senses.
Appearance / Colour: It is more important than taste and odour. It (colour)
increases the attractiveness of the product. It is the prime factor which
also determines the flavour, texture nutritive value and wholesomeness.
By the sense of sight, size, shape and colour of the food and other
characteristics such as transparency, opaqueness, turbidity, dullness and
gloss could be perceived. Judgment of the ripening of the fruits is also
influenced by colour. The strength of coffee and tea is also judged
on the basis of the colour of the beverage. Appearance is first
important attributes in selection of food. Appearance of any food
commodity can be judged by the eye. Appearance may be in term of colour,
size, shape uniformity and absence of defects. The second important
attribute for sensory evaluation of food is Kinesthetic i.e. texture and
consistency.
Texture: It is overall assessment of the feeling by mouth and
hand or it is sense of touch by hand and mouth. Mouth feeling
include lips (hairy / smooth), tongue (soft/mushy), teeth (rigidity)
and ears. Objective instrumental methods are available for
measurement of these attributes which could be correlated to the
consumer's preferences. Mouthfeel is a product's physical and chemical
interaction in the mouth. It is a concept used in many areas related to the
testing and evaluation of foodstuffs, such as wine- tasting and rheology.
It is evaluated from initial perception on the palate, to first bite, through
mastication to swallowing and aftertaste. In wine-tasting, for example,
mouthfeel is usually used with a modifier (big, sweet, tannic, chewy, etc.)
to the general sensation of the wine in the mouth. Some people,
however, still use the traditional term, "texture". Mouth feel is often
related to a product's water activity, hard or crisp products having lower
water activities and soft products having intermediate to high water
activities.
Product Mastication:
1. Cohesiveness : Degree to which the sample deforms before rupturing when
biting with molars.
2. Denseness : Compactness of cross section of the sample after biting
completely with the molars.
3. Dryness : Degree to which the sample feels dry in the mouth.
4. Fracturability : Force with which the sample crumbles or cracks or shatters.
Factorability encompasses, Crumbliness, crispiness, crunchiness and brittleness.
5. Graininess : Degree to which a sample contains small grainy particles.
6. Gumminess : Energy required disintegrating a semi-solid food to a state ready
for swallowing.
7. Hardnes s: Force required for deforming the product to given distance, i.e. force
to compress between molars, bite through with incisors, compress between
tongue and palate.
8. Heaviness: Weight of product perceived when first placed on tongue.
9.Moisture absorption : Amount of saliva absorbed by product.
10. Moisture release : Amount of wetness/juiciness released from
sample.
11. Mouth coating: Type and degree of coating in the mouth after
mastication (for example, fat/oil).
12. Roughness : Degree of abrasiveness of product's surface perceived
by the tongue.
13. Slipperiness : Degree to which the product slides over the tongue.
14. Smoothness : Absence of any particles, lumps, bumps, etc., in the
product.
15. Uniformity: Degree to which the sample is even throughout.
16. Uniformity of Chew : Degree to which the chewing characteristics of
the product are even throughout mastication.
17. Uniformity of bite : Evenness of force through bite.
18. Viscosity : Force required for drawing a liquid from a spoon over the
tongue.
19. Wetness : Amount of moisture perceived on product's surface.
Flavour
Flavour is a combination of taste, smell/aroma and feeling

(astringency, bite etc. especially in spices, wine and coffee) in
short it is combination of taste and aroma. Flavour embraces
the senses of taste, smell and a composite sensation known as
mouth feel. Taste is due to sensation felt by tongue. Taste is limited
to sweet, sour salty and bitter. The dimension of these can be
measured chemically and can be related to the consumer's
preferences. Smell /odour, an important factor in flavour can be
estimated by gas chromatography and related to flavour
acceptability. Aroma is due to stimulation of olfactory senses with
volatile organic compounds. Aroma may be fragrant, acidic, burnt,
pungent, enzymatic, spoilage.
FOOD LAWS AND STANDARDS (BIS)
Introduction: Food is the basic need of all living organisms
and hence, its quality is of top priority. Food processing
involves number of unit operations for material handling
and there are always chances that the food may be
contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be
contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy,
putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and hazards may
occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it
contains any other substance which affects the nature
and quality product or substance is substituted with
cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the
minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required
and the maximum limits of the undesirable components
that the food should contain. This helps to set common
standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among
the consumers.
Quality Standards:
Quality standards in relation to any food article of food
mean the standards notified by the Food Authority.
Governmental or Private bodies that establish
standards may be the subject of a certification
programme. Food quality standards are the body of
rules directly concerning foodstuffs, whether they take the
form of official, semiofficial or factory form, and whatever
the aspect treated, from food ingredients to retail marketing.
So, number or agencies and organization are involved at
national and international level to make the standards
implement and regulate them. The four standards
which are commonly used as shown below:
Legal Standards: These are established by federal, central, state
or municipal agencies and are generally mandatory. These are
set up by the law or through regulation. They generally
concerned with freedom from adulteration by insects, mould,
yeasts and pesticides.
Company or Voluntary Standards: These are established by
various segments of the food industry. These standards
generally represent consumer image and become symbol of
product quality. These are used by private firms or supermarkets
Industry Standards: These standards are established by an
organizational group to maintain the quality of the given commodity.
These standards become effective by pressure where other legal
standards are not involved.
Consumer or Grade Standards: These standards represent consumer's
requirements of the product and generally based on the experience of the
industry for consumers. Out of these, the legal standards are most
important. The government empowered agencies promulgated a number of
acts and orders to minimise the menace. Several agencies and institutions
have also been created to lay down standards for the quality of foods. The
manner in which the food is processed and packaged is also covered
by a number of regulations. Several types of standards apply for
evaluation, testing and monitoring dietary supplements. The food
standards and their regulations are used as yardsticks for assurance
of the food safety and consumer health. These standards encourage
the safety and quality of the products by manufacturer, making sure
that the food product meets the desired standards. Different countries have
different standards based on the type of product being manufactured,
environmental and cultural practices, raw material etc. So, in India, food
manufacturer follow Indian standard to sell their products in the domestic
markets and international standard to export the products out of country.
Food Standards are for the following reasons:
The contamination of food can affect a large number of populations at a time
and hazards may occur. So standards are needed to prevent the transmission
of the diseases.
· Consumer must get the product for which he has paid and to limit the sale of
unsatisfactory products.
· The processors may add any prohibited preservative or permitted
preservative in excess of the prescribed limits. So standards are needed to
check such malpractices.
· To set common standards for commodities and prevents confusion among
consumers.
· To simplify the marketing of food.
· Standards are made to set the limits of the preservatives / additives /
method of applications for production of the quality product to sell it nationally
or internationally.
· Standards are made to prevent adulterations of food products.
Food Laws are for the following reasons:
· To maintain the quality of the food produced in the

country.
· To prevent exploitation of the consumers by the sellers.
· To safeguard the health of the consumers.
· To establish criteria for quality of the food products.
FOOD ADDITIVES-INTRODUCTION
Definition: Food additives are substances which are

added to food which either improve the flavor, texture,
colour or chemical preservatives, taste, appearance or
function as processing aid. Food additives as non-
nutritive substances added intentionally to food,
generally in small quantities, to improve its
appearance, flavor, texture or storage properties.
A broad definition of food additive is any substance
the intended use of which results, directly or indirectly,
in it‘s becoming a component of or otherwise affecting
the characteristic of any food, and which is safe under
the condition of its use.
Need for Food Additives:
1.Additives provide protection against food spoilage during
storage transportation, distribution or processing. Also, with
the present degree of urbanization, it would be impossible
to maintain food distribution without the processing.
2. A number of factors have led to the demand for foods with
built-in preparation of convenience foods. The convenience food
revolution would not have been possible without food additives.
(Convenience foods include ready-to-eat dry products such as
Bread, cheese, salted food, shelf-stable foods, prepared mixes
such as cake mix, and snack foods)
3. Many of these chemical additives can be manufactured so that
foods can be fortified or enriched. Potassium iodide, for instance,
added to common salt can eliminate goiter, enriched rice or
bread with B- complex vitamins can eliminate pellagra, and
adding vitamin D to cow milk prevents rickets.
Need for Food Additives:
4. Many foods, particularly those with high moisture contents, do
not keep well. All foods are subjected to microbial attack. Fats or
oily foods become rancid, particularly when exposed to humid
air. The conversation of the quality of foods against agents causing
such deterioration of food requires the addition of preservatives.
Additives are also used to colour foods, add flavor, impart firmness,
and retard or hasten chemical reaction in food.
5.The use of food additives is to maintain the nutritional
quality of food, to enhance stability with resulting reduction in
waste, to make food more attractive, and to provide efficient
aids in processing, packaging and transport.
Classification: Over 3,000 different chemical compounds are
used as food additives. They are categorized into different
groups. A few types of additives are indicated below.
Anti-oxidants
An anti-oxidant is a substance added to fats and fat-containing substances to
retard oxidation and thereby prolong their wholesomeness, palatability, and,
sometimes, keeping time. An anti-oxidant should not contribute an objectionable
odour, flavor, or colour, to the fat or to the food in which it is present. It should be
effective in low concentrations, and be fat soluble. Also, it should not have
a harmful physiological effect.
Some anti-oxidants used in foods are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG), and teriarybutyl hydroquinone
(TBHQ), which are all phenolic substances. Thiodipropionic acid and Dilauryl
thiodipropionate are also used as food anti-oxidants. The Joint FAO/WHO
Expert Committee on Food Additives has recently considered the Acceptable
Daily Intakes (ADls) of BHA and BHT and set them at 0-0.5 mg/kg body weight
for BHA and 0-0.3 mg/kg body weight for BHT. Naturally occurring substances that
act as anti-oxidants are tocopherols. The tocopherols act as biological anti-
oxidants in plant and animal tissues, but they are rarely used as additives because
they are more expensive than synthetic anti-oxidants.
Chelating Agents
Chelating agents are food additives that prevent oxidation and increase
shelf life of baked goods. They sequester metals, preventing them from
taking part in color or flavor deterioration.
Chelating agents are not anti-oxidants. They serve as scavengers of
metals which catalyze oxidation.
Chelating Agents
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
Polyphosphates.
Organic acids such as citric or tartaric.
Recommended usage levels for citric acid typically vary between 0.1 and 0.3
per cent with the appropriate anti-oxidant at levels ranging between 100 and
200 ppm). EDTA is a chelating agent permitted for use in the food industry
as a chemical preservative. Calcium disodium EDTA and disodium
EDTA have been approved for use as food additives by the United States
Food and Drug Administration.
Colouring Agents
These include colour stabilizers,colour fixatives, colour
retention agents, etc. They consist of synthetic colours,
synthesized colours that also occur naturally, and other
colours from natural sources. Even though colours add
nothing to the nutritive value of foods, without certain
colours most consumers will not buy or eat some foods.
Thus, colours are frequently added to restore the natural
ones lost in food processing or to give the preparations the
natural colour we expect. A number of natural food colours
extracted from seeds, flowers, insects, and foods, are also
used as food additives. One of the best known and most
widespread red pigment is bixin, derived from the seed
coat of Bixa orellana, the lipstick pod plant of South
American origin. Bixin is not considered to be carcinogenic.
Colouring Agents
The major use of this plant on a world-wide basis, however,

is for the annatto dye, a yellow to red colouring material
extracted from the orange-red pulp of the seeds. Annatto
has been used as colouring matter in butter, cheese,
margarine, and other foods. Another yellow colour, a
carotene derived from carrot, is used in margarine. Saffron
has both flavouring and colouring properties and has been
used for colouring foods. Turmeric is a spice that gives the
characteristic colour of curries and some meat products
and salad dressings. A natural red colour, cochineal (or
carnum) obtained by extraction from the female insect
(Coccus cacti), grape skin extract, and caramel, the brown
colour obtained from burnt sugar, are some natural colours
that are used as food additives.
Curing Agents
These are additives to preserve (cure) meats, give

them desirable colour and flavor, discourage growth of
micro-organisms, and prevent toxin formation. Sodium
nitrite has been used for centuries as a preservative
and colour stabilizer in meat and fish products. The
nitrite, when added to meat, gets converted to nitric oxide,
which combines with myoglobin to form nitric oxide
myoglobin (nitrosyl myoglobin), which is a heat-stable
pigment. The curing also contributes flavor to the meat.
In addition, nitrite curing inhibits the growth of
Clostridium and Streptococcus, and also lowers the
temperature required to kill C.botulinum.
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are a group of substances used to obtain

a stable mixture of liquids that otherwise would not or
would separate quickly. They also stabilize gas-in-liquid
and gas –in-solid mixtures. They are widely used in
dairy and confectionery products to disperse tiny
globules of an oil or fatty liquid in water. Emulsifying
agents are also added to margarine, salad dressings,
and shortenings. Peanut butter contains up to 10 per cent
emulsifiers.
Flavours and Flavour Enhancers
Flavouring additives are the ingredients, both naturally
occurring and added, which give the characteristic flavor
to almost all the foods in our diet. Flavour enhancers are
not flavours themselves but they amplify the flavours of
other substance through a combined effect. Flavour
and flavor enhancers constitute the largest class of
food additives. Natural flavor are substances, such as
spices, herbs, roots, essences, and essential oils, have
been used in the past as flavor additives. The flavours are
in short supply and the amount of flavor substances in
them is very tiny. It would take about tonne of many
spices to produce 1 g of the flavor substances, and in
some cases only 0.1 g can be extracted. Natural food
flavours are thus being replaced by synthetic flavor
materials.
Flavours and Flavour Enhancers
The agents responsible for flavor are esters, aldehydes,

ketones, alcohols, and ethers. These substances are
easily synthesized and can be easily substituted for
natural ones. Typical of the synthetic flavor additives are
amyl acetate for banana, methyl anthranilate for grapes,
ethyl butyrate for pineapple, etc. Generally, most synthetic
flavours are mixtures of a number of different
substances. For example, one imitation cherry flavor
contains fifteen different esters, alcohols, and aldehydes.
One of the best known, most widely used and
somewhat controversial flavor enhancers is monosodium
glutamate (MSG), the sodium salt of the naturally occurring
amino acid glutamic acid. This is added to over 10,000
different processed foods.
This has been in use in Chinese and Japanese cooking for centuries,
and was extracted from seaweeds and soya bean. About 65 years
ago, Japanese named Ikeda discovered that the flavouring from
these is MSG and that it has an attractive meat-like flavor.
MSG is now manufactured on a large scale all over the world,
and especially in Japan. MSG is generally recognized as safe.
However, it was reported some time back that MSG injected to young
mice resulted in brain damage. Also, some individuals experience
symptoms often comparable to those of heart attack, when
served with food containing large amounts of MSG. The matter
has now been thoroughly investigated, and it has been
concluded that there is no risk in its use. However, MSG
which was being added to baby foods is now discontinued, as its
benefits to babies are doubtful one. Yeast extract has the same
flavor enhancing property as MSG. It is found that, in this
case, the flavor enhancing substances are the ribonucleotides.
These are ten times more powerful than MSG.
Flour Improvers
These are bleaching and maturing agents; usually, they both bleach and mature
the flour. These are important in the flour milling and bread-baking industries.
Freshly milled flour has a yellowish tint and yields a weak dough that produces
poor bread. Both the colour and baking properties improve by storing the flour
for several months before making bread.
Chemical agents used as flour improvers are oxidizing agents, which may
participate in bleaching only, in both bleaching and dough improvement, or
in dough improvement only. The agent that is used only for flour
bleaching is benzoyl peroxide ((C6H5CO)2O2).This does not influence the
quality of dough. Materials used both for bleaching and improving are chlorine
gas, (Cl2); chlorine dioxide, (CIO2); nitrosyl chloride, (NOCI); and nitrogen di
and tetra oxides, (NO2 and N2O4). Oxidizing agents used only for dough
improvement are potassium bromate, (KBrO3); potassium iodate,(KIO3);
Calcium iodate, [Ca(IO3)2]; and calcium peroxide, (CaO2).
Humectants
Humectants are moisture retention agents. Their functions in

foods include control of viscosity and texture, bulking,
retention of moisture, reduction of water activity, control of
crystallization, and improvement or retention of softness.
They also help improve the rehydration of dehydrated
food and solubilization of flavor compounds. Polyhydroxy
alcohols are water soluble, hygroscopic materials which exhibit
moderate viscosities at high concentrations in water and are
used as humectants in foods. Some of them are propylene
glycol (CH3.CHOH.CH2OH), glycerol, and sorbitol and
mannitol [CH2OH (CHOH)4 CH2OH]. Polyhydric alcohols
are sugar derivatives and most of them, except propylene
glycol, occur naturally.
Anti-caking Agents
An anticaking agent is an additive placed in powdered or granulated materials,
such as table salt or confectioneries, to prevent the formation of lumps (caking)
and for easing packaging, transport, flowability, and consumption.
An anticaking agent in salt is denoted in the ingredients, for example, as "anti-
caking agent (554)", which is sodium aluminosilicate.
This product is present in many commercial table salts as well as dried
milk, egg mixes, sugar products, flours and spices.
"Natural" anticaking agents used in more expensive table salt include calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate.
List of anticaking agents
341 tricalcium phosphate 460(ii) powdered cellulose
470b magnesium stearate 500 sodium bicarbonate
535 sodium ferrocyanide 536 potassium ferrocyanide
Leavening Agents
Leavening agents produce light fluffy baked goods.

Originally, yeast was used almost exclusively to leaven
baked products. It is still an important leavening agent
in bread making. When yeast is used, ammonium salts
are added to dough to provide a ready source of
nitrogen for yeast growth. Phosphate salts (sodium
phosphate, calcium phosphate) are added to aid in control
of pH.
Nutrient Supplements
Nutrient supplements restore values lost in processing or

storage, or ensure higher nutritional value than what nature
may have provided. When foods are processed, there may be
loss of some nutrients and additives may be added to restore
the original value. For example, to produce white flour, wheat is
milled in such a way as to remove the brown coloured part of
the grain, which is rich in vitamins and minerals. To restore the
nutritive value, thiamine, nicotinic acid, iron and calcium, are
added to the flour. Similarly, vitamin C is added to canned citrus
fruits to make up the loss of the vitamin during processing.
Non-nutritive Sweeteners
In many ways, sucrose is an ideal sweetener; it is colourless, soluble in

water, and has a ―pure‖ taste, not mixed with overtones of bitterness or
saltiness. But it is rich in calories. Diabetics and overweight, who must
restrict their intake of sugar, must have an alternative to sucrose. Thus,
synthetic non-nutritive sweeteners, having less than two per cent of the
calorific value of sucrose, for equivalent unit of sweetening capacity came
into use. The first synthetic sweetening agent used was saccharin (sodium
ortho benzene sulphonamide or the calcium salt), which is about 300 times
sweeter than sucrose in concentrations up to the equivalent of a 10 per
cent sucrose solution. Acesulfame K is used in baked goods, chewing gum,
gelatin desserts, and soft drinks. It is about 200 times sweeter than sugar.
Aspartame is used in ―Diet foods, including soft drinks, drink mixes, gelatin
desserts, and low calorie frozen desserts. Aspartame is produced from two
amino acids—aspartic acid and phenylalanine—and is 180 times sweeter
than sucrose.
pH Control Agents
These include acids, alkalis and buffers. They not only

control the pH of foods but also affect a number of food
properties such as flavor, texture, and cooking qualities.
Preservatives
A preservative is defined as any substance which is

capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting, the growth of
micro-organisms, of any deterioration of food due to micro-
organisms, or of masking the evidence of any such
deterioration. It is estimated that nearly 1/5 of the world‘s food is
lost by microbial spoilage. Chemical preservatives interfere with
the cell membrane of micro-organisms, their enzymes, or their
genetic mechanisms. The compounds used as
preservatives include natural preservatives, such as sugar,
salt, acids, etc, as well as synthetic preservatives.
Stabilizers and Thickeners
These compounds function to improve and stabilize the texture

of foods, inhibit crystallization (sugar, ice), stabilize emulsions
and foams, reduce the stickiness of icings on baked products,
and encapsulate flavours. Substances used as stabilizers and
thickeners are polysaccharides, such as gum Arabic, guar gum,
carrageenan, agar-agar, alginic acids, starch and its derivatives,
carboxy methylcellulose and pectin. Gelatin is one non-
carbohydrate material used extensively for this purpose.
Stabilizers and thickeners are hydrophilic and are dispersed in
solution as colloids. These swell in hot or even cold water and help
thicken food. Gravies, pie fillings, cake toppings, chocolate milk
drinks, jellies, puddings and salad dressings, are some among the
many foods that contain stabilizers and thickeners.
Other Additives
There are a number of food additives that provide functions other than
those indicated above. Clarifying agents like bentonite, gelatins, synthetic
resins (polyamides and poly vinyl pyrrolidone) are used to remove
haziness or sediments and oxidative deterioration products in fruit juices,
beers and wines.
Enzymes are added to bring about desirable changes; rennin for
producing curd and cheese, papain for tenderizing meat, and pectinase
for clarifying beverages. Firming agents like aluminium sulphates and
calcium slats are used to keep the tissues of fruits and vegetables crisp.
Freezing agents like liquid nitrogen and dichloro fluoro methane, which are
extremely volatile and rapidly evaporate at ordinary temperatures, are used
to chill foods. Solvents like alcohol, propylene glycol and glycerine are
used to dissolve suspended flavours, colours, and many other ingredients.
Packing gases, such as inert gases, are added to packets of instant foods to
prevent oxidative and many other changes.
Unintentional Additives
The unintentional incorporation of chemicals into food is as

widespread as intentional addition and may present health
hazards. The sources of contamination are radioactive fall-
out, thousands of chemicals used in agricultural
production, animal food additives, and accidental
contaminants during food processing.
Radio-active Fallout
Radio-active fallout through nuclear explosions is a

serious modern problem. Nuclear explosions inject into the
atmosphere considerable amounts of smaller particles
called fission products. These contain unstable atoms,
called radio-isotopes, which spontaneously break down
emitting radiations and particles that are highly injurious
to living tissues. The fission products finally reach the
ground through rain, snow or wind. This is known as fall-
out. The fall-out matter reaches man directly in drinking
water, fruits and vegetables, or indirectly through animals,
which eat contaminated feed or graze on contaminated
pastures. Many of the fission-produced radio-isotopes
have half-lives (length of time that has to elapse before the
amount of radioactivity measured has dropped to half the
original value) of less than one day.
Radio-active Fallout
Some have a half-life of a few days (8 days for 131 iodine) while
others are radioactive for many years. The half-life of strontium90
is 28 years and that of cesium137 is 30 years. Even iodine, with
a half-life of only 8-days, is hazardous for the normal
functioning of thyroid. 90Strontium is considered to be the
most hazardous radioactive isotope. It is closely related to
calcium and the body treats both strontium and calcium in
exactly the same way. 90Strontium induces bone cancer
and leukaemia. 137Cesium passes through the
human body quickly but it emits radiations which, through blood,
reach all tissues and can be a potential genetic danger.
Agricultural Contaminants
Chemicals in the form of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides (in general

biocides), growth promoting substances, and pollutants etc., are extensively
used in large numbers in agricultural production. Without them much food
would be lost. Commercial production of some crops would be impossible if
chemicals are not used. It is estimated that 23 per cent of the commercial
cabbage crop and 37 per cent of the potato crop would be lost if
chemicals were not used. Small quantities of chemical residues often remain
in such crops. The residues of the pesticide DDT, has been observed in small
amounts in soil, water, vegetables and animal tissues in all parts of the
world. From these sources, the pesticide residues reach man. The
widespread use of this chemical as an insecticide has contaminated even the air
we breathe. The presence of pesticide and other residues in food is a serious
international problem, WHO has attempted to control the extent of
contamination by prescribing the limits for the amount of many pesticides
that may be present in foods. Some countries have banned the use of
chemicals like DDT.
Animal Food Additives
They are also used as plant and animal additives. In some

countries (particularly USA), about 80 per cent of animal
feed it treated with small quantities of antibiotics for
enhancing growth, improved feed utilization, and the
checking of intestinal flora of animals. This has helped to
produce less expensive meat and poultry. In all the
cases where antibiotics have been used, residues may
remain in meat. As already indicated, the presence of
antibiotics in foods may result in the development of
strains resistant to antibiotic drugs.
Animal Food Additives
The synthetic female hormone, diethylstilbesteril (DES), is used on
chicken, cattle, and sheep as implants and as a daily additive to
the feed. This helps the conversion of foodstuffs into meat more
efficiently in such animals. On an average, the growth is one-fourth
faster than in untreated animals; and the increase is more in muscle
than fat. Residues of DES when present in food are potential
cancer hazards. Contamination of food in any way is bad. Just as
in the case of food additives, food contamination must be
considered in the light of any benefits that ensue. Use of pesticides is
hazardous; but without pesticides much food would be lost. Some type
of packing may result in contamination but the protection of food,
requiring long-distance transport, from dirt and infection requires
packing. Again, contamination of any type in very small quantities
may not be harmful, and in many cases the reported hazard has
not been proved conclusively.
FOOD DETERIORATION AND ITS CONTROL
• All foods undergo varying degrees of deterioration during

storage
• Deterioration include organoleptic desirability, nutritional
value, safety and aesthetic appeal
• Foods may change in color, texture, flavour etc
• Food is subjected to physical, chemical and biological
deterioration
• Heat, cold, light, other radiation, oxygen, moisture,
dryness, natural food enzymes, micro organisms, macro
organisms, industrial contaminants, presence of other
foods and time are range of potentially destructive
factors
Introduction: Food deteriration
• Room temperature is much higher than 21 deg c in many parts of the
world • Similarly slow rate of deterioration will occur in low temperature, low
moisture, high in sugar, high in salt, high in acid etc. • It is interesting to
note that some most important methods of food preservation have
been developed during the time of war • When Napoleon of France is at
war during eighteenth century the army suffered a lot with spoiled food .
• Prizes were offered to develop useful methods for preserving food • A
scientist Nicolas Appert found that food can be preserved by heating
it in a sealed container and Appert was awarded. This lead to the
development of canning food • The renowned scientist Pasteur invented
that the spoilage of food is due to micro-organisms and that can be
controlled or killed by heating. This lead to the development of
processes like pasteurization and sterilization • One of the most
important aspects of food processing is to understand the food deteriorative
factors and to control them
USEFUL STORAGE LIFE OF PLANT AND
ANIMAL TISSUES
SHELF LIFE AND DATING OF FOODS
• It is defined as the time that a food takes to decline to an
unacceptable level
• The term acceptable varies from person to person. In
many cases the manufacturer will define the minimum
acceptable quality[MAQ]
• The shelf life depend on many factors like processing
method, packing and storage conditions
• For example one cant exactly tell the shelf life of
fresh milk at room temperature. Milk at room
temperature have different shelf life than milk stored at
refrigeration temperature
• So a dating system is formed in retail packages like Pack
date, sell by date etc.
MAJOR CAUSES OF FOOD DETERIORATION
• Growth and activities of micro organisms [bacteria, yeasts

and molds]
• Activities of food enzymes and other chemical reactions
within the food itself
• Infestation by insects [parasites and rodents]
• Inappropriate temperature for a given food
• Either the gain or loss of moisture
• Reaction with oxygen
• Exposure to light
• Physical stress or abuse
• Time
BACTERIA, YEASTS AND MOLDS
• There are thousands of species of micro organisms and they are all associated
with one another and food products
• Not all the species are causing the damage. The growths of some are
desirable [production of alcohol, flavor production in some food etc. • Micro
organisms are capable of spoiling food and found everywhere [soil, water,
air, skins of cattle, feathers of poultry, intestines and cavities of animal body,
skins and peels of fruits and vegetables, hulls of grains and the shells of nuts, food
processing equipment, hands, skin and clothes of the worker]
• It is to be noted that the micro organisms are not found within the flesh
of healthy living animal and juice of plants
• Milk of a healthy cow is sterile but becomes contaminated as it passes through
the teat canals
• Bacteria are single-celled organisms and can be classified into one of three types
based on the shape of the cells
• Bacterial spores are far more resistant than yeast and mold spores
• All bacteria associated with food are small in the order of micro meter
BACTERIA, YEASTS AND MOLDS
• Molds are still larger and complex in structure and are in the order of 1 micro
meter
Most yeasts are spherical or ellipsoidal and are larger in the order of 20 micro
meter
• Bacteria, yeast and mold can attack all food items. Some ferment
sugars, hydrolyze starches and celluloses, hydrolyze fats and produce
rancidity, few produce toxins, digest proteins, produce ammonia like odors
• The micro organisms like warm and moist conditions and are called as
mesophilic [temp 16 to 38 deg c]
• Some will grow at freezing point of water and are called as psychrophilic
• The others will grow at temperatures above 82 deg c and are called as
thermophilic
• The spores of many bacteria will survive prolonged exposure to boiling water
and then multiply when the temperature is lowered.
• Bacteria will multiply by cell division. One will become two,
two will become four and so on. They can double their
number in every 30 minutes under favorable conditions
• Food intoxications involve toxic substances produced in
food by micro organisms
• The bacteria called C Botulinum produce food toxins in
many foods
FOOD-BORNE DISEASE
• Food-borne diseases are commonly classified as food
infections that are caused by microorganisms or food
intoxicants that are produced in foods as by products of
microorganisms prior to Consumption
• S aureus and C botulinum produce specific food toxins
• Certain molds also produce toxins
• Many bacteria can transmit food-borne infections capable
of causing human disease
• Number of viral infections may be contracted by man
through contaminated food
• Microorganisms that are causing disease to humans are
known as pathogenic or pathogens
• Scientists are still learning about food-borne diseases
INSECTS, PARASITES AND RODENTS
• Insects are particularly destructive to cereal grains, fruits and
vegetables
• When insects eat food the food will be open to microorganisms and
this will cause further damage
• Insect eggs may persist or be laid in food then they multiply
• Commodities containing highly destructive insects are prohibited
from import and export
• The important food-borne parasite is the Trichinosis nematode
and Trichinella spiralis. This will penetrate into the intestines of
pork
• A worm from food called Genus Anisakis can infect man and
this can survive in refrigeration temperature
• Rodents consume and waste huge volume of food. The urine
poured on the food by rodents is containing several disease
producing bacteria
FOOD ENZYMES
• The enzymes present in food ferment, rancidify and

putrefy
• The activity of enzymes may be present in food even
after 60 yrs of storage
• In living plant and animals these type enzymatic activities
are balanced
• The enzyme pepsin helps digest proteins in food but it will
not digest the intestine
• Some of the reaction of the enzymes are highly desirable.
For example the ripening of fruits
• The enzymes may be inactivated by heat, chemicals,
irradiation etc.,
HEAT AND COLD
• Heat and cold can also cause deterioration in foods if they are
nor controlled
• The rate of chemical reaction is doubled in every 10 deg C rise
• Excessive heat will denature proteins, breaks emulsions, dries
food by removing moisture and destroys vitamins
• Freezing will also denature proteins in milk, the emulsion will be
broken and the fat will separate
• In refrigerated storage temperature ie) 4 deg C, some
are weakened or killed and deterioration will follow. This is
known as chill injury
• Bananas, lemons and some other foods are to be kept above
10 deg C for retaining maximum quality
MOISTURE AND DRYNESS
• Excessive moisture pickup and dryness cause

deterioration in foods
• Moisture is required for chemical reactions and for
microorganisms
• Loss of moisture particularly affect the texture and
appearance
• Surface moisture resulting from changes in RH can cause
lumping, caking, mottling, crystallization and stickiness
• Very small amount of condensed water is enough for the
growth of microorganisms
• The condensation may also occur from the water of
the food. Vegetables can give off moisture from
respiration
OXYGEN
• The 20% of oxygen in the air is quite enough to cause
reactions in many foods
• Vitamins A & C, food colors and flavors are subject to
oxidation
• Oxygen is essential for the growth of microorganisms
• Most of the molds are aerobic. They grow on the surface
of foods
• Atmospheric oxygen is removed from the packing of
many foods and other gases like nitrogen and carbon
dioxide are filled inside. This is called as modified
atmosphere packaging
• Some foods are packed with oxygen scavengers for
absorbing residual oxygen
LIGHT
• Light destroys vitamins A, C and riboflavin

• Light also cause deterioration in many food colors
• Milk in bottles exposed to the sun light changes its
flavor. This is due to light induced oxidation and
changes in protein
• Surface discolorations of sausages and meat
pigments are different under natural light and under
fluorescent lamps
• Sensitive foods are packaged in opaque materials
TIME
•After harvest there is a time when the quality of the food is

highest. In many foods the quality is peak in one or two
days
• All deteriorative activities progress with time. But this is
not applicable to some fermented foods
• Adequate processing and packaging will prolong life
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION
1. Keep the food alive as long as possible. Kill the animal

or Harvest plant just before it is to be used
2. After killing or harvest the food item clean it, cover
it and cool it as quickly as possible. This will
slowdown the deterioration for a short time
3. For long term and practical preservation
inactivating or controlling microorganisms, enzymes
and reducing or eliminating chemical reactions are to be
done
CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS
• Controlling bacteria, yeasts and molds is done by

heat, cold, drying, acid, sugar, salt, smoke, air,
chemicals and radiation
HEAT
• Most of the micro organisms grow best at the temperature range of about 16 to 38
deg C
• Most bacteria are killed in the temperature range of 82 to 93 deg C
• But many bacterial spores are not destroyed even by boiling water at 100 deg C
for 30 min
• To ensure sterility (total destruction of microorganisms including spores) a
temperature of 121 deg (wet heat) must be maintained for 15 min or longer
• There are two standards called sterility and commercial sterility
• Not all the foods require the same amount of heat for sterilization
• When food are high in acid such as tomatoes and oranges, the killing
power of heat is increased. A temperature of 93 deg C for 15 min is enough to
gain sterility if sufficient acid is present
• Many times it is not necessary to kill all the microorganisms. It may be enough to
supply heat to destroy disease producing organisms only • In pasteurization of milk
63 deg C for 30 min is enough to destroy all pathogenic microorganisms
COLD
• Psychrotroph type microorganisms will grow down to 0 deg C, the
freezing point of water and below
• At temperatures below 10 deg C the growth rate is slow and becomes
slower the colder it gets
• When the water is frozen there is no multiplication of microorganisms
• But in some foods all of the water is not frozen at a temperature of -10
deg C or lower
• The slowing of microbial activity is the principle behind the refrigeration
and freezing preservation
• An important thing is to be noted that an ice cream mix inoculated with
typhoid bacteria still remained 600000 live bacteria per millimeter after 1
year of frozen storage
• When the food is taken out of the frozen storage and thawed
the microorganisms will begin to grow
• Recent studies show that so the disease producing bacteria can
grow at refrigeration temperatures of 3.3 deg C
DRYING
• Microorganisms in a healthy growing state may contain in

excess of 80% water
• If the water is removed from the food, water will
also be removed from the bacterial cells and
multiplication will stop
• Partial drying is less effective than total drying and is done
for several reasons
ACID
• In sufficient strength acid modifies bacterial proteins as in

denatures food proteins and hence the microorganisms are
sensitive to acid.
• The acid produced by one organism during fermentation will often
inhibit another type of organism
• Controlled fermentation is a method of preservation
• Acid may be produced in foods by adding acid producing
bacterial cultures. In some cases the acids are directly added to
foods. Some foods naturally contain rich acids
• As we discussed earlier acid combined with heat is more
destructive to microorganisms. The acid concentration is
measured in pH values
SUGAR and SALT
• Many fruits are preserved by placing them in a sugar syrup

• Meat products are preserved by placing them in salt brine
• The microorganisms are contained by cell membranes and the
membranes allow water to pass through them
• Active microorganisms contain about 80% of water. When they
are placed in salt or sugar syrup the water from the cells moved out
through the membrane into the syrup. This is the process of osmosis
• This cause partial dehydration of cells called as plasmolysis and this
prevent cell multiplication
• Quite opposite will happen in placing food in distilled water
• Different organisms have various degrees of tolerance to osmosis.
Yeast and molds are more tolerant than bacteria
SMOKE
• Smoking of food is used as a method of preservation in meat and

fish
• Smoke contains preservative chemicals like formaldehyde
• Smoke is generally associated with heat and kill some bacteria
• In the presence of smoke dehydration will also occur in foods
• Smoking is also done to improve flavor
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
• The growth of microorganisms require oxygen and air

• It is easy to exclude air from aerobes by wax coating and
skin tight plastic films
• But preserving against anaerobe like C Botulinum the
presence of air is essential
CHEMICALS
• Many chemicals will kill or inhibit the growth of

microorganisms
• Most of the chemicals are producing side effects and are
not permitted
• Very few are permitted to be added in low levels in
certain foods. They are sodium benzoate, sorbic acid,
sodium, calcium propionate, ethyl formate and sulphur
dioxide
RADIATION
• Radiation using x-rays, microwaves, ultraviolet light

and ionizing radiations are used to kill or inhibit
microorganisms in foods. This radiation sterile most foods
and deactivate enzymes
• For all types of radiation different type doses are required
• Today foods are irradiated with ionizing radiation
obtained from radioactive isotopes or electron
accelerators
• There will be no significant temperature rise in this
irradiation and this method is called cold sterilization
CONTROL OF ENZYMES AND OTHER FACTORS
• Preservation of foods against deterioration from inherent food

enzymes will be the second important thing
• Just as microorganisms are controlled with heat, cold, drying etc.
these are used here to control or inactivate damaging enzymes
• Heat and cold at the time of killing microorganisms also inactivate the
enzymes to some extent
• It is important to note that some enzymes are more resistant to
the effects of heat, cold and other methods of preservation
• Freezing Irradiation may be useful in inhibiting or killing bacteria.
But they are ineffective against enzymes
• Hence specific methods are to be employed for inactivating enzymes in
foods.
THANK YOU

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Food Technology

•Apply and incorporate the principles of food science in

Difference between Food Science and Food Technology: Food science

5) They also help to understand the nature and composition of foods

9)They help to improve digestibility of foods. The

(3) Food Preservation is the process of treating and

(4) Food Engineering is a multi-disciplinary program which

(5) New Product Development (NPD) is used to describe

(6) Sensory Analysis / Sensory Evaluation is a scientific

(7) Food Chemistry is a sub-division of sensory evaluation

(9) Molecular Gastronomy is a scientific discipline

In India first Food Processing Industry was established

In India, 52% of total land is cultivated against 11% in the

India‘s cattle population numbering more than 272 million is

. • India has 3600 licensed laboratories. However only

Indian meat industry is evaluating and enquiring the

World Food Summit, 1996: The World Food Summit,

Population of the world reached to 7.3 billion by mid-2015

The projected large world population in 2030 and 2050

In India the Food Safety and Standards Authority of

Milk and Milk

Food Any other order

The 2006 Food Safety and Standards Act is the overarching

Central Advisory Committee

According to the Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and

CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER,FSSAI

STATE FOOD AUTHORITY CENTRAL

• City Municipal DESIGNATED OFFICER

Single idli contains you consume 2 grams of protein, 2 grams of

THERE ARE THREE MAIN GROUPS OF CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS

• Starches are from plant origin

• They are acting as supporting structures in plant tissues

• Carbohydrates, Proteins and fats are called as major food

Food emulsifiers make the food very appealing as without emulsifier

• Analogs have the common objective of mimicking the

• Fruits contain natural acids, such as citric acid of oranges

• Many food constituents are adversely affected by oxygen

• Enzymes are biological catalysts that promote a wide variety of

• The occurrence and food flavor changes more complex

• Vitamins are organic chemicals

• The plants have evolved the ability to form many

Food manufacturers usually have two stated levels of quality

Responsibility for the safety, wholesomeness and

Flavour is a combination of taste, smell/aroma and feeling

· To maintain the quality of the food produced in the

Definition: Food additives are substances which are

The major use of this plant on a world-wide basis, however,

These are additives to preserve (cure) meats, give

Emulsifiers are a group of substances used to obtain

The agents responsible for flavor are esters, aldehydes,

Humectants are moisture retention agents. Their functions in

Leavening agents produce light fluffy baked goods.

Nutrient supplements restore values lost in processing or

In many ways, sucrose is an ideal sweetener; it is colourless, soluble in

These include acids, alkalis and buffers. They not only

A preservative is defined as any substance which is

These compounds function to improve and stabilize the texture

The unintentional incorporation of chemicals into food is as